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Temperature Thermal Reaction

The document discusses the concepts of temperature, thermal equilibrium, and thermal expansion, emphasizing the importance of measurement techniques and units. It explains how temperature is defined and measured, as well as the effects of temperature changes on the size of materials, particularly through linear expansion. Various examples illustrate the calculations related to linear expansivity and the impact of temperature on the dimensions of different materials.

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14 views

Temperature Thermal Reaction

The document discusses the concepts of temperature, thermal equilibrium, and thermal expansion, emphasizing the importance of measurement techniques and units. It explains how temperature is defined and measured, as well as the effects of temperature changes on the size of materials, particularly through linear expansion. Various examples illustrate the calculations related to linear expansivity and the impact of temperature on the dimensions of different materials.

Uploaded by

ed.novelstar
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Temperature; Thermal Expansion

As was the case in the study of motion before we can study the nature of heat energy it is necessary
to develop units of measurement arid appropriate measuring techniques with which to ex- press this
form of energy.

The temperature of an object is defined as the property that determines the transfer of heat energy to
or from other objects.

Of two objects having different temperatures, the one that transfers heat to the other is said to be at a
higher temperature. Our subjective idea of temperature is obtained from the sensation of warmth or
cold which we experience upon touching an object. If a stove is very hot, we can sense this even
without touching it. Under some conditions our temperature sense is an unreliable guide. For
example, if the hand has been in hot water, tepid water will feel cold, whereas if the hand has been in
cold water, the same tepid water will feel warm.

To specify temperatures on a numerical scale, we find that we must measure temperature indirectly in
terms of the change of some physical. property such as length, pressure, or electrical resistance. It
turns out that a temperature scale based upon one material and property differs somewhat from
scales based upon other choices of thermometric materials and properties.

Thermal Equilibrium

Consider an object A, such as a small iron disk, which feels warm to the hand and an identical iron
disk, object B, which feels cold. If these objects are placed in contact with each other, after a sufficient
time each will produce the same temperature sensation when touched. They are said to be in thermal
equilibrium when there is no net transfer of heat from A to B or from B to A.

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

There are many possible kinds of thermometers, since almost all the properties of material objects
(except mass) change as the temperature changes. A thermometer is specified by choosing a
particular thermometric substance and a particular thermometric property of that substance. A
thermometric property of matter is a property that varies predictably with an increase or decrease in
temperature. It could be the change of pressure in a gas thermometer, a change in electromotive
force (emf) in a thermocouple, or the change in height of a liquid in a liquid-in-glass thermometer.

The Fahrenheit scale, used in many English- speaking countries, assigns the value 32°F to the ice
point and 212°F to the steam point. The Fahrenheit degree is thus five-ninths as large as one Celsius
degree.

INTERNATIONAL TEMPERATURE SCALE

An International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) was adopted in 1927 (and revised in 1948) for
the practical calibration of scientific and industrial instruments. The IPTS specifies (1) the values
assigned to fixed points (Table 2), (2) the standard instruments (thermocouple, resistance
thermometer, and optical pyrometer) to be calibrated at those fixed points, and (3) the equations to be
used in calculating temperatures from the indications of the instruments.

LINEAR EXPANSION

Two frequently observed effects of temperature changes are change in size and change of state of
materials. Both types of change can be interpreted in the atomic model. We shall consider here
changes of size which occur without change of state.

Atoms of a solid are held together in a regular array by electrical forces represented by the springs in
Fig. 15-6. At any temperature the atoms are in vibration, with frequency roughly 10 13 vib/s and
amplitude roughly 10-9cm. These vibrations are not simple harmonic; as the temperature rises, the
increase in amplitude of atomic vibrations results in a shifting apart of the positions of equilibrium of
individual atoms. This produces an expansion of all the linear dimensions of a solid body, and'thus an
increase in volume. Liquids and gases have no shapes of their own, and therefore only volume
expansion has meaning. For solids, we are primarily concerned with linear expansion.
Linear expansivity (or the coefficient of linear expansion) is defined as the change in length per unit
length per degree rise in temperature,

Where o is the average linear expansivity for the region about temperature to and L0 and Lf, are the
initial and final lengths, respectively.

Measurements of the change in length and the initial length are expressed in the same unit of length;
hence the value of & will be independent of the length unit used, but it will depend on the unit used to
measure the temperature interval.

The value of the expansivity must be specified as per Celsius degree or per Fahrenheit degree, as
the case may be. If we let L represent the change in length of a bar, then

The final length will be

Example1: Find the percentage difference between 0 and 50 for aluminum.
To find a general relation between the linear expansivity 0 based on 0°C and t, based on some
other temperature t, we can apply equations.
and

By substituting the value of L0, from the last equation into the equation above it, we find

Then, if 0= 23 x 10-6/C° (Table 3),

Hence 50 is about 0.1 percent smaller than 0

Example 2: A copper bar is 8.0 ft long at 68°F and has an expansivity 68, = 9.3 x 10-6/F0. What is its
increase in length when heated to 110°F?
Example 3: A steel plug has a diameter 10.000cm at 30.0°C. At what temperature will the diameter be
9.986 cm?

Example 4: The length of a brass rod at 30°C is 150cm. What will be its change in length if brass rod
is heated to100°C?  of steel = 18x10-6 °C.

Example 5: At 0°C, an iron rod and a brass rod measure 30.1 cm and 30.0 cm. At what temperature
will they be just equal in length? Coefficient of linear expansion of iron = 12 x 10 -6°C and that of brass
is 18 x 10 -6°C.

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