INTRODUCTION

All matter is made up of clements and all elements are made up

called atoms. An atom is thesmallest particle of an element which
that elenment and takes part in chemical reactions. Thus, atoms are of;dexhientibcialts theminute particles
blocks of matter. Atoms are so small that they cannot be seen through knownthe as theproperties of
ANCIENT VIEWS OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE naked eyes.building
Ourancient philosophers and scientists have put forward different views about
of an atomand have defined 'atom' according totheir the structure
understanding.
Maharshi Kanada's views of the atom
Maharshi Kanada was one of the greatest Indian
6th century BCE. Hewas the first to philosophers of the
small indestructible particles called suggest that matter is composed of very
paramanu(param + anu). Param means
ultimate and anu means particle. Nowadays,
Maharshi Kanada said that one paramanucombines paramanu is called 'atom.
new substance called anu, which is now with another to form a
called 'molecule'.
Maharshi Kanada also stated that many such Maharshi Kanada
there are a large variety of substances and eachcombinations are possible, as
one of them has its own set of
Democritus properties.
The Greek philosopher Democritus (460
everything made up of minute particles calledBCE-370
is BCE) said that
atomos, which is a Greek
word and means indivisible. The word aton
comes from this Greek word.
The theories proposed by Maharshi Kanada,
Democritus and some other
scientists of ancient times were based on abstract
experimentation. thinking and not on
Dalton's atomic theory Democritus
For about 2000 years, the atonmic theory remained
amere speculation. It was
John Dalton, an English schoolteacher, who proposed
in 1808, based upon inferences drawn from
his atomictheory
experimental observations.
Thistheory is known as Dalton's atomic theory.
The main pointsof his theory are the following:
Allmatter is made up of smallindivisible particles called atoms.
Atoms cannot be created, destroyed or subdivided. John Dalton
The atoms of an element are identical in all respects, but the
atoms of one element are
different from the atoms of any other element.
Theatoms of an element combine in asmall whole-number ratio to form molecues of
the element.
 The atoms of one element combine with atoms of another element in a
small whole
number ratio to form molecules of
In achemical reaction, atoms are compounds.
combined, separated or rearranged.
SUBATOMICPARTICLES OF AN ATOM
Towards the end of the 19th century, rescarch was carried out which changed the enure
idea about the atom. It was provedthat atoms can be divided further into smaller particles.
These smaller particles are electrons, protons and neutrons. They are known as subatomic
particles or fundamental particles.
21st "Information Literacy " Communication
SCIENCE TALK CENTURY
SKILLS "Research Skills " Speaking

Besides the electrons, protons and neutrons, there are several other subatomic
particles in an atom. Memorise the names of at least three (you can do more) and tell
their names in class. Can you speak a sentence about each?

DISCOVERY OF ELECTRONS
In 1879, Sir William Crookes performed an experiment to investigate electric discharge
through gases. He designed a discharge tube called the Crookes' discharge tube
(Fig. 4.1). When high-voltage electriccúrrent (about 10,000 V) was passed through the discharge
tube containing a gas or air at a very low pressure (about 0.01-0.001 mm of mercury), Crookes
found that the end of the tube opposite the cathode started glowing. This showed that some rays
were produced from the cathode and had moved from the cathode to the anode causing the gas
at low pressure to glow. He named these rays cathode rays.
Discharge tube Air at very low pressure Glow

Cathode rays

Cathode Anode

To vacuum pump
High-voltage generator (

Fig. 4.1 Crookes' discharge tube

SCI-VOCAB
subatomic particles: smaller particles of an atom-electrons, neutrons and protons
 JJThomson's experiments
In 1897, aBritish scientist JJ Thomson, while working on the properties and
of cathode rays, showed that these cathode rays consist of negatively charged
electrons, present in atoms of all the elements.
JThomson performed manyexperiments using cathode rays.
ConsituentsCaled
particles
Thomson'sexperiments and observations are as outlined below:
Hekept an obiectinthe path of the cathode rays. He observed that ashadow offthe
was formed at the end opposite to the cathode. This proves that cathode rays travelobjinecta
straight line (Fig. 4.2) and cast a shadow of the object placed in their path.
Cathode

Cathode rays

Anode (object) Shadow of

the object
Fig. 4.2Cathode rays travel in a straight line.
$ He kept a light paddle wheel in the path of the cathode rays. He
wheel started rotating. From this, he concuded that the observed that the paddle
of fast-moving particles (Fig. 4.3). cathode rays consist of a stream

Cathode Light paddle

Cathode rays wheel
Anode

Fig. 4.3 Cathode raysconsist of

Heapplied an electric field in the path of fast-movingparticles.
got deflected towards the positively thecathode rays. He observed that the
charged plate. From cathode rays
are made up of negatively charged particles (Fig. this, he concluded that cathode rays
4.4), called electrons.
Cathode
Anode

Cathode rays k- Electric field

Fig. 4.4Cathode rays are made up of
negatively charged particles.
 Properties of electrons
Electrons have a definite mass and a definite
The nature of electrons is
electriccharge.
the material of the independent of the nature of the gas used inthe discharge tube and
cathode.
o Electrons have a negligible mass, that is, 9.1 x 10 gramor about 1/1837 of themass of
the hydrogen atom (the lightest of all the
atoms).
An electron carries 1.602 x 10-19 coulomb of negative charge, which is
taken as one unit negative charge. consequenuy
Electrons are denoted bye or ,e, where-lis one unit negative charge and Ois the
mass
DISCOVERY OF PROTONS
All atoms contain electrons. Since an atom is electrically neutral, there have to be positively
charged particles present in the atom to neutralise the negative charge of the electrons.
In 1886, a German scientist Eugen Goldstein proved the existence of positively charged
particles in an atom, known as protons.
Goldstein performed an experiment by using a discharge
tube (Fig. 4.5) containing a perforated cathode (cathode with
small holes), so as to allow anode rays to pass through it.
When a high voltage (about 10,000 V) of electric current was
passed through this cathode and air inside the discharge tube
kept at a very low pressure (about 0.001 mm of mercury), a
faint red glow was observed behind the perforated cathode.
This showed that some rays were produced from the anode and
moved from the anode to the cathode causing the glow behind
the cathode. He named these rays anode rays, containing Eugen Goldstein
particles now called protons.

Properties of protons
3 Protons have the same mass as that of a hydrogen atom, that is 1.6 × 10-24 gram.
It means, the mass of a proton is 1837 times the mass of an electron.
A proton has an equal and opposite charge as that of an electron. Thus, a proton has
l.602 x 10- coulomb of positive charge, which is consequently taken as one unit
positive charge.
Protons are denoted by p or +1p', where +1 is one unit positive charge and l atomic
mass unit (amu) is the mass.
 Discharge tube
Air at vecry low pressure

Red glow

Anode

Perforated
cathode To vacuumpump

High-voltage generator

tube
Fig. 4.5 Goldstein's discharge

DISCOVERY OF NEUTRONS
electrons and protons were the only two known subatomic particles. If an
For several years, atom should be equal to the
protons, then the mass of the
atom consisted of only electrons and
of the electrons is
total mass of the protons present in it, since the mass
much
negligible. However, it was found that the mass of an atom was
higher than the total mass of the protons present in the atom.
In 1932, James Chadwick solved this problem with thediscovery of
the new subatomic particle, known as neutron.
Properties of neutrons
The mass of aneutron is nearly equal to that of a proton, that is,
1.6 x 10-24 gram.
Aneutron carries no charge, that is, it is a neutral particle.
Neutrons are denoted bynorgn', where Orepresents no charge James Chadwick
and 1 amurepresents the mass.

THOMSON'S ATOMIC MODEL

In 1904, Thomson proposed the first atomic
model, called the plum-pudding model (Fig. 4.6),
in which only electrons and protons were Spherical cloud of
present. positive charge
According to this model, an atom has a uniform
positively charged spherical cloud with negatively Electron
charged particles (electrons) embedded in it.
The electrons move through the
positive charge just like the dry fruitsatmosphere of
or plums in a
plumpudding. Therefore, he named his model the Fig. 4.6
plum-pudding model. This atomic
about the atom and thus it wasatomic model faled to explain Plum-pudd1ng model
not accepted. several experimental observa[On
 DISCOVERY
In
OF THE
NUCLEUS
1911, a British physicist, Lord
Ernest
to describe theRutherford,ofperformed
a scattering
experiment
In hisexperiment, he structure an atom.
cm thick) with bombarded athin sheet ofgold foil
(0.00004
fast-moving positively charged
alpha particles (oa). Alpha particles are formed particles called
of electrons from helium and are by the removal
thus positively charged.
Figure 4.7 shows Lord Ernest
Rutherford's experiment.
Rutherfordobserved the following:
Ernest Rutherford

Sheet of gold foil

Alpha
particles Most of
the alpha
particles
passed
straight.
Very few show large deflection.
Nucleus

Some
showed
small
deflection.

Fig. 4.7 Lord Ernest Rutherford's experiment

* Most of the a-particles passed straight through the gold foil without any deflection,
which meant that there was a lot of empty space in an atom.
a
A few a-particles were deflected through small angles, which meant that there was
Rutherford called
positively charged region present in the atom that caused deflection.
this positively charged region the nucleus of theatom.
meant
Very fewa-particles were deflected through large angles or bounced back, which atom.
that the nucleus is centrally located, dense and occupies a very small space in the
back.
The a-particles that directly hit the nucleus bounced
Since a-particles which were comparatively denser were deflected by the nucleus,
*
Rutherford concluded that almost the whole mass of the atom must be present in
the nucleus.
 Rutherford's
On the basis ofatomic model
his observations, Rutherford proposed the Rutherford's atomic model
(Fig. 4.8) as given below:
positively charged regionin the centre, called the
An atom consists of asmall and dense
nudeus.
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
* The entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
of the atom.
*The size of the nucleus is verv smallas compared to the size
* There is a lot of empty space around the nucleus. speed.
revolve around the nucleus in orbits or shells at extremely highnucleus
Electrons be attracted towards the
stationary, they would
owever, if they were attraction between protons (present in the
because of the electrostatic force of
nucleus) and electrons.
Electron

Nucleus
(containing
protons
and
neutrons)

Fig. 4.8 Rutherford's atomic model

number of protons. Thus, an atom is
In an atom, the number of electrons is equal to the
always electrically neutral.
system,the
Rutherford compared his atomic model to the solar system. Just as in thesolar
atom, the nucleus
sun has the maximum mass and planetsrevolve around it, similarly in an
has the main mass of the atom and electrons revolve around it.

Drawback of Rutherford's atomic model

In Rutherford'satomic model, electrons revolve at a high speed in circular orbits around
the positively charged nucleus. However, according to the electromagnetic theory, if a
charged particle was accelerated around another charged particle, then there would be
a continuous loss of energy.3.
This loss of energy would slow down the speed of the electron and eventually the electron
carouldfall intothe nucleus. However, such acollapse does not occur.
Rutherford's mode
was unable to explain the stability of an atom.
 BOHR'S ATOMIC MODEL
In 1913, a
Rutherford's Danish physicist Niels
atomic model. Bohr cameBohr proposed improvements in
up with the following postulates:
The nucleus is
and neutrons situated the centre of the atom. It contains protons
at
(collectively known as
he positive charge of an atom is nucleons). The entire mass
and
Niels Bohr
concentrated in the nucleus.
The electrons revolve around the nucleus in
calledorbits or shells (Fig. 4.9). fixed circular paths
Each orbit or shell is associated with a fxed
also knOWnas energy levels. The shell amount of energy and thus, these orbitsare
theshell farthest from the nearest to thenucleus has minimum energy ana
nucleus has maximum energy.
3 The energy levels or shells are
represented in two ways: either by the numbers l, 2, 3, 4,
5and 6 or by letters K, L, M, N, Oand P. The
to the nucleus to the
energy levels are counted from right next
outer side.

N shell

M shell
L shell

K shell
Positively
charged
K nucleus

Fig. 4.9 Bohr's atomnic model showing energy levels

There is no change in the energy of electrons as long as they keep revolving in

the
the same energy level. In this case, the inward force of attraction exerted by
nucleus is balanced by the outward force of attraction exerted by the electrons,
makes the atom
which prevents the electrons from falling into the nucleus and
structurally stable.
or a lower energy level. When an electron
An electron can move to a higher absorbed.
some energy is
jumps from a lower energy level to a higher one,
level to a lower one, some
Similarly, when an electron jumps from a higher energy
energy is released.
 121at
.Information iteracy

SCIENCE ALIVE
CENTURY
SKILLS
.Understanding Facts
mreal atoms, electrons are not tiny stationary dots in planet
IKe orbits around the nucleus Rather. electrons surrOunain8
an atom exist as electron clouds (Fig. 4. 10). They move o
fraction of the speed of light (about 1% of speed of light), and
her lOcation can be predicted only as a probability and not
with exactness. Fig. 4.10 3D rendering of
an electron cloud

21s Information Literacy

MYTH OVSFACT CENTURY
SKILLS Understanding Facts

Myth: Bohr's atomic model is the most accurate model of the atom.
Fact: Bohr's atomic model has been replaced by the more accurate quantum model oT
the atom. It is not that Bohr's atomic model is completely inaccurate. It is only that trhis
model with its 2D depiction of the atom is misleading as it leaves out some key tactors
and does not work well with heavier elements. The quantum model (also known as
Schrödinger's model) specifically describes the behaviour and properties of electrons
orbiting the nucleus. However, the quantum theory was developed after Bohr presented
his solar-system-like model.

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)

The number of protons present in the nucleus of the atom of an element is called the
atomic
number of the element.h
Since the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons in an
also numerically equal to the number of electrons. The atom, the atomic number is
atomic number is denoted by Z.!
Atomicnumber (Z) = Number of protons (p") =
Number of electrons (e)
For example, the hydrogen atom has l
11 protons, so its atomic proton, so its atomic number is 1; the sodium atom has
number is ll; and nitrogen atom has 7
is 7. protons, so its atomic number
Bach element has a unique atomic
umber of protons (or electrons). number since no two elements contain the same
omanother. Thus, an atomic number
distinguishes one element
 MASS NUMBER (A)
The sum of the
number of protons and the
element is called mass number of the number of neutrons present in one atom of an
element. It is denoted by A.
Mass number (A)=
Number of protons (p') +Number of neutrons (n)
= Atomic number (Z) + Number of
For example, the carbon atom bas 6
neutrons (n)
6+6 = l2; wnile the oxygen protons and 6 neutrons, so its mass number 1S
atom has 8 protons and 8 neutrons, so its mass
8+8= 16. number 1s
Tf we know the mass
number and atomic number of an element, we can easily calculate the
number of neutrons in that element.
Number of neutrons = Mass number (A) - Atomic number (Z)
For example, the lead atomn has an atomic number of 82 and a mass number of 208; so
the
number of neutrons present in an atom of lead is 208 - 82= 126.
Representation of atomic number and mass number of an element
For any element, the atomic number is shown as subscript and mass number is shown as
superscript.
If Aan element X has atomic number Z and mass number A, then it is represented
as|X.
For example, the atomic number of carbon (C) is 6and mass number is 12,so it is represented
12
as C; the atomicnumber of sodium(Na) is 1land the mass number is 23, soit is represented
as Na.
21st "Critical Thìnking
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS CENTURY
SKILLS "Remembering

Circle the correct option.

Electrons, protons and neutrons are known as
la. subatomic particles. b. types of atoms. C. Components of the nucleus.
2. Protons are
a. neutral. b. negatively charged. c. positively charged.
3. The atomic number of an element is numerically equal to the number of
a. nucleons. b. neutrons. C. protons.

SCI-VOCAB
neutrons present in
mass number: the sum of the number of protons and the number of
one atom of an element

49
 .Collaboration Information Literacy
" Art-integrated Learning
121st
ECO-SOLDIER CENTURY
9KILLS
.Global Citizenship Skills
.Group Work "Research Skille
" Chart-making " Environment
Literacy
Ozone is a triatomic molecule of oxvgen, It is a blue-coloured gas with a pungent smell. It is
presentin the atmosphere, and it protectsus from ultraviolet rays of the sun. rorm groups
OT 4-5 students. Draw a chart to list the compounds that degrade ozone. Mention what
willhappen to human beings if ozone in the atmosphere is oxidised. What are the possible
steps to combat this? Highlight all this information in your chart. Go00 HEALTH
AND WELL-BEING

This activity is aligned with the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 3
Good Health and Well-Being.

The following table lists the atomic number. mass number, number of protons, electrons and
neutrons of the first twenty elements of the periodic table.
Atomicnumber, mass number, number of protons, electrons and neutronsof the first
twenty elements of the periodic table
Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
Element Symbol number protons electrons neutrons
number
1
Hydrogen H 1 1 1
2 4-2=2
Helium He 2 4 2
Lithium Li 3 7 3 3 7-3=4
Beryllium Be 4 4 4 9-4 =5
Boron B 5 11 5 5 11-5=6
Carbon "C 6 12 6 6 12 -6=6
Nitrogen N 7 14 7 7 14-7=7
Oxygen 8 16 16 8 =8
Fluorine 19 19 -9 = 10
Neon Ne 10 20 10 10 20 - 10 = 10
Sodium Na 11 23 11 11 23 - 11= 12
Magnesium Mg 12 24 12 12 24 - 12=12
Aluminium Al 13 27 13 13 27 - 13 = 14
Silicon Si 14 28 14 14 28 - 14 = 14
Phosphorus P 15 31 15 15 31 - 15 = 16
Sulphur S 16 32 16 16 32 - 16= 16
Chlorine CI 17 35 17 17 35- 17= 18
Ar 18 40
Argon 18 18 40 - 18=22
Potassium K 19 39 19 19 39 - 19= 20
Calcium Ca 20 40 20 20 40- 20 =20
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
The electronic
among the confi
different gurat ion of an atom is
various shells are shells around the
the arrangement of electrons that are distributed
Bohr-Bury schemegiven by two nucleus. The rules of the distribution of electrons in
of scientists, Bohr and Bury, under the scheme known as the
The rules for this electronic confi
scheme are as follows:guration.
The maximum
number of electrons in aa particular shell is given by 2n',
4..., are the different where n = 1, 2, 3,
orbits or energy levels. For
the first shell (K) can have example,
the
maximum of 2x 1'=2
electrons
second shell (L) can have
the thirdshell (M) can have
maximum of 2 x 2' =8 electrons
maximum of 2 x 3 = 18 electrons
the fourth shell (N) can have
maximum of 2x4' =32 electrons
Theelectrons will firstoccupy the first shell, that is
theshellwith the lowest energ8Y, then
the next shell, and so on. When a shell acquires 8
electrons, a new shell may be formed.
If the outermost shell of an atom contains 8
electrons, it is said to be an octet. According
to the octet rule, the outermost shell of a stable and
electrically neutral atom can have a
maximum of 8 electrons, except if an atom has only one shell which can then have a maximum
of 2 electrons (hydrogen and helium). If the atom has only one shell which contains 2
electrons, it is said to be a duplet. Both octet and duplet are conditions of chemical stability.

VALENCE SHELL, VALENCE ELECTRONS AND VALENCY

The outermost shell of an atom is known as its valence shell. The electrons present in the
valence shell are known as valence electrons. They can vary from 1to 8. The valence electrons
most readily participate in a chemical reaction. The electrons in the inner shells are usually
not involved in a chemical reaction.
The combining capacity of an atom of an element is known as its valency. In other words,
valency is the number of electrons donated, accepted or shared by the atom of an element,
when combining with the atoms of the same or other elements so as to form amolecule.
Atoms combine to form molecules to attain chemical stability. The force of attraction which
bond.
holds twO or more similar or different atoms together ina molecule is called a chemical

SCI-VOCAB
or different atoms
chemical bond: the force of attraction which holds two or more similar
together in amolecule
 Atoms whch have thcir valence shell complete, that is. 8 electronsin their
(or 2
electrons case of only
in shel), have 0 valency. that is they do not
share any electrons during one reactions. They are chemically stable
and outeerm, ostacceptshell
donat
or
in nature. They are knonchemical
as inert elements All inert elements are gases. They are also
called inert gases (helium. neon, argon. krypton, xenon and
radon).
non-reactive
shell are chemically unstable and
Atoms which have lese than R electrons in their outernost
donate orshare electrons during chemical reactions to
reactive nature They either accep.
in
complete theit otet and attain stability
The valenev of most of the elements varies from 1to 4. Examples: hydrogen and lithium
aretalled mnonovalent.
iements with a valencv of L Examples: berylliumand magnesium
Elcments with a valcnv of 2 are calledI bivalent. aluminium and boron
trivalent. Examples:
Elemcnts with avalcnv of 3 are called
called are known as tetravalent.
Examples: silicon and
Elcmcnts with a valcnv of 4I arc
carbon .Critical Thinking
21st
CENTURY " Applying, Reasoning
REASON CORNER SKILLS

the two
one electron in the valence shell and
bas
element has 4shells. It
Anatom of an What is its atomic
number?
electrons each.
inner shells have 8
.Critical Thinking
21st
CENTURY . Remembering
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS SKILLS

Circle the correct option. valency of

1. Trivalent elements have a b. 2.
C. 3.
a. 1.
have a maximum of c. 8electrons.
2. The fourth shell can b. 18electrons.
a. 32 electronS.

Critical Thinking "Communication

21st
CENTURY
" Framing Questions Discussing
MY QUESTION TIME SKILLS

following topics and discuss their answers.

of the
Frame a questionon each " discovery of nucleus electronic configuration
experiment
" JJThomson's

OCAB
 PREPPINGFOR PISA 21. .Critical Thinking
CRNTURY
SRITLS
Read the passage and "Comprehension, Reasoning
answer the
Isotopes are
(number of different forms of thequestions
same
that follow.
protons) and different mass element
neutrons). In
having the same
atomic number
number of
other words, isotopes have number (number of protons + number of
element have
different numbers neutrons but the same
protons. Due to difference in the of
number of neutrons, the isotopes of an
have the samedifferent masses. Isotopes have the same chemical properties as
as they have electronic configuration but their physical properties are different
they
different mass
placing the atomic number as numbers. The symbol of an isotope is represented by
the
subscript the mass number as the
and
Isobarsaretheelements that have different
The atoms of isobars have the
same atomicnumbersbutthe superscript
samemassnunber.
number of nucleons. Isobars have the same
physical properties as they have the same mass but their chernical properties are
different due to the difference in the numbers of electrons. Figure 4.11
isotopes and isobars. illustrates

ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN EXAMPLES OF ISOBARS: ARGON AND CALCIUM

Protiumn Deuterium Tritium

18p 18e 20p* 20e

n n 221 20n
n

40 40
Ca
H H H 20

Fig. 4.11 Isotopes andisobars

1. A and B are two atomic species. After observing the table, select the correct
statement about A and B.

Atoms Number of neutrons Number of protons

18 17
A

20 17
B

and chemical properties.

a. A and B have the same physical
but same chemical properties.
b. A and Bhave different physicalproperties
different chemical properties.
C. Aand Bhave the same physical but
chemical properties.
and Bhave different physical and
d. A