STATE OF LIBYA

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

BRIGHT STAR UNIVERSITY – BRAGA

Bright Star University – Braga

Faculty of Technical Engineering
Department of Petroleum
Engineering

Organic Geochemistry Evaluation of Sirte

Shale Formation in Wells MMMM1-6 and
MMM12-6, Arshad Field, Sirte Basin, Libya
By
Mohammed Misbah Hamad
192048
Muhanad Othman Abdulmajid
192144
Mohammed Jabir Saed
192154
Reada Ramadan Alkadi
192157

Supervised By

Mr. Rajab Al-Alwani

PE 2022 086 F 269

2023
 Organic Geochemistry Evaluation of Sirte Shale
Formation in Well's MMMM1-6, and MMM12-6,
Arshad Field, Sirte Basin, Libya

By

Mohammed Misbah Hamad

192048

Muhanad Othman Abdulmajid

192144

Mohammed Jabir Saed

192154

Reada Ramadan Alkadi

192157

Supervised By

Mr. Rajab Al-Elwani

Project Report Submitted as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor in Petroleum Engineering

I
 Spring, 2023
Copyright © 2023. All rights reserved, no part of this thesis may be
reproduced in any form, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy,
recording scanning, or any information, without the permission in writhing
from the author or the Directorate of Bright Star University – Brega

II
 ABSTRACT

Sirte Basin, in north central Libya, is one of Africa's most productive

petroleum basins and the world's 13th largest petroleum province, within 16
giant oil fields and 23 relatively large oil fields. this study located in
Concision 6 at Arshad area and aimed to determine the total organic content,
the type of organic matter, and the maturity of the organic matter. The study
was performed on samples from two wells MMM12-6 and MMMM1-6 in
Sirte shale Formation at different depths in the Sirte Basin. The samples were
taken to the laboratory for processing. At the lab samples analyzed by using
a device called rock eval which is used to determine and evaluate the type of
organic matter, thermal maturity, and the generation capability of source
rocks.by using this device the samples shows fair TOC content (0.40–0.7
wt%) and the Hydrogen Index (HI) of the Sirte Formation ranges from 75 to
80 mg/g and has a high Oxygen Index, indicating the formation's ability to
produce oil and gas hydrocarbons, and the vitrinite reflectance values ranges
from 0.90 to 1.4 Ro%, These reflect that Sirte shale Formations are most
powerful maturation stage. The relationship between the occurrence of
organic compounds in sedimentary deposits and petroleum deposits has long
been of interest, Studies of ancient sediments and rock provide insights into
the origins and sources of oil and petroleum Geochemists study petroleum
inclusions in geological samples to compare present-day fluid-inclusions to
dated samples. This analysis provides insight into the age of the petroleum
samples and the surrounding rock.

Keywords: organic geochemistry, Arshad Field, Rock-eval pyrolysis Sirte

Basin, Libya.

III
 APPROVAL
This project report is submitted to the Faculty of Technical Engineering, Bright Star University –
Brega, and has been accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of bachelor
in Petroleum Engineering. The members of the Examination Committee are as follows:

Supervisor

Mr. Rajab Al-Elwani

Department of Petroleum Engineering

Faculty of Technical Engineering

Bright Star University – Brega

Examiner 1

Mr. Omar Adel Geniber

Department of Petroleum Engineering

Faculty of Technical Engineering

Bright Star University – Brega

Examiner 2

Dr. mohammed Al-Saho

Department of Petroleum Engineering

Faculty of Technical Engineering

Bright Star University – Brega

IV
Examiner 3

Mr. Abdulsalam Ebrahem Lamin

Department of Petroleum Engineering

Faculty of Technical Engineering

Bright Star University – Brega

V
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project report is my original work except for quotations and
citations, which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been
previously, and is not concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Bright Star
University – Brega or at any other institution.

Mohammed Misbah Hamad 192048

Muhanad Othman Abdulmajid 192144
Mohammed Jabir Saed 192154
Reada Ramadan Alkadi 192157

Date:

VI
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Praise and thank to Allah who grant us success and give us the strength and
made all the things possible. The words cannot express our gratitude to our
families who would not have been possible to end this journey without them.
Firstly, we would like to express our deepest appreciation to our supervisor
Mr. Rajab AL-Elwani who give the opportunity, instructions and guidance
to finalize this project. And secondly, we would also thank all the friends
and supporters who motivate and encourage us to accomplish the project
.and we are highly indebted to Eng. Saleh Ahmed for his all help and
support. finally, we are extremely grateful to Sirte oil company who
provides us the required data that used to complete this project.

VII
 List of Contents

Title Page

Copyright © 2023 II
Abstract III
Approval IV
Declaration VI
Acknowledgement VII
List of content VIII

List of Tables XI

List of Figures XII

List of Abbreviation XIV

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Arshad field 2

1.2. Objective and plan of study 2

1.3. Background 2

1.3.1. Sirte Basin 2

1.3.1.1. Geological setting 3

1.3.1.2. Forming of Sirte Basin 4

1.3.1.3. Formation deposits in Sirte basin 5

1.3.1.3.1. Pre-fault deposits 5

1.3.1.3.2. Deposits during the fault 6

1.3.1.3.3. Post-fault deposits 7

1.3.1.4 Sirte shale formation 9

1.3.1.5. Mine depocentres in the Sirte basin 11

1.3.2. Petroleum system of Sirte basin 12

1.3.2.1. Maradah trough 14

VIII
1.3.2.1.1. Sours rock 16

1.3.2.1.2. Seals 18

1.3.2.1.3. Traps 18

1.3.2.2. Ajdabiya trough 19

1.3.3. Petroleum system of Arshad 21

1.3.3.1 Migration mechanicians and pathways is Zaltan platform 23

1.3.4. Petroleum system events of Arshad area 25

1.3.5. Origin of petroleum 26

1.3.6. Depositional Environment 27

1.3.7. Transformation of organics into kerogen 27

1.3.8. kerogen 29

1.3.8.1. Types of the kerogen 30

1.3.8.2. Transformation of kerogen into oil and gas 33

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 34

2.1. South east part of Sirte basin Arshad areas 34

2.2. south-western part of Sirte basin 36

2.3. East part of Sirte basin 37

2.4. North-western part of the Sirte basin 39

3. METHODOLOGY 40

3.1. Introduction 40

3.2. Rock-Eval analyses 40

3.2.1. How to use this device 41

3.3. Vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) 43

3.4. Established the 2-Dimension Plots of the analyzed data 45

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 46

4.1. Introduction 46

IX
4.2. Evaluation of petroleum source rock using geochemical 46
data
4.2.1. Source rock generative potential 50

4.2.2. Types of organic matter (kerogen type) 52

4.3. Vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) 54

5. CONCLUSIONS 56

5.1. Conclusions 56

REFERNCES 57

1. Books 57

X
 List of Tables

Table Page

Table 1.1. Geochemical parameters Describing kerogen type (quality) 32

and the character of expelled products

Table 3.1 The generation for the different types of kerogens with Ro%. 44

Table 4.1. Data of the study wells MMM12-6, 48

Table 4.2. Data of the study wells MMMM1-6 49

Table 4.3. Source rock generative potential. 51

XI
 List of Figures

Figures Page

Figure 1.1: Location map Sirte Shale Formation in well's 1

MMMM 1-6, and MMM12-6, Concision 6, Sirte
Basin, Libya

Figure 1.2: Shows the location of Sirte basin 3

Figure 1.3: Stratigraphic- lithologic correlation chart of the 8

Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary succession of the
Sirte Basin, from the NW of the Sirte basin on the
left to the east of the Sirte basin on the right.
Figure 1.4: Stratigraphic column of the Sirte Basin highlighting 10
the lithologies of the formations, the reservoir units
of the oil fields demonstrate age, formations,
lithology, main reservoir-oil fields and its tectonic
events
Figure 1.5: The map shows the thickness and main depocentres 12
areas in Sirte basin (Zallah Trough, Al Kotlah
Graben, southern Maradah Trough and Ajdabiya
Trough).
Figure 1.6: Maradah Trough Petroleum Systems 19

Figure 1.7: Western Ajdabiya Trough Petroleum Systems 21

Figure 1.8: Hydrocarbon generation kitchens in relation to the 24

principal tectonic elements and migration pathways
to the oil and gas accumulations in Zaltan platform
and Arshad oil and gas fields in Sirte Basin. (Note
the migration directions represented by green, oil;
and red, gas, arrows)

Figure 1.9: Location map of the hydrocarbon productive fields 25

in the study area (Note the migration directions
represented by green, oil; and red, gas, arrows)
Figure 1.10: Kerogen types are classified into four categories 32

Figure 2.1: Plot of TOC (wt. %) vs. S2 (mg HC/g rock) for Sirte 35
Shale in some wells, Arshad area, Zaltan Platform,

XII
 Sirte Basin, Libya.

Figure 2.2: Plot of TOC (wt. %) vs. S1 (mg HC/g rock) for Sirte 36
Shale in some wells, Arshad area, Zaltan Platform,
Sirt Basin, Libya.

Figure 2.3: Plot of hydrogen index (HI) versus oxygen index 37

(OI) illustrating the variation of kerogen type (I, II
and III) in source rocks of the East Sirte Basin.

Figure 2.4: Plot of vitrinite reflectance versus depth for selected 38

source rock extracts from the East Sirte Basin.

Figure 3.1 Time temperature index (TTI) 40

Figure 3.2: Rock-Eval pyrolysis instrument 41

Figure 3.3: Rock eval analysis 42

Figure 4.1: Pyrolysis S2 versus total organic carbon (TOC) plot 52

showing generative source rock potential for the rock
units in the study wells MMMM1-6&MMM12-6.

Figure 4.2: Plots of Hydrogen index (HI) versus Oxygen index 53

(OI), showing kerogen quality the Upper Cretaceous
samples of Sirte shales.

Figure 4.3: Plots of production index (PI) versus Oxygen index 54

(T max), showing kerogen mature the Upper
Cretaceous samples of Sirte shales.

Figure 4.4: Relation between HI & Tmax to detect maturation of 55

organic matter in wells MMMM1-6 & MMM12-6

XIII
 List of Abbreviation

Abbreviation Meaning Unite

TOC Total organic carbon. wt%

OM Organic matter.

Tmax Carbon Preference Index. Deg. C°

S1 In the content from C1 to C25 mg/g

The quantity of hydrocarbon formed from

S2 mg/g
the pyrolysis.

S3 Quantity of CO2. mg/g

HI Hydrogen Index.

OI Oxygen Index.

PI Production Index.

TTI Temperature time Index

Ro% Vitrinite reflectance wt.%

GP Genetic potential mg HC/g

API American Petroleum Institute

XIV
 CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION

This work discusses the characterize of organic geochemistry analysis of

Sirte Shale Formation in well's (MMMM1-6 and MMM12-6), Concision 6,
Sirte Basin, Libya (Figure 1.1) The study well is located in longitudes
29'22'30.934"N, and latitudes 19'47'08.996"E and longitudes 29°21'39.3"N
and latitudes 19°45'14.0"E respectively

Figure1.1. Location map Sirte Shale Formation in well's MMMM 1-6, and
MMM12-6, Concision 6, Sirte Basin, Libya

1
1.1. Arshad field
Arshad field is located at Zelten plate form south of Attahaddy gas field,
northeast of Lehib oil field and north of the Zelten oil field approximately
between latitudes 29°10’ N-29° 32’ N and longitudes 19° 30’ E-20° 00’ E at
concision 6 Sirte basin, Libya. (Figure 1.1)

1.2. Objectives of the study

1. Interpretation Rock-Eval Analyses data of Sirte Shale Formation in
well's MMMM 1-6, and MMM12-6, Sirte Basin, Libya
2. Evaluating the kerogen type by the HI versus OI.
3. Evaluating the generative source rock potential S2 versus total organic
carbon (TOC).
4. Evaluate the thermal maturation and the stage of maturation of the
source rock.
1.3. Back ground
1.3.1. Sirte basin
The Sirte basin is one of the sedimentary basins in Libya and covers an area
of 600.000 km² in north central Libya. It is located along the North African
continental margin and bounded by Gulf of Sirte along the Mediterranean
coast and extends to beyond let 26°N south. and the topography of the Sirte
Basin is variable from 330 m above the sea level of the pier (Shelf) and 27.50
m below sea level in the north of the depression Ajdabiya. This basin is
characterized by a series of northwest trending platforms and troughs, which
stretches 600 km in the east-west direction from Hun Graben in the west to
the Cyrenaica Platform in the east. It is bounded to the south by the Tibisti
Massif and to the west by Al Qarqaf Uplift and the Ghadamis and Murzuq
basins (Elaakkari, T.S. 2005)
The Sirte Basin is one of North Africa's most oil-producing provinces, with
about 117 billion barrels of proven oil in place. Oils are generally sweet, with
2
a sulfur content between 0.15 and 0.66%, and relatively little gas. Sixteen
out of twenty-one major unsaturated oil fields. Oil gravity is usually in the
range of 44 to 32 degrees API. Lower Cretaceous-era oil pools contain a
braving with pouring points of about 38 ° C. The upper seal accumulations
of the Paleocene era have pour points of up to 13 ° C, and those with higher
sales than Oligocene and Eocene have a pour point of less than 9 ° C. Oil
accumulations were found from depths of 700 m to a depth of 4,000 m,
within a temperature range of 52 ° C to 143 ° C. The temperature of the
petroleum gas basin tank is 150 ° C. Most of the oil in the Sirte Basin was
derived from Campanian Sirte Shale, a rich and thick rock with excellent
properties (Don, 2002).

Figure 1.2: shows the location of Sirte basin (Ahmed and Meehan 2016).

1.3.1.1. Geological setting

The Geological setting of the basin include Paleozoic and Middle Cenozoic
sediments, forming a series of flats and depressions (Troughs & Platform of

3
Series), and the thickness of the basin sediments is about 7500 m in the
center.
The Sirte basin is considered to be a type of continental rifting (extensional)
area and is referred to as part of the Tethyan rift system. It is formed during
the Early Cretaceous-Tertiary in response to crustal extension causing active
subsidence resulting in the collapse of the Sirte Arch. The tectonic evolution
of the Sirte basin was studied by several authors who confirmed different
phases of uplifting and subsidence within the basin. Four main phases are
encountered within the Sirte basin, as follows:
1. Phase I is related to the Late Jurassic to the early Cretaceous (144.2-
112.2 Ma), which represents the subsidence in the southeast of the
basin along an E-W structural trend.
2. Phase II is related to the Late Cretaceous (98.9-65 Ma) with five-time
interval including Cenomanian (98.9-93.5 Ma), Turonian (93.5-89
Ma), Coniacian and Santonian (89 Ma 83.5), Campanian (83.5 Ma-
71.3 Ma) and Maastrichtian (71.3-65 Ma). This phase represents the
major and rapid subsidence within the basin along the NW-SE
structural trend and the main significant petroleum source rocks array
of sediments.
3. Phase III is related to the Paleocene until early Eocene (65-49 Ma).
4. Phase IV is related to the Middle Eocene until the present day (49-0
Ma).
These tectonic phases had an important effect on the stratigraphic units
within the Sirte basin. The subsidence phases, were caused due to fault
activates which are related to renewed rifting during these phases. The phase
IV was caused by sediments load and thermal relaxation within the basin
(Elakkari, T. S, 2005).
1.3.1.2. Forming of Sirte basin
During the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods (5 million years) the
4
middle Atlantic Ocean was opened between North West Africa and North
America causing the movement of Western African plates for the European
plate, and continental fracture was active in Africa, affecting several regions,
including Sirte basin.
The main plate movement in North Africa for the amateur plate caused a
crack in most areas of the northern part of Libya, which is expressed in the
Sirte Basin as a series of trough and platforms.
During the late Cretaceous period, the Sirte Basin developed as it was
associated with the extension of the earth's crust towards the northeast and
west, representing the stretches of the West African fault system in the Sirte
Basin in Libya to the Benue Basin in Niger ,The movement of Africa's plate
for the Eurasian plate has changed due to the convergence of these structural
features and ithave become agreat importance in the transition of
hydrocarbons from trough to platforms where the most known oilfields are
located.
During the Sinomanian era (93.5-98.9 million years) The southern part of
the Sirte Basin developed and continued until Kunyasyan (83.5-89 million
years). The shallow seas were developed during the Balocene era (54.8-86
million years old) There has also been an active decline, affecting most of
Sirte Basin's trough.
During the Early Eocene (49-54.8 million years), the basin was affected by
the degradation of most troughs and slopes, and in the late Eocene (33.7-37
million years) was characterized by the presence of marine deposits that
originated in the early Oligocene. Continental deposition also originated in
the middle Miocene Age due to the rapid decline in the Mediterranean white
sea level (Elakkari, T. S, 2005).
1.3.1.3. The Formations deposits in Sirte Basin.
1.3.1.3.1. Pre-fault deposits.
Hofra Formation, which represents units of Cambro-Ordovician deposits
5
consisting of sandstone and quartz with a small amount of siltstone and
conglomerate and shale.
1.3.1.3.2. Deposits during the fault.
1-Nubian Formation represents the sediments of the Late Jurassic and Late
Cretaceous Era consisting of sandstone, shale and siltstone.
2-The Bahi Formation represents the upper Cretaceous sediments between
Cenomanian and Danian and consists of overlapping sandstone, limestone,
conglomerate and shale.
3-Lidam Formation represents the shallow deposits of the Cretaceous Age
consisting of dolomite combined with sand.
4-The Rakb Group consist of three formations include (Argub carbonate -
Sirt shale - Rachmat Formation). The Argub represent the Turonian marine
deposits, consisting of dolomite and limestone, representing the Formation
of (Santonian – Coniacian) deposits, consisting of shale, small limestone,
sandstone and interposed dolomite.
5-The Formation of Sirte Shale represents Campanian deposits, consisting
of a rock sequence with thin layers of limestone.
6- The kalash formation represents the sediment of the Maastrichtian era and
consists of limestone with some layers with calcareous shale. It is equivalent
to the Formation of Waha limestone and the Formation of lower Satal
formation.
7-Hagfa shale Formation represents Danian deposits and consists of shale
with thin layers of limestone.
8-Beda Formation represents Salendian deposits consisting of limestone
rocks overlapping with dolomite and limestone.
9-Khalifa Formation represents Salendian and Thanetian deposits consisting
of limestone deposited in shallow marine environments.
10-The Mount Zelten Group, which represents the Thanetian deposits,
consists of two formations, first the formation of Zelten in the southern part
6
and second Formation is Harash Formation in the northern part of the basin,
the Formation of Zelten is made of limestone and shale, and the formation
of a Harash formed of white calcite tended to brown with thin layers of
limestone at the bottom of the formation.
11-The formation of Kheir represents a deposit of Thanetian and consists
mainly of shale with some clay, marl and limestone.
12-The formation of the Gir, which represents the Eocene-era deposits,
consists of three members, the first member is Facha formation and consists
of a massive dolomite with small amounts of anhydrites in the western part
of the basin. The second member is Hun's evaporative member consisting of
anhydrites and dolomite interbedded with minor shale, and Mesdar member
consists of marine deposits
13-Gialo formation represents the sediment of the Middle Eocene era and
consists of a thick series of shallow marine limestone, muddy nummulitic
calcilutite and calcarenite.
14-The formation of Augila represents the Upper Eocene Era deposits
consisting of three members, the lower member consists of soft shale with
thin argillaceous limestone or dolomite interbeds, the middle member
consists of soft, porous, glauconitic quartz sandstone, and the upper member
consists of hard, sandy, slightly glauconitic limestone.
15-The Najah Group represents Oligocene-era deposits and is divided into
an upper unit Diba formation consisting sandstone units and thin soft shale
of shale, and a Arida formation as lower unit consisting of sandstone.
1.3.1.3.3. Post-fault deposits.
Marada formation represents Miocene-era deposits and consists of
interbedded shale, sandstone, sandy limestone and calcarenites. (Elakkari, T.
S, 2005).

7
Figure 1.3: Stratigraphic- lithologic correlation chart of the Upper
Cretaceous and Tertiary succession of the Sirte Basin, from the NW of the
Sirte basin on the left to the east of the Sirte basin on the right Hun graben,
Waddan uplift, Dor El Abida trough, (V) Bu Tamaym trough. (Dieb, M. A.
A, 2015).

8
1.3.1.4. Sirte Shale Formation
In the subsurface of the Sirte Basin the Rachmat Formation is overlain by a
thick shale formation (Figure 1.9) which was named the Sirte Shale. The
shales are containing an abundant fauna of planktonic foraminifera which
indicate a Campanian to early Maastrichtian age. The shales are
carbonaceous and calcareous and contain thin stringers of shaly limestone.
It represents the main oil source rocks for the Sirte Basin. The thickness of
the formation is varied and ranges from 760 m in the Zallah Trough, 300m
in the Maradah Trough and 600 m in the Ajdabiya Trough. At the Sarir field
about 75m of marine shales containing abundant Campanian marine paly-
nomorphs represent the Sirte Formation. In the Hameimat Trough the Sirt
Formation is characterized by the planktonic foraminifera
Gansserinagansseri and Globotruncanalinneiana which indicate a late
Campanian-Maastrichtian age in this area. (Don, 2002). The Sirte Shale
Formation is dominated by shale sections with thin limestone interbedded. It
consists mainly of dark grey, brown to black shale, which is calcareous and
carbonaceous for the most part and grades into shaly limestone, while the
base of Formation is usually silty and sandy. It contains a total organic
carbon (TOC) content ranging from 0.5 wt% to more than 6 wt%, and
contains Type II to Type II-III kerogen, which was deposited under marine
conditions. (Died, M. A.A. 2015)
Sirte Shale is closely associated with the Campanian age as well as kerogen
Type IV kerogen was found in the highest emerging platforms areas,
especially the Zahra platform, the Hamamah, the Wudan and the Hufra, and
type III kerogen is found around the margins of the basin and the type II in
the center of the basin. Average total organic carbon (TOC) values range
from 2 to 5% but sometimes exceed 10%

9
 Figure 1.4: Stratigraphic column of the Sirte Basin highlighting the
lithologies of the formations, the reservoir units of the oil fields demonstrates
age, formations, lithology, main reservoir-oil fields and its tectonic events.
(Aboglila and Elkhalgi, 2013).

10
Sirte shale in Upper Cretaceous the Ajdabiya Trough were in essence a Sirt
Shale source kitchen is present in the trough in which the effective thickness
of organic shales (TOC over 1%) reaches 760 m in the Intisar area. The depth
up to peak oil production is about 3800 m and the highest gas window is
about 4200 m. The mature source area extends along 190 km and covers an
area of about 7,000 km2 (Don, 2002).
Sirte shale in Paleocene the source rock of the Paleocene reservoirs on the
Zintan platform is Sirte Shiel. The Maradah basin may be the main source of
oil by migrating through the upper Cretaceous aquifers. Zintan and the guest
were shipped the Paleocene carbonate migration in the fields. Geochemical
evidence indicates that Antassar oil is derived from upper Cretaceous rock
and is the only source rock in this region.

1.3.1.5. Main depocentres in the Sirte Basin

There are four main depocentres:
1. Zallah trough containing up to 300 m of effective source rock.
2. Al Kotlah graben It is a small depocentres up to 150 m
3. Maradah trough up 350 m
4. Ajdabiya trough containing up to 750 m of effective source rock,
Hameimat trough also shows the effective rock thickness ranging from
150 to 200 m

11
Figure 1.5: The map shows the thickness and main depocentres areas in
Sirte basin (Zallah Trough, Al Kotlah Graben, southern Maradah Trough
and Ajdabiya Trough). (Don, 2002).

1.3.2. Petroleum system of Sirte basin

The Sirte Basin contains 89% hydrocarbon detected in Libya due to three
factors, The Cenozoic Era, the Mesozoic Era, and the Late Age of Oil
Generation and Migration. the presence of the rich and prolific source rock
in the upper cretaceous Sirte shale.
The Sirte Central Basin consists of the source kitchen of Marada trough and
the oil fields sourced from the Maradah trough, on nearby platforms have
been discovered 12 billion barrels of oil in place and 3 trillion cubic feet of
gas in place have been discovered in areas sourced from the Maradah
Trough, which suggests that at least 600 billion barrels of oil-equivalent have
been generated from the trough. The fields on the Al Zahrah-Al Hufrah
Platform were charged by migrating up the western boundary fault of the
Maradah Trough and into carrier beds of mainly Palaeocene age, the
platform had already been tilted towards the northeast by the time of peak
12
oil generation during the Oligo-Miocene, directing oil migration towards the
southwest .Given the structural composition at the time of the oil migration,
most fields were found to have been sourced by a long-range migration by
the Ajdabiya platform, supported by a gradual rise in oil water
communications in the Zaltan platform from the northeast to the south-west
and Some oil may have migrated from Maradah trough to the highest level
of fault through broken quartz. Two of the largest fields of the Maradah
trough were not reservoired in Paleocene reservoirs, the Raquba field was
reservoired in the Upper Cretaceous age and the Wadi field within the
Marada trough was reservoir fractured quartz from the Lower Cretaceous
and Ordovician age, the Raquba field is a giant field containing 1875 MMB
of oil in place and 750 MMB of oil of the recoverable reserves in the Wahah
near calcarenites. the field is unique in several respects. It is located on a
anticlinal structure east of the Kutla Graben and next to the Marada trough
boundary fault. The structure was formed during the Upper Cretaceous and
during the Maastrichtian However, it is pinches out on the southern side of
the structure, and is absent on the northern limb. The structure subsided
during the early Paleocene era, and covered by shale, form a seal for the
accumulation of oil. The structure was folded and cracked during the middle
of the Eocene era, and it was charged with hydrocarbons during the Oligo-
Miocene. The hydrocarbon column in the field extends from the Waha to
underlying quartzites. And there isa oil column with a length of 148 meters
with an overlying gas cap, the gravity of the oil is 42 API, the original gas-
to-oil ratio is 935 standard cubic feet / barrel, the quality of the reservoir is
variable. the Wahah reservoir becomes progressively shalier downdip. and
gas is preserved in the lower Al-Bayda carbonate in the Raquba field. The
Raquba field is charged by oil migrating from the Marada trough through the
western boundary fault. the thickness of the basin reaches 5000 meters in the
adjacent trough. the Manzil Ridge acted as a barrier to the migration of oil
13
to the deposits of the Cretaceous sediments in the north. but beyond the
northern end of the ridge another pool, analogous to Raqubah, but much
smaller, is preserved at Bazzuzi. This field is gas prone due to the kerogen
facies and late maturity of the source rock in the northern Maradah Trough.
(Don, 2002).
The Wadi field is a major tilted horst block located within the Maradah
Trough. It contains oil in fractured quartzites sandstones which have been
dated as Lower Cretaceous in the upper part and Ordovician in the lower
part. The quartzite sequence contains a member of shale in the middle
forming the Cenozoic shale and evaporites that provide the seal. The Wadi
field is unique asthe only oil-bearing structure inside the Marada trough. In
the Al-Bayda platform, there are more oil basins reservoired in the Upper
Cretaceous reservoirs compared to the Al-Zahra and Al-Hufra platforms.
There are also a number of small fields in the west of the waha formation,
and this reflects the early transgression of the upper Cretaceous marine rocks
in this region. On the eastern side of the Maradah Trough There are sandspits
and sandbars from the Lower Campanian era on the margin of the Zaltan
platform south of Dayfah. There are also sand wedges in the lower side of
the plat form margin of Nasser area at the Maastrichtian age. The sand
wedges in the Zaltan platform on the lower side of the rift bounding the
platform can be considered Waha equivalents in a unique setting. (Don,
2002).

1.3.2.1. Maradah trough (Al Hagfah Trough)

The Maradah Trough, sometimes called the Al Hagfah Trough, is a deep
fault-bounded graben extending for almost 400 km from west of the Dayfah
field to the coast at As Sidrah. The width varies from 10 to 40 km. It is
bounded on the west by the Az Zahrah-Al Hufrah Platform and the Al Bayda
Platform and on the east by the Al Jahamah Platform and the Zaltan Platform.
14
The upper Cretaceous surface was onlapped by the upper Cretaceous
formations from both the north and the south until the Maastrichtian and
Danian eras. The Paleocene deposition was affected by the same rock
deposition in the north and south, while the carbonate is largely confined to
the structural highs. This differentiation continued almost until the close of
the Paleocene. Limestone to shale passage frequently occurs at a distance of
a few kilometers sand appears to represent a ramp configuration rather than
an abrupt platform margin. There are four carbonate reservoirs separated by
shale, and they are Al-Satal, Al-Bayda, Al-Zahraa and Al-Zaltan. The upper
Satal member of Danian age has excellent reservoir properties and has a
thickness of 130 m. It extends from the Manzilah Ridgeto the west of
Mabrouk field and contains oil in the Bahi, Az Zahrah, Al Hufrah, Ah, Arbab
and Almas fields The Al-Bayda Formation is developed on the Al-Manzil
Ridge where it forms part of a continuous carbon ate sequence that extends
into the Thanetian .Towards the Al Hufrah field the upper member shales-
out as the Rabia Shale Member and the lower (Thalith) member deteriorates
as an effective reservoir, The Az Zahra limestone has excellent reservoir
properties with a thickness of 90 m. It is the major producing horizon on the
Az Zahrah, Al Hufrah, Al Furud, Abu Maras, and Umm Furud fields. The
limestone of Zaltan is considered a poor reservoir compared to the of the
Zahra and Hafra platforms. The thickness of the Zaltan limestone in this area
ranges from 60 to 100 m. The Al-Bayda platform had a similar history, as
the surface of the upper Cretaceous period was gradually onlapped by the
sediments of the upper Cretaceous with the Amin High remaining emergent
until the Danian. Al-Bayda Formation achieved its optimal development in
this region through two distinct deposits of carbonate reservoirs, which are
the lower Al-Bayda region known as Al-Zaqqut and Al-Meem, and the upper
Al-Bayda region known as Al-Awrah, both of which represent shallow
marine limestone. The lower member has a thickness of 75 m over the
15
western area, but it thins towards the east where it is only 60 m thick on the
Eteila field. This unit is oil bearing on the Al-Bayda and Tibesti fields, where
they have a constant thickness of about 65 meters over a large part of the
platform, it is productive at Al Bayda, Warid, and several smaller fields. Al-
Zahra formation has been developed in the western part of Al-Bayda, the
thickness up to 120 meters in the Khalifa area and Al-Bayda fields. The
Zaltan Limestone forms a blanket over the entire area with a fairly constant
thickness of about 130 m over both the platform and the adjacent troughs.

1.3.2.1.1. Source rock

The effective thickness Source rock of Maradah troughs (from TOC greater
than 1%) up to 300 meters, and the oil shale has reached the peak of maturity
over a large part of the basin. In the southern part of the basin, you find that
kerogen is of the second type, and in the north of the Bazzuzi field, the
dominant type of kerogen is type III. There is some ability to generate gas in
the north. The western boundary faults of the Maradah Trough acted as
conduits for the migration of oil which entered carrier beds on the platforms
and migrated westwards (Figure 1.5). The ridge structurally high until the
middle Eocene, but they declined rapidly after that. The ridge acted as a
barrier that hydrocarbons had to pass through before reaching the platform.
Because of the late onlap of the ridge during the Danian and the post Eocene
subsidence, entry to the platform was very complicated. This explains why
no oil was found in the Cretaceous reservoirs west of the ridge. at Raqubah
and Bazzuzi, hydrocarbons are present in Cretaceous reservoirs. (Don,
2002).
Petroleum source rock is defined as the fine-grained sediment with sufficient
amount of organic matter, which can generate and release enough
hydrocarbons to form a commercial accumulation of oil or gas (Hunt JM,
1995). Source rocks are commonly shale and lime mudstones, which contain
16
significant amount of organic matter (Tissot and Welte, 1984). A petroleum
source rock is defined as any rock that has the capability to generate and
expel enough hydrocarbons to form an accumulation of oil or gas.
Source rocks are classified according to oil generation into three classes
(Hunt JM, 1995), as follows:
1. Immature source rocks that have not yet generated hydrocarbons.
2. Mature source rocks that are in generation phase.
3. Post mature source rocks are those which have already generated all crude
oil type hydrocarbons.
(Waples DW, 1994) distinguished the petroleum source rocks into potential,
possible, and effective, as follows:
A. Potential source rocks are immature sedimentary rocks capable of
generating and expelling
hydrocarbons, if their level of maturity were higher.
B. Possible source rocks are sedimentary rocks whose source potential has
not yet been evaluated, but which may have generated and expelled
hydrocarbons.
C. Effective source rocks are sedimentary rocks, which have already
generated and expelled hydrocarbons.
The hydrocarbon source evaluation is generally based on the organic matter
quantity (organic richness), quality (kerogen type), and the thermal
maturation generation capability and of the organic matter disseminated in
the rock (Tissot and Welte, 1984), (Hunt JM, 1979). Organic matter content
can be determined directly from laboratory analyses of the source rock
samples (shale, limestone, or marl), and through indirect methods based on
wireline data offer the advantages of economic, ready availability of data,
and continuity of sampling of vertically heterogeneous shale section.

17
1.3.2.1.2. Seals
The seals on the Az Zahrah-Al Hufrah and Al Bayda platforms are provided
by Paleocene shales, notably the Khalifah Shale found throughout the region.
Paleocene sedimentology is strongly influenced by water depth and
structural elevation, such as the Manzilah Ridge, where the carbonate
sequence is continuous from the upper Satal to the Az Zahrah Formation,
where the combined reservoir is sealed by the Khalifah Shale. However, in
the Az Zahrah-Al Hufrah area, members of the Rabia Shale provides a seal
seal of the Satal and Lower Al Bayda unites, and only the Az Zahrah
formation is sealed by the Khalifah. In the ArRaqubah and Bazzuzi areas,
the Zaltan limestone is sealed by shale beneath the Harash formation, but at
structural highs only very thin clay limestone separates Zaltan from the
Harash, which would explain why no significant oil is found in the Zaltan
formation in this area. One or two examples of sealing faults can be shown.
A large fault extends from west of the Az-Zahrah field to west of the Zauam
field. No oil was found on the platform west of the fault, suggesting that it
acted as a barrier to hydrocarbon migration.
On the Al Bayda platform, the upper Satal member of the Al Bayda field
is sealed by the Thalith member, and the Al Bayda and Az Zahrah
formations are sealed by the Khalifah shale. The Zaltan limestone is
covered by the Harash formation, which is not an effective seal.

1.2.2.1.3. Traps
Most of the platforms have traps resulting from tectonic activity in the
middle of the Eocene, such as the Zahraa, Hafra and Al-Bayda platforms.
Most of them are relief anticlines with a northwestern orientation, although
the traps on the Al-Bayda platform have a northeastern direction similar to
the direction of Kutlah Grabin and the neighboring Abu Timyam Basin in
the south and west. The carbonates of the Paleocene member provide scope
18
for stratified traps. Stratigraphy trapping in the Zahraa field is alleged to
becaused by rapid shale from the Zahraa Formation to the west. (Don, 2002).

Figure 1.6: Maradah Trough Petroleum Systems (Don, 2002)

1.3.2.2. Ajdabiya Trough

The Ajdabiya Trough is the deepest trough in the Sirte Basin, containing
8000 m of sediments. The Ajdabiya Trough is the main depocentres for
Oligocene and Miocene sediments in the Sirte Basin with 1500 m of
Oligocene and 2100 m of Miocene sediments in the central of the trough,
and active subsidence has continued to the present day. Upper Cretaceous
rocks reach a thickness of 2400 m in the southern Ajdabiya Trough compared
with 600 m on the adjacent platforms. Because of its depth little is known
19
about the northern part of the trough. The Ajdabiya Trough covers an area
of 22,500 km2.
The Ajdabiya Trough is the most prolific part of the Sirte Basin and may also
be responsible for about 60% of the total oil in the Sirte Basin. This trough
is considered the largest and deepest and the most important source kitchens
in Libya. The Subsidence has been rapid in this basin since the Cretaceous
period until the present day. The thickness of Oligo-Miocene section in the
center of the trough is about 3000 meters.
The four main factors that characterize the Ajdabiya Trough.
1. There is a main source kitchen in the trough, which helped in the generated
of huge quantities of oil and gas.
2. The large thickness of the Neogene overburden compared with the rest of
the basin, where hydrocarbons are not only stored in the Cretaceous and
Paleocene reservoirs, but also in the Eocene and Oligocene reservoirs.
3. Major territorial seals evolved in the early Paleocene, late Paleocene, late
Eocene and Miocene, and traps were already present by the time of peak oil
generation and expulsion.
4. Migration to the West produced three petroleum systems, which are
related to migration to the West, which are (Sirte shale upper Cretaceous -
Sirte shale Eocene - Sirte shale Palaeocene systems). And the migration to
the East produced three main systems (Sirte shale-Eocene system - Sirte
shale Palaeocene system - Sirte shale Nubian system). (Don, 2002).

20
 Figure 1.7: Western Ajdabiya Trough Petroleum Systems (Don, 2002)

1.3.3. Petroleum system of Arshad field

Definitive TOC, pyrolysis, preservation and thermal maturity data obtained
from selected drilled wells indicate that the Sirte Shale sediments in the
Arshad area have no potential for hydrocarbon production. Interpretation of
geochemical data from the Sirte shale sediments in the Arshad area suggests
that they are poor and unreliable source rocks due to intense oxidation of the
sediments. Furthermore, they did not produce significant amounts of
hydrocarbons due to the depth interval deficient of source rocks in the trough
and platforms. On the other hand, marine transgression that caused by
change of the rate of sea level over platforms may play a role in creating an
environment hostile to planktonic matter in the Arshad region. Therefore, the
oil and gas encountered in the Arshad area undoubtedly originated from the
21
source rocks located in the troughs around the Zaltan platform in the Arshad
area (Khaled, et al. 2014).
At the same time, the marine Sirte shale in the Arshad area may not be buried
thick enough and/or deep enough on the Zaltan platform to produce
significant amounts of hydrocarbons. On the other hand, the depositional
history of the Sirte Basin shows that marine deposition started in the troughs
and gradually covered the highs and platform areas. The Sirte Shale in this
region may still be relatively high up in the troughs, thus lacking anoxic
conditions to preserve organic matter in the sediments. Therefore, the highs
and platforms appear to have lean source rocks with TOC results greater or
less than 0.5% and cannot generate enough hydrocarbons to saturate the
source rocks. Therefore, despite the TOC and Tmax results, the Sirte Shale
is considered to have no source rock and negligible hydrocarbon source
potential. The amount of hydrocarbon generation is so small and their
expulsion cannot be occurring (Khaled, et al. 2014).
On the east side of the study area, on the west side of the Ajdabiya Trough,
a similar analysis shows that the Sirte shale has a good potential to produce
a large amount of liquid hydrocarbons and associated gas (average TOC
2.85% and Tmax higher than 460°C). The Deep Wadayet Trough in the
Northeast Study Area has also indicated (for example in some well results)
that the Sirte Shale is currently producing gas. To sum up, it is generally
believed that oil and gas originated in troughs and migrated to platforms.
Hydrocarbons comes to the Arshad area and around the fields in the Zaltan
platform in the north. In this case, marine Sirte shale sediments acted as cap
rock for the underlying sandstone reservoir in the study area.
The distribution of the Sirte source rock varies throughout the Wadayet and
West Flank of Ajdabiya Troughs. The Campanian shale intervals is generally
lean along the northwestern embayment, north and west of the Attahaddy
structure to north of Arshad area, and thin on the southeast flank of the
22
Attahaddy structure. It becomes thick southeastward in the central and
southeastern part of the trough, whereas along the northern margin of Zaltan
Platform it is generally thin and poor. The South-North structural cross
section from Zaltan Platform to Wadayet Trough shows that Sirte Shale
thickness increases toward east and northeast at the depocenter of the
Wadayet Trough. Also, it is quite thick in the western flank of Ajdabiya
Trough. On the basis of the structural configuration of Sirte Basin and burial
depth of maturation for potential source rocks, assumed that deep Ajdabiya
was the principal site of major hydrocarbon generation for the accumulations
found in the Sirte basin. Migration (expulsion) trend was mainly in WSW of
the area between 45o -270o including Zaltan Platform.
The current geochemical model of the Sirte Shale source rock, along with
the geological and geochemical data, provide evidence to support the idea
that there are generative zones (kitchens) in the Ajdabiya and Wadayet
troughs. These areas are distinguished by the Campanian Sirte Shale source
rock, which is known for effectively generating oil and gas. It is important
to note these conclusions (Khaled, et al. 2014).

1.3.3.1. Migration mechanisms and pathways in Zaltan Platform

The majority of past research suggests that hydrocarbons move laterally and
vertically from the troughs towards the elevated region of the Zaltan
Platform. However, the theory that oil migrates from the Hagfa Trough to
the western side of the Zaltan platform is still unproven, despite some
authors' beliefs. Furthermore, many petroleum geologists in Libya are not on
account of hydrocarbon migration from Hagfa Trough as structurally it is not
possible for oil to migrate from Hagfa Trough to Arshad area but it is easy
for oil to migrate from the western Flank of Ajdabiya Trough to the Arshad
area.
Based on the geological setting and geochemical models of the Arshad area
23
and the Zartan platform in the Sirte Basin, this study believes that the oil and
gas migration direction in the Arshad area and adjacent troughs is vertical
and lateral in the westward and up-dip migration directions. Therefore, Oil
has migrated from the Campanian Sirte shale source rocks that reached the
oil-window in the west side of the South Ajdabiya Trough to the Mesozoic
and Paleozoic reservoirs of the Zaltan Platform, and the Upper Cretaceous
Arshad sandstone reservoir. Juxtaposition of structures in the Arshad field to
fill structural closures of various fold traps and fault-block structural traps in
the Zaltan platform Likewise, westward up-dip direction of gas migration
has took place from the Campanian Sirte Shale source rock which has been
buried in the gas-window in the deep Wadayet to the Mesozoic and Paleozoic
reservoirs in Zaltan Platform in North Arshad gas field as well (Khaled, et
al. 2014).

Figure 1.8: Hydrocarbon generation kitchens in relation to the principal

tectonic elements and migration pathways to the oil and gas accumulations
in Zaltan platform and Arshad oil and gas fields in Sirt Basin. (Note the
migration directions represented by green, oil; and red, gas, arrows) (Khaled,
et al. 2014).

24
Figure 1.9: Location map of the hydrocarbon productive fields in the study
area (Note the migration directions represented by green, oil; and red, gas,
arrows) (Khaled, et al. 2014).

1.3.4. Petroleum system Events of Arshad area

Structurally, Sirte Basin is differentiated into three phases:
1- The Pre-rift phase occurred prior to rifting and block faulting consisting
of Paleozoic rocks.
2- The Syn-rift phase was developed during the Early Cretaceous to Late
Eocene. During Late Cretaceous time, shale was deposited in troughs and
shallow marine clastic and carbonates were deposited on high areas. The
Sirte Shale (Late Cretaceous) forms the effective source rock in most troughs
of Sirte Basin.
3- The Post-rift down warping phase was characterized by graben fill; basin
sag was developed in Post-Eocene to Recent of tectonic phase IV
the petroleum system of Arshad area is considered known one as much as it
includes all the requirement elements of the petroleum system. As being
stated before the effective source shales in Arshad structure had been buried
since the Middle Eocene time (Early generation) and reached top oil window
25
during Early Oligocene time. On the other hand, it reached the oil window
during the Middle Miocene to Early Pliocene time.
The reservoir rocks of Cambrian-Ordovician Gargaf sandstones and Upper
Cretaceous Arshad sandstones are productive rocks with oil (37-47° API)
and/ or gas fields in the area. Consequently, the preservation time and the
critical moment have started since 13 M. Y. (Khaled, et al. 2014).

1.3.5. Origin of petroleum

The biogenic origin of petroleum is widely accepted on the basis of
geochemical studies. The characteristic of chemical structures of the
petroleum compound related to plants and animals such as porphyrins,
isoprenoids, steranes, and many others.
In addition, the source rocks is where the petroleum were originally
deposited, and the source rocks formed from fine-grained sediments that are
deposited in shallow marine environments during the low-energy
transgressive phases of geologic basin formation.
The density of organic matter is not higher than Water therefore deposition
of clay and carbonates Precipitation occurs slowly in low energy
environments. exhausted Oxygen depletion occurs in quiet water and
results in an anaerobic state and preservation of organic matter. Anaerobic
bacteria tend to decrease Organic compounds work by removing oxygen
from certain molecules However, they do not attack the carbon-carbon
bonds of hydrocarbons. Evidence for origin of low-energy anaerobic form
of petroleum Interposition state, the environment is supported (High
energy, aerobic environment) Decomposition by aerobic bacteria Organic
matter is converted to carbon dioxide and water (Tiab and Donaldson, 2015)

26
1.3.6. Depositional Environment
the terms marine or terrigenous that used to describe oil or source rock
without refer to provenance (origin) or depositional environment. These
terms are frequently used by geochemists to describe if the organic material
derived from marine and terrestrial plants, respectively. And whereas
geologists typically refer to marine or terrigenous depositional environments
For example, when geologists talk about marine sedimentary rocks, they
discuss sediment depositional environment, not provenance of the mineral
grains. Likewise, geologists can equate marine Source rocks with marine
depositional conditions, although may contain organic matter or kerogen
might be of Marine, terrestrial or mixed origin. For similar reasons, the
meaning of the terms marine oil, lacustrine oil, or terrigenous oil is unclear
without further explanation.
Misunderstandings can occur because a marine oil might be:
(1) generated from land plant organic matter deposited in a marine
environment,
(2) generated from marine organic matter, or
(3) produced from a reservoir rock deposited in a marine environment.
Rather than just "marine" oil, it must be specified whether the oil is derived
from a source rock deposited under marine conditions or from marine
organic matter. (Magoon and Dow, 1991)

1.3.7. Transformation of organics into kerogen

Organic matter from dead plants and animals is either consumed
Decomposed by organisms or by bacteria. if biological Substances stay in
an oxygen-rich, aerobic environment, with oxygen Bacteria break it down
into carbon dioxide and water. if the environment is anaerobic and mainly
forms decomposition products Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. hydrocarbons Crude oil can be derived from fund amental
27
biomolecules: Proteins (amino acids), Lipids (fats, waxes and oils),
Carbohydrates (sugar and starch) and lignin (with Cellulose) comes from
plants.
When stored in a low energy environment Containing no oxygen, they can
mix with clay and precipitates that are forming the fine-grained sediments
characteristic formation of low-energy Transgressive phase of basin
formation. so, it's important for the Organic matter to be buried because it
requires fine-grained sediment to be preserved. So, the source rocks of
petroleum are those rocks that form Composed of fine-grained sediments
mixed with organic matter. not all fine-grained Sediments are the source
rocks for petroleum, which means A necessary criterion is the availability
of abundant organic matter in an area of fine-grained deposition. This
implies that these sedimentary basin along the Gentle continental slopes and
aquatic life (plankton, algae, etc.), in addition to rich terrestrial lora.
Terrestrial vertebrates are not Likely a source of organic matter in shallow
marine sediments. The organic matter, fine-grained sediments and bacteria
mixed to get her and deposited in quiet, low energy environments are not
in thermodynamic equilibrium. the system is approaches to thermodynamic
equilibrium during the initial burial process of diagenesis transformations.
Since burial at this stage is shallow, ambient temperature is low and the
sediment undergoes diagenetic changes slowly under mild conditions. first
10 feet or so of sediments thus represent the interface into which the
biosphere passes into the geosphere. The residence time in this shallow
sediment is given by deeper burials, probably between 1,000 and 10,000
years old. During this time, exposure of organic matter to microbial and
chemical action that transforms it from the biopolymers (proteins, etc.).to
more stable polycondensation compounds as kerogen. Sediments are buried
deeper over time where anaerobic environments prevail and where organic
matter continues to be converted into more Insoluble high-molecular-
28
weight polymers, mainly due to increased Pore liquid pressure and
temperature. (Tiab and Donaldson, 2015)
1.3.8. Kerogen
Kerogen is the name of a group of organic substances that are insoluble in
organic solvents, water, or oxidizing acids. The soluble part of the organic
matter is called bitumen., these large particles break and crack into smaller
particles, most of which are petroleum.
Kerogen is known when complex compounds such as proteins are converted
into amino acids, and carbohydrates are transformed into simpler sugar
compounds. Simpler soluble at a depth of a few tens of meters in a sediment
these newly formed complex organic structures are called kerogen.
In general, petroleum is produced from organic materials that accumulate in
sedimentary basins. Only a small part of the organic matter produced is
retained in the photic region in an ocean in the sediment. Algae-eating
organisms There may also be a terrestrial supply of organic matter Oxidizes
in a column of water Most organic matter or on the sea floor The nutrients
are released into the water and become available for new organic production
near the surface during upwelling Most of the source rock is black rock.
The organic matter is converted into kerogen, which consists of very large
and complex molecules. We do not usually apply the term kerogen to fresh
organic matter, but to materials that have been dried to some extent after
burial to about 100 meters or more.
Kerogen is formed gradually within a few hundred meters of the upper
sediment column after sedimentation of primary products. Also, we can
derive organic matter from marine organisms, most of which are algae or
plants derived from the land. this is achieved by converting amino acids,
carbohydrates, and other acids and compounds into kerogen by removing
functional groups such as acid groups, aldehydes, etc. This involves the loss
of oxygen from organic matter, as well as nitrogen, water, and carbon
29
dioxide, so kerogen has higher H/C ratios. And the O/C is less than the
primary compounds. Kerogen may also include organic molecules of
biological origin that are identified by shape or in terms of morphology, such
as vitrinite (derived from woody tissues and also liptinite materials such as
algae spores, etc.) because of its resistance to strong oxidizing acids. It can
recover kerogen by dissolving most rocks Away from the hydrochloric acid
from sedimentary rocks, we can use heavy liquids to separate kerogen by
density method because kerogen is lighter than minerals due to its being a
complex of very large molecules (polymers). It will decompose into smaller
components that can be analyzed, and kerogen contains a wide range of
formulas that depend on the original organic composition.
It is very important to identify the types of kerogens due to the difference in
the chemical composition of organic materials and hydrocarbon products
(Bjorlykke, K, 2010).

1.3.8.1. Types of the kerogen

The organic matter in potential source rocks must be of the type that is
capable of generating petroleum (Tissot and Welte, 1984), (Waples DW,
1994). It has been established that the organic matter is classified into three
classes (Tissot B, et al. 1974):
1. (types I and II) equivalent Sapropelic type.
2. (type III) equivalent Humic type.
3. Mixed type from the two other types equivalent (II/III or III/II).
Espitalie et al. (Espitalie J, et al. 1977) used the pyrolysis yield to
differentiate between the types of organic matter by plotting the hydrogen
index versus the oxygen index on a modified Van Krevelen diagram, as
follows:
1. Type I: mainly oil-prone organic matter with minor gas.
2. Type II: mixed oil and gas-prone organic matter.
30
3. Type III: mainly gas-prone organic matter.
The organic matter type is an important factor for evaluating the source rock
potentiality and has important influence on the nature of the hydrocarbon
products (Tissot and Welte, 1984), (Hunt JM, 1979). Peters and Cassa
(Peters and Cassa, 1994). proposed that, for mature source rock, HI for gas-
prone organic matter is less than 150, gas-oil-prone organic matter is
between 150 and 300, whereas oil-prone organic matter is more than 300 HI.
So, it is very important to determine the kerogen types, in order to detect the
hydrocarbon products (Table 1.1).
Type I kerogen consists of organic matter containing a high percentage of
lipids with strange chains consisting of planktonic algae and animal materials
that have been broken down. It has a high percentage of H/C, usually
between 1.3 and 1.7. Often this type of kerogen is called Type I It also
contains little oxygen (O/C<0.1) and will mainly provide oil with very small
amounts of gas (methane and carbon dioxide). The first type of kerogen is
typical for shale, especially in freshwater or marine basins. Type II The
second type of kerogen is a mixture of mechanically and chemically complex
algae, plant, debris and marine organisms based on primary organic raw
materials that may be attached again to the sedimentary surface. High
percentages of H/C and low percentage of O/C. This type of kerogen is the
most common source of oil, but it produces gas as well. Type III kerogen is
derived from organic materials from wild plants. This type has a low initial
H/C ratio and a high initial O/C ratio at maturity (through the effects of
temperature). This kerogen, generates abundant amounts see (figure 1.10).
From water and gases such as carbon dioxide and methane (CH4), gas is also
generated mostly, but some oil may be generated, but in general it mainly
produces gas. The fourth type IV consists of dead or inert carbon, has little
or no generating capacity, and has a very low H/C ratio (Bjorlykke, K, 2010).

31
 Figure 1.10: Kerogen types are classified into four categories (Bjorlykke,
K, 2010).

Table 1.1. Geochmical parameters Describing kerogen type (quality) and

the character of expelled products (Bjorlykke, K. 2010).

32
1.3.8.2. Transformation of kerogen into oil and gas
The continuous deposition of sediments in the basin results in deeper
sediments Burials extend to depths of thousands of feet, which involves
increase Temperature and pressure of kerogen mixed with fine-grained
sediment. Due to the increased temperature during burial, places the
material out of thermodynamic equilibrium again, which induces further
reactions and transformations (catagenetic stage). although the Organic
matter under goes major trans formation, sediments are compacted, causing
water to escape and porosity and permeability to decrease. the Kerogen
maturate through liquid bitumen to liquid petroleum.
If the petroleum remains in the compacted source rock undergoing deeper
burial with continued heating, the kerogen is ultimately reduced to graphite
and methane. The thermodynamic stability of the organic matter is never
reached that's result of gradual increase in temperature because of the burial
progressed the approximate depths for the various diagenetic and catagenetic
changes are described by Chilingarian and Yen as follow:
1. 10-20 feet is the zone of change to humic materials.
2. 20-1,500 feet is where the diagenetic changes take place.
3. 1,500-6,000 feet is the zone of catagenetic changes and formation of
oil from kerogen.
4. And below 6,000 feet there is a zone of metagenesis were petroleum
changes to graphite and methane. (Tiab and Donaldson, 2015)

33
 CHAPTER 2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
this chapter will discuss some previous work about the geochemistry of
Sirte basin at different parts.
2.1. South east part of Sirte basin (Arshad area)
at Arshad area several sample of Sirte shale Formation are analyzed by
geochemical analysis of TOC and results indicate fair to good source rock
since the value of TOC range from 0.25 to 1.04 wt% and average value is
0.58 wt% in different depths in different wells and these results indicate that
Sirte shale contain enough amount of organic matter to generate and expel
hydrocarbon under suitable thermal maturity level.
the values that obtained from rock Eval analysis such as HI, OI, are important
to the kerogen type, the HI value (Mg HC/g TOC) from the three wells of
studied area range from 9 to76 HC/g TOC and the average value of each well
are 42, 24, 25 mg HC/g TOC and this value tell that there is deficient of
hydrogen content and poor potential source rock in all samples.
The hydrogen index value is used to know which type of kerogen is analyzed,
so the HI value (<150 mg HC/g TOC, Average 30 mg HC/g TOC) in the
studied area prove that the kerogen type is type Ⅲ (Gas prone) and type IV
(non-hydrocarbon potential) kerogens, and the OI values of the analyzed
rock samples range from 24 to 116 mg Co2/g Toc and these values indicate
very low oxygen content of kerogens.
from the modified van Krevelen diagram the HI and OI values of the
analyzed samples in the studied wells have low values.
So, it's difficult to distinguish between the different types of kerogens with
very low hydrogen and oxygen contact this show in the composite van
Krevelen diagram of all samples from the three wells where the path way of
kerogen types are very close to each other, therefore so it's important are

34
necessary to get help of the visual microscopic study in order to determine
the dominant kerogen type of the study sample.
The pyrolysis derived S2 peak (hydrocarbon cracked from kerogen, mg HC/g
rock) that indicate the source generation potential of the Sirte formation in
the studied wells. The average Values of S2 from the three wells samples
measure 0. 17 mg. HC/g rock and these values indicate very pool generating
potential source rock. a direct relationship between S2 and TOC values are
recorded (figure 2.1), the average value of sample of each well are indicate
poor generate hydrocarbon potential of Sirte shale in the area
And the values of pyrolysis derived S1 peak (free hydrocarbon content of the
pyrolyzed sample, mg. HC/g rock) versus TOC wt% show normal and direct
relationship indicate indigenous hydrocarbon of all analyzed samples.
(Khaled, et al, 2014)

Figure 2.1: Plot of TOC (wt. %) vs. S2 (mg HC/g rock) for Sirte Shale in
some wells, Arshad area, Zaltan Platform, Sirte Basin, Libya. (Khaled, et
al, 2014)

35
 Figure 2.2: Plot of TOC (wt. %) vs. S1 (mg HC/g rock) for Sirte Shale in
some wells, Arshad area, Zaltan Platform, Sirte Basin, Libya. (Khaled, et
al, 2014)

The total genetic potential (GP =S1+S2) the average of the sample of each
well value are (0.48,0.28,.018) and with average of the three wells (0.29mg
HC/g rock) is indicate a poor source rock.

2.2. South-western part of Sirte basin

The well in this study is located in kotlah Graben Zellah trough SE Zallah
trough and SW kotlah Graben, the thick of Sirte shale formation in this area
is about 60 feet, from the analyzed data in the Sirte shale formation the TOC
ranging from 1.98 % to 3.88% with average of 2.71% and with potential
yield range from 7.22 to 23.87 mg HC/g rock and with average 13.42mg
HC/g rock and this suggesting very good sours rock potential (Dieb m, a.a,
2015)
36
2.3. East part of Sirte basin
A geochemistry parameter of the east part of Sirte basin that located in Amal
Field the TOC and rock Eval pyrolysis measurement shows a quite diverse
value the TOC values from the Sirte shale formation range between 0.18%
to 5.50 % and the rock Eval pyrolysis data show values as follow, the T max
value range from 427 to 437 and the S1 values range 0. 16 to 46.6 mg HC/g
rock and the S2 0.27 to 21.4 and the HI 115 to 481, OI 3.185 and the PI 0.07
-1.55 from data the hydrogen index ( HI ) versus oxygen index ( OI )
illustrating variation of kerogen type ( I, II, and, III ) ( figure 2.3 ) plot TOC
versus S2 illustrating that the variation of the organic rich and petroleum
generation potential in the source rock (Aboglila and Elkhalgi, 2013)

Figure 2.3: Plot of hydrogen index (HI) versus oxygen index (OI)
illustrating the variation of kerogen type (I, II and III) in source rocks of the
East Sirte Basin. (Aboglila and Elkhalgi, 2013)

By analyses this data the rock Eval pyrolysis and the TOC for the study
sample the TOC value of 1.0% consider as the lower for effectual source
37
rock, and source rock lower than 1.0% of TOC can never produce sufficient
oil to begin primary migration, the sample that give value <0.4 indicate low
source rock potential, the rock Eval pyrolysis results show that the Sirte
shale formation source rock contain type II kerogen and the S1 peak ( free
hydrocarbon ) higher that (>1) and the abnormally high PI value (>0.2 ) are
indicate the migration of the bitumen. Vitrinite reflectance (%Ro)
measurements show some correlation with the depths of the samples. the
Sirte Formation samples reached the oil window (figure 2.4.).

Figure 2.4: Plot of vitrinite reflectance versus depth for selected source rock
extracts from the East Sirte Basin. (Aboglila and Elkhalgi, 2013)

38
2.4. North-western part of the Sirte Basin
this study is cared out in the western part of Sirte basin, the well is located in
the western extent Mabrok oilfield , the thickness of the formation at this
area about 970Feet and based on the lithology the formation is subdivided
into upper and lower units, the upper unit thickness about 550Feet and the
lower unit is about 380Feet the TOC value of the upper section has ranges
from 0.99 to 2.41 wt% and average value of 1.62 wt% and the hydrocarbon
yield( S1+S2) range from 1.12 to 7.26 mg HC/mg with an average 4.38mg
HC/g rock, and from this data the sample above of 2.5 mg HC/g rock of
hydrocarbon yield may be classified as having good hydrocarbon potential
as source rock, the HI value , use range between 105 to 359mg HC/g TOC
and average of 245mg HC/g , and this data suggesting that the type of
kerogen in this formation is type II to type III kerogen. (Dieb m, a.a. 2015)
On the other hand, the lower plat of Sirte Shale Formation have the following
data TOC value range from 0.50 to 0.87 wt% with main value of 0.71 wt%
and the hydrocarbon yield rang of 0.28 to1.29mg HC rock with average
0.84mg HC/g rock and this value indicate poor to fair potential source rock
the HI value range between 54 to 154mg HC/G TOC and also suggesting
mixture of type II, III kerogen. (Dieb m, a.a. 2015)

39
 CHAPTER 3
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
The study was conducted on samples from two wells MMM12-6 and
MMMM1-6 in the Sirte Basin, at different depths. The samples are taken for
treatment in a laboratory, where they are dried and crushed before analysis.
then examining the samples, geo-chemical, the possibility of generating
hydrocarbons and to determine the total organic content, to determine the
type of organic matter, and to determine the maturity of the organic matter.
3.2. Rock- Eval Analyses
It is a device that performs a standard routine analysis of the source rocks to
determine the type and amount of kerogen that is converted into petroleum
by the effect of temperature changes or the amount that can be converted at
the temperature. Pyrolysis is almost the best routine tool for determining the
kerogen type (Espitalie J, et al. 1977). The maturity of the source rocks is a
function of the temperature time index (TTI). This can be calculated from
drawing a curve Burial or if geothermal gradients are known.

Figure 3.1: Temperature time index (TTI) (Bjorlykke, K. 2010).

40
We can determine the maturity is an exponential function of temperature
through the thermal gradients of the geographical source, more important
during the deepest era of burial at a certain depth and temperature through
the burial curve c, i.e., the maturity varies greatly between the depths. We
conclude from this curve the highest maturity at this depth and the source
rocks Buried after curve B, A, their maturity is less because they were
subjected to a greater depth of burial than kerogen (higher temperatures),
which was much shorter. (Bjorlykke, K. 2010)

Figure 3.2: Rock-Eval pyrolysis instrument

3.3 How to use this device

The sample is prepared and then the oil shale sample is crushed and placed
in this device (Rock eval) and heated to 300 degrees Celsius to measure the
number of hydrocarbons at this point that were formed in the source rock and

41
did not migrate, and the carbon content is from C1 to C25and is called S1It
is measured on the area below the peak S1 But if it is heated with an
additional temperature of or we heat from 300 to 550-600 degrees Celsius,
in which new petroleum is formed from kerogen through pyrolysis (exposing
the material to high temperatures in the absence of oxygen) in the laboratory,
and this quantity is called S2 So then the source rock buried it at a deeper
depth (increasing the temperature) because of its need for such high
temperatures is that it is heated in the laboratory only a few minutes or hours
instead of millions of years because the greater the depth, the higher the
temperature, during heating from 300 to 550 degrees Celsius, CO2 is formed,
collected and measured separately as a peak and is called S3 and the
temperature from 420 to 460 degrees Celsius is called the maximum
hydrocarbons generated from the kerogen sample and is called Tmax.

Figure 3.3: Rock eval analysis (Bjorlykke, K, 2010)

42
In this figure, the rock eval is explained and analyzed. A rock sample that
includes the source rock is gradually heated to about 550 degrees Celsius. In
this temperature gradient, the amount of hydrocarbons generated is measured
Tmax. The ratio between S2 (the amount of petroleum generated) and TOC
(total content of organic matter) is taken to obtain the hydrogen index HI It
is taken to obtain the oxygen index, that is, the oxygen content in kerogen,
through which the amount of carbon dioxide that is formed from S 3 and the
ratio of S3 and TOC is taken to obtain the oxygen index OI The PI production
index is known by calculating the ratio between the amount of free oil that It
was formed (S1) and the total amount of oil (S1 + S2). The ratio S1/(S1+S2) is
known as the production index.
Some considerations that we must take when analyzing source rocks are
good source rocks that are the first condition for finding oil and gas in a
sedimentary basin (Bjorlykke, K, 2010).

3.4. Vitrinite reflectance (RO%)

The most useful measures of organic metamorphism is the reflectance of
vitrinite which was discussed by several workers. Hood et al. (Hood A, et al.
1975). Tissot and Welte (Tissot and Welte, 1984) considered the vitrinite
reflectance as the most powerful tool for detecting maturation of organic
matter. Waples (Waples DW, 1988) considered that a vitrinite reflectance
(Ro%) of 0.6% mark the early stage of oil generation, while the peak of oil
generation is at Ro _ 0.8%, and the late stage or the end of oil generation is
marked at Ro _ 1.35%. The Ro% is considered as the most powerful
maturation measure tool. Tissot and Welte (Tissot and Welte, 1984) detected
the onset, peak, and end of oil generation for the different types of kerogen
according to Ro% (Table 3.1).

43
Table 3.1: The generation for the different types of kerogens with Ro%.

The onset of significant hydrocarbon generation can vary depending on the

type of kerogen prevalent in the source rock. The direction of maturation of
the vitrinite reflectance is determined by a logarithmic scale versus depth on
a linear scale. It is essential to place these data in a geological context for
correct interpretation. This can be easily achieved by using the burial date
for sequencing. Recent trends in source rock evaluation projects, especially
with unconventional materials, tend to lead to wrong conclusions about the
maturity of the time interval, so we see that good source rocks exposed to oil
often contain little or no vitrinite in their kerogen through Focusing on the
separator of the source rocks, or it may be encountered or contain little or no
vitrinite. The vitrinite observed from the material may be caved material and
give less ripeness, or the vitrinite could be reformulated, which will give a
higher indicator of ripeness than is present. Vitrinite reflectance is often used
to determine the maturity of the source rock to make inferences about
hydrocarbon generation and migration. Hydrocarbon generation also
depends on the type of kerogen in the source rock as well as the temporal
history of the source rock. While the vitrinite inversion can indicate whether
hydrocarbon generation is possible and suggest the type(s) of hydrocarbon
that can be formed, it cannot indicate directly how much hydrocarbon or
hydrocarbon generation is generated (Dembicki H, 2022).
44
In general, the optical properties of vitrinites accurately captured in
sedimentary rocks from organic matter dispersed can be used to assess
thermal maturity Vitrinite reflectance is now widely accepted by exploration
geologists as a key measure of thermal maturity. It is one of the common
minerals in kerogen, although vitrinite reflection is more associated with heat
stress than petroleum generation. Although the vitrinite group is generally
susceptible to gases, the cholineite sometimes contains hydrogen-rich resins
or waxes that contribute to the generation of petroleum. A petrographic
microscope with a photometer measures the percentage of incident white
light reflected from plant cells of vitrinites in the preparation of kerogen.
Plant cells are small particles of organic matter. RO% is typically reported.
Vitrinite contains more carbon ring structures than those in the oil-exposed
leptinite group. Thermal maturation causes vitrinite to increase in vitrinite
reflectivity. The increase in vitrinite reflectance persists throughout all
thermal oil generation processes and appears to result from complex,
irreversible interactions that are largely independent of rock Formation
(Peters, et al. 2005).

2.5. Established the 2-Dimension Plots of the analyzed data

The data that obtained from the rock eval analysis in this area at Sirte shale
formation is analyzed by using excel sheet in order to construct the modified
van Krevelen diagram and the Relation between HI & Tmax, Pyrolysis S2
versus total organic carbon (TOC), production index (PI) versus (Tmax) to
allocate the plots of the analyzed sample so it can be used to know some
parameters and all the above relationships well be discussed in chapter 4.

45
 CHAPTER 4
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Introduction
This chapter displays how to evaluate source rocks and hydrocarbon
generation using geochemical data, with an easy method and evaluate source
rocks from gas chromatography for crude oil and extract bitumen. This
chapter will be presented with case study and some examples for
understanding petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation. Also, in
this chapter, quantitative one-dimensional basin modeling is performed for
evaluating the thermal histories and timing of hydrocarbon generation and
expulsion of the source rocks in these sedimentary basins.

4.2. Evaluation of petroleum source rocks using geochemical data

The source rock evaluation within any study area involved the recognition
of petroleum source, which depends on the determination of its proportion
of organic matter (organic 4 Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and
Engineering matter quantity), which is usually expressed as total organic
carbon (TOC wt%). It also depends on the type (or quality) of organic matter
(kerogen) preserved in the petroleum source. The geochemical data such as
total organic carbon (TOC wt%), rock-eval pyrolysis data, bitumen
extraction, are presented and discussed for the proposed Upper Jurassic and
upper Cretaceous rock units in the Sirte Shell formation, Sirte basin in Libya.
The total organic carbon, S2 and genetic potential from rock-eval pyrolysis
and extractable organic matter (bitumen) from selected rock samples were
used to identify the source-richness in terms of quantity and generation
potential. Plots of TOC against hydrogen index (HI mgHC/gm of TOC) and
hydrogen index (HI) against oxygen index (OI) from rock-eval pyrolysis are
used to identify the kerogen type (quality) and depositional environment.
Rock-eval Tmax (C_) was used to evaluate source rock maturity stage.
46
The rock-eval pyrolysis data are considered to be the most valuable
geochemical exploration tool used to evaluate the type of organic matter,
thermal maturity, and the generation capability of source rocks. The
generated thermo-vaporized free hydrocarbons already present in the rock
“S1” are released at temperatures lower than those needed to break down the
kerogen, hence monitoring the hydrocarbons released by steadily increasing
temperature, providing a way for obtaining the amount of generated
hydrocarbons relative to the total potential. The “S2” peak Represents the
genetic potential of the sample, which is the hydrocarbon that would generate
at optimum maturity. The “S1” and “S2” are expressed in milligrams of
hydrocarbon per gram of rock (mg/g). The “S3” peak represents the quantity
of evolved CO2 expressed in milligrams of CO2 per gram of rock (mg/g).
The temperature (Tmax) at which the pyrolysis peak S2 occurs has been used
as a measure of maturity; it increases with increasing levels of maturity. Two
useful parameters are obtained from rock-eval pyrolysis data: the hydrogen
index (HI = S2/ TOC wt%, equivalent to H/C atomic ratio in van Krevelen
diagram) and the oxygen index (OI = S3/TOC wt%, equivalent to O/C
atomic ratio in the kerogen). (Table 4.1) and (Table 4.2) illustrate the data of
the study wells MMMM1-6 and MMM12-6,

47
(Table.4.1:) data of the study well MMM12-6.

48
(Table.4.2:) data of the study well MMMM1-6

49
4.2.1. Source rock generative potential
The organic matter richness and hydrocarbon generative potential of the
source rocks in the Sirte Shell formation can be evaluated by bulk
geochemical data such as TOC content and pyrolysis S1 and S2 yields (Table
1) and (Table 2). The organic richness of a rock is usually expressed as the
total organic carbon content (wt% TOC). The minimum acceptable TOC
value for Sirte Shell formation indicating fair to good source potential is
1.0%.
samples have fair TOC content (0.40–0.7 wt%), revealing organic-rich
intervals within stratigraphic levels (Table 1) and (Table 2). The Sirte Shell
(upper Cretaceous age) consists of sandstone and shale and with small
intercalations of carbonates. The Sirte Shell samples contain rich organic
matter and have TOC content of 0.4–0.7 % (Table 1). Based on the
classification proposed by (Peters KE, 1986) Sirte Shale sample is
considered to be a fair to good source rock (The amount of hydrocarbon yield
(S2) expelled during pyrolysis is a useful measurement to evaluate the
generative potential of source rocks (Peters KE, 1986), (Bordenave ML,
1993). Most of the analyzed samples have less than 1.0 mg HC/g rock. Thus,
pyrolysis S2 yields indicate that the Sirte Shell samples are poor to fair
generative potential. The hydrocarbon yields (S2) are in agreement with TOC
content, indicating that the shales of Sirte Formation are good to fair source
rock generative potential based on the classification by Peters and Cassa
(Figure 4.1). The shale samples could become the most promising source
rock for hydrocarbon generation as reflected by high pyrolysis yield (S2) and
total organic carbon (TOC wt%) content. Overall, the relation between
genetic petroleum potential yield (PY; S1 + S2) and TOC of the studied units
in the Sirte Formation confirms the above results, where it suggests that most
of the samples from Sirte Formation source rocks locate in the zone of the
potential source rocks for hydrocarbon generation (0.5–1.0 wt%), good
50
source (1.0–2.0 wt%), and very good source (>2.0 wt%). Tissot and Welte
(Tissot, Welte. 1984) stated that, “Sirte Formation, which are considered as
source for petroleum contain a maximum of 0.7 wt% of the total organic
carbon (TOC wt%), Peters and Cassa (Peters, Cassa.1994) presented a scale
for the assessment of source rocks used in a wide scale and is applied in this
work; a content of 0.5 wt% TOC as a poor source, 0.5–1.0 wt% as a fair
source, 1.0–2.0 wt% as a good source, and more than 2.0 wt% TOC as a very
good source rock, and also based on the rock-eval pyrolysis data, such S1
and S2, as shown in (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3: Source rock generative potential (Peters KE. 1986).

51
 Figure 4.1: Pyrolysis S2 versus total organic carbon (TOC) plot showing
generative source rock potential for the rock units in the study wells
MMMM1-6&MMM12-6
.
4.2.2. Types of organic matter (kerogen types)
The type of organic matter (kerogen) is considered the second most
important parameter in evaluating the source rock. The kerogen type can be
differentiated by optical microscopic or by physicochemical methods. The
differences among them are related to the nature of the original organic
matter. The pyrolysis results can be used for the determination of the organic
matter types. This can be achieved by drawing the relation between the
hydrogen index (HI) and the oxygen index (OI) in (Figure 4.2).
In this study, the kerogen types present in the source rocks of the Sirte
Formation identified from the modified Van Krevelen diagram (Figure 4.2)
show that the Sirte shales interval contain kerogen of type IV (Inertinite vey

52
organic poor rock), The hydrogen index (HI) value of Sirte Formation ranges
from 75 to 80 mg/g with high oxygen index, indicating a capability of this
formation to generate oil and gas hydrocarbons (Figure 4.2)

1000
Type I
900

800
Type II
HI (mg HC/g TOC)

700

600

500

400
Type II/III
300
Type III
200

100
Type IV
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

OI (mg CO2/g TOC)

Figure 4.2: Plots of Hydrogen index (HI) versus Oxygen index (OI),
showing kerogen quality the Upper Cretaceous samples of Sirte shales.

hydrocarbon source-rock richness for the selected samples. production index

(PI). The study of thermal maturation of source rocks is one of the main steps
in the source rocks evaluation in the study well. This is because it is possible
from the maturation stage to determine the position of the sediments with the
respect to the oil generation. It can also help in oil exploration from knowing
the relation between hydrocarbon generation, migration, and accumulation
with the tectonics, which lead to the development of the structural traps in
the study area.so most of plots in the (Figure .4.3) indicated the Sirte shale
locate in mature kerogen zone.

53
 1.0

0.8

Gas zone

0.6
PI

0.4

Oil zone

0.2

Immature Oil zone Gas zone

0.0
410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480

Tmax (oC)

Figure 4.3: Plots of production index (PI) versus (T max), showing kerogen
mature the Upper Cretaceous samples of Sirte shales.

4.3. Vitrinite reflectance (Ro %)

The most common method used for determining the stage of maturation is
the vitrinite reflectance (Ro), It measures the ability of tiny vitrinite particles
(called macerals) in kerogen to reflect incident light. This method depends
on the separation of the organic macerals and measuring its vitrinite
reflectance in oil immersion lens using a reflecting polarizing microscope
connected with a photometer. The vitrinite macerals are increased in its
reflectivity, as the maturation of their host rocks increases. In the Sirte shale
formation, the vitrinite reflectance values ranges from 0.90 to 1.4 Ro%.
54
These reflect that Sirte shale Formations are most powerful maturation stage,
(End of oil generation) the samples Formation lie mainly in the mature stage
(Figure 4.4).

1000
Immatur Oil + Gas Gas
900

Ro % = 0.6
800
Type I
700
HI (mg HC/g TOC)

600
Ro % = 0.9

500
Type II
400
Oil
300
Type II/III Ro % = 1.4 Oil + Gas
200
Gas + Oil
100 Type III
Gas
Type IV
0
380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
Tmax (oC)

Figure 4.4: Relation between HI & Tmax to detect maturation of organic

matter in wells MMMM1-6 & MMM12-6.

55
 CHAPTER 5
5. CONCLUSIONS
5.1. Conclusions
The Sirte shale formation (companion) is the main source rock at the study
area, in general this formation contains enough amount of organic matter
(>0.5wt%) that capable to generate and expel hydrocarbon under the suitable
thermal maturity level, and from the results the modified Van Krevelen
diagram is established and from the plot the kerogen type at the study area is
belong to type IV, and also some previous studies show that the kerogen type
at the same area is type III and IV. From the samples results the Sirte shale
formation considered to be fair to good source rock and also the results
indicate low value of S2 which mean Sirte shale formation have poor to fair
generative potential, and also the relationship between genetic petroleum
potential and TOC confirms these results, and also the same results are
adequate with the previous studies. And other relationship between Tmax
and PI shows that the Sirte shale formation located at the mature kerogen
zone. And to indicate the thermal maturity of the kerogen, the R0% results
shows that the Sirte shale formation at this area is in most powerful
maturation stage.

56
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60
 ‫الملخص‬
‫يعتبر حوض سرت‪ ،‬الواقع في شمال وسط ليبيا‪ ،‬أحد أحواض البترول األكثر إنتاجية في إفريقيا‬
‫والمركز الثالث عشر في العالم من حيث أكبر االحتياطات البترولية‪ ،‬يتضمن ‪ 16‬حقالً نفطيا ً عمالقًا‬
‫كبيرا نسبيًا‪ .‬تقع هذه الدراسة في المنطقة ‪ 6‬بمنطقة الرشاد وتهدف إلى تحديد المحتوى‬
‫طيا ً‬‫و‪ 23‬حقالً نف ً‬
‫العضوي الكلي ونوع المادة العضوية ونضج المادة العضوية‪ .‬أجريت الدراسة على عينات من بئرين‬
‫)‪(MMM12-6‬و )‪ (MMMM1-6‬في تكوين الصخر الزيتي في سرت على أعماق مختلفة في‬
‫حوض سرت‪ .‬تم أخذ العينات إلى المختبر لمعالجتها‪ .‬تم تحليل العينات في المختبر باستخدام جهاز‬
‫يسمى )‪ (Rock eval‬والذي يستخدم لتحديد وتقييم نوع المادة العضوية‪ ،‬والنضج الحراري‪ ،‬وقدرة‬
‫توليد صخور المصدر‪ .‬باستخدام هذا الجهاز‪ ،‬تُظهر العينات محتوى الكربون العضوي الكلي العادل‬
‫(‪ )wt% )0.7–0.40‬ومؤشر الهيدروجين )‪ (HI‬لتكوين سرت الذي يتراوح من ‪ 75‬إلى ‪mg/g 80‬‬
‫وله مؤشر أكسجين مرتفع‪ ،‬مما يشير إلى قدرة التكوين على إنتاج النفط والغاز الهيدروكربونات‪،‬‬
‫وتتراوح قيم انعكاس الفيترينيت من ‪ 0.90‬إلى ‪ ،٪ Ro1.4‬هذه تعكس أن تشكيالت سرت الصخرية‬
‫هي في أقوى مراحل النضج‪ .‬لطالما كانت العالقة بين وجود المركبات العضوية في الرواسب‬
‫الرسوبية والرواسب البترولية موضع اهتمام‪ ،‬حيث تقدم دراسات الرواسب القديمة والصخور نظرة‬
‫ثاقبة حول أصول ومصادر النفط والبترول وأيضا دراسات الجيوكيميائيين للبترول من العينات‬
‫الجيولوجية لمقارنة عينات السوائل الحالية بالعينات المؤرخة‪ .‬يوفر هذا التحليل نظرة ثاقبة على عمر‬
‫عينات البترول والصخور المحيطة‪.‬‬