UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE 12

Cement and concrete as building materials. Brief history of their use through examples.
Composition,
manufacture, properties, types and uses of cement. Tests for cement. Introduction to cement
mortar
and plastering and their composition. Concrete and its composition. Mix design. Nature of
aggregates
for mix including classification, sources, shape, size, grading, sampling and analysis.
Proportioning,
water-cement ratio, workability. Stages in concrete construction- formwork, mixing, placing, curing.
Cement and concrete finishes including roughcast, dry dash, textured, stucco. Water proofing and
damp proofing of concrete.
Understanding of product literature. Site visits with documentation in the form of sketches/ photos.

Cement, in general, adhesive substances of all kinds, but, in a narrower sense, the binding
materials used in building and civil engineering construction. Cements of this kind are finely
ground powders that, when mixed with water, set to a hard mass. Setting and hardening result
from hydration, which is a chemical combination of the cement compounds with water that yields
submicroscopic crystals or a gel-like material with a high surface area. Because of their hydrating
properties, constructional cements, which will even set and harden under water, are often
called hydraulic cements. The most important of these is portland cement.
Concrete, in construction, structural material consisting of a hard, chemically inert particulate
substance, known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel), that is bonded together by
cement and water.
Applications Of Cement
 Cements may be used alone (i.e., “neat,” as grouting materials), but the normal use is
in mortar and concretein which the cement is mixed with inert material known
as aggregate.
 Mortar is cement mixed with sand or crushed stone that must be less than approximately 5
mm (3/16 inch) in size.
 Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand or other fine aggregate, and a coarse aggregate that
for most purposes is up to 19 to 25 mm (3/4 to 1 inch) in size, but the coarse aggregate may
also be as large as 150 mm (6 inches) when concrete is placed in large masses such as
dams. Mortars are used for binding bricks, blocks, and stone in walls or as surface
renderings. Concrete is used for a large variety of constructional purposes.
 Mixtures of soil and portland cement are used as a base for roads. Portland cement also is
used in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, shingles, pipes, beams, railroad ties, and various
extruded products. The products are prefabricated in factories and supplied ready for
installation.
Raw Materials

calcarious argillaceous cement

cement consists essentially of lime (calcium oxide, CaO) mixed with silica (silicon dioxide,
SiO2) and alumina(aluminum oxide, Al2O3).

The lime is obtained from a calcareous (lime-containing) raw material, and the other oxides are
derived from an argillaceous (clayey) material. Additional raw materials such as silica sand,
iron oxide (Fe2O3), and bauxite—containing hydrated aluminum, Al(OH)3—may be used in
smaller quantities to get the desired composition.

 The commonest calcareous raw materials are limestone and chalk, but others, such as
coral or shell deposits, also are used. Clays, shales, slates, and estuarine mud are the
common argillaceous raw materials.
 a compact calcareous clay, and cement rock contain both the calcareous and argillaceous
components in proportions that sometimes approximate cement compositions.
 Another raw material is blast-furnace slag, which consists mainly of lime, silica, and
alumina and is mixed with a calcareous material of high lime content.
 Kaolin, a white clay that contains little iron oxide, is used as the argillaceous component
for white portland cement. Industrial wastes, such as fly ash and calcium carbonate from
chemical manufacture, are other possible raw materials, but their use is small compared
with that of the natural materials.
  The magnesia (magnesium oxide, MgO) content of raw materials must be low because the
permissible limit in portland cement is 4 to 5 percent. Other impurities in raw materials that
must be strictly limited are fluorine compounds, phosphates, metal oxides and sulfides, and
excessive alkalies.
Another essential raw material is gypsum, some 5 percent of which is added to the burned cement
clinker during grinding to control the setting time of the cement.

 Extraction and processing

Raw materials employed in the manufacture of cement are extracted by quarrying in the case of
hard rocks such as limestones, slates, and some shales, with the aid of blasting when
necessary. Some deposits are mined by underground methods. Softer rocks such
as chalkand clay can be dug directly by excavators.
The excavated materials are transported to the crushing plant by trucks, railway freight cars,
conveyor belts, or ropeways. They also can be transported in a wet state or slurry by
pipeline

Manufacture Of Cement

Manufacture Process of Cement

The manufacture procedures of Portland cement is described below.
1. Mixing of raw material

2. Burning
3. Grinding

4. Storage and packaging

1. Mixing of raw material

The major raw materials used in the manufacture of cement are Calcium, Silicon,
Iron and Aluminum. These minerals are used in different form as per the availability
of the minerals.

Table shows the raw materials for Portland cement manufacture

The mixing procedure of the manufacture of cement is done in 2 methods,

o Dry process
o Wet process

a) Dry Process
The both calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are firstly crushed in the
gyratory crushers to get 2-5cm size pieces separately. The crushed materials are
again grinded to get fine particles into ball or tube mill.

Each finely grinded material is stored in hopper after screening. Now these
powdered minerals are mixed in required proportion to get dry raw mix which is
then stored in silos and kept ready to be sent into rotary kiln. Now the raw materials
are mixed in specific proportions so that the average composition of the final
product is maintained properly.
 Fig: Manufacture of Cement by Dry Process
b) Wet Process
The raw materials are firstly crushed and made into powdered form and stored in
silos. The clay is then washed in washing mills to remove adhering organic matters
found in clay.

The powdered limestone and water washed clay are sent to flow in the channels
and transfer to grinding mills where they are completely mixed and the paste is
formed, i.e., known as slurry.

The grinding process can be done in ball or tube mill or even both. Then the slurry
is led into collecting basin where composition can be adjusted. The slurry contains
around 38-40% water that is stored in storage tanks and kept ready for the rotary
kiln.
 Fig: Manufacture of Cement by Wet Process
Comparison of dry process and wet process of Cement Manufacture
Criteria Dry process Wet process

Hardness of raw material Quite hard Any type of raw material

Fuel consumption Low High

Time of process Lesser Higher

Quality Inferior quality Superior quality

Cost of production High Low

Overall cost Costly Cheaper

Physical state Raw mix (solid) Slurry (liquid)

2. Burning of Raw Materials

The burning process is carried out in the rotary kiln while the raw materials are rotated at 1-2rpm
at its longitudinal axis. The rotary kiln is made up of steel tubes having the diameter of 2.5-3.0
meter and the length differs from 90-120meter. The inner side of the kiln is lined with refractory
bricks.
The kiln is supported on the columns of masonry or concrete and rested on roller bearing in
slightly inclined position at the gradient of 1 in 25 to 1 in 30. The raw mix of dry process of
corrected slurry of wet process is injected into the kiln from the upper end. The kiln is heated with
the help of powdered coal or oil or hot gases from the lower end of the kiln so that the long hot
flames is produced.

As the kiln position is inclined and it rotates slowly, the material charged from upper end moves
towards lower end at the speed of 15m/hr. In the upper part, water or moisture in the material is
evaporated at 400oC temp, so this process is known as Drying Zone.

The central part i.e. calcination zone, the temperature is around 10000C, where decomposition of
lime stone takes place. The remaining material is in the form of small lumps known as nodules
after the CO2 is released.
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2
The lower part (clinkering zone) have temperature in between 1500-17000C where lime and clay
are reacts to yielding calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. This aluminates and silicates of
calcium fuse to gather to form small and hard stones are known as clinkers. The size of the clinker
is varies from 5-10mm.

2CaO + SiO2 = Ca2SiO4 (dicalclaim silicate (C2S))

3CaO + SiO2 = Ca3SiO5 (tricalcium silicate (C3S))
3CaO + Al2O3 = Ca3Al2O6 (dicalcium aluminate (C2A))
4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 = Ca4Al2Fe2O10 (tetracalcium aluminoferrite(C4AF))
The clinker coming from the burning zone are very hot. To bring down the temperature of clinkers,
air is admitted in counter current direction at the base of the rotary kiln. The cooled clinkers are
collected in small trolleys.

3. Grinding of Clinkers
The cooled clinkers are received from the cooling pans and sent into mills. The clinkers are
grinded finely into powder in ball mill or tube mill. Powdered gypsum is added around 2-3% as
retarding agent during final grinding. The final obtained product is cement that does not settle
quickly when comes in contact with water.

After the initial setting time of the cement, the cement becomes stiff and the gypsum retards the
dissolution of tri-calcium aluminates by forming tricalcium sulfoaluminate which is insoluble and
prevents too early further reactions of setting and hardening.

3CaO.Al2O3 + xCaSO4.7H2O = 3CaO.Al2O3.xCaSO4.7H2O

4. Storage and packaging
The grinded cement is stored in silos, from which it is marketed either in container load or 50kg
bags.
TYPES OF CEMENT.

Followings are the types of cement:

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
4. Quick setting cement
5. Low Heat Cement
6. Sulphates resisting cement
7. High Alumina Cement
8. White Cement
9. Colored cement
10. Air Entraining Cement
11. Expansive cement
12. Hydrophobic cement

Brief descriptions of these cement types with their uses is given below.

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used. The composition of
Ordinary Portland Cement:

 Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)

 Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)

Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement

 It is used for general construction purposes.

 It is also used in most of the masonry works.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms. It reacts with
calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional cementations materials
when it is finely divided. The composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement:

 OPC clinker
 Gypsum
 Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica fumes.)

Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement

 PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the
seashore, dam construction etc.
 It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
 As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
 It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes.
Rapid Hardening Cement
When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with higher content, it gains
strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid Hardening Cement. It’s
initial Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting Time 600 minutes.

Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement

 Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed like the
construction of pavement.
 It also gives high strength.

Quick Setting Cement

Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The initial setting

Low Heat Cement

It is a spatial type of cement which produce low heat of hydration during setting. Some
chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to reduce the heat of hydration.
The chemical composition of low heat cement:

 A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

 A higher percentage (46%) of declaim silicate (C2S).

Uses of Low Heat Cement

 It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and wind turbine
plinths.
 It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.

Sulphates resisting cement

Sulphet resisting cement is used to resist sulphet attacks in concrete. Due to the lower
percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-aluminates gets
reduced.

Uses of Sulphates resisting Cement

 Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3 % g/l
sulphate salts respectively.
 Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge piers,
concrete surface in tidal zone, apron, Building near seacoast.
 Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage, sumps,
drainage works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea walls,
breakwaters, tetrapods etc.

High Alumina Cement

High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an aluminium ore) and
ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the total amount of alumina
content should not be lesser than 32% and it should maintain the ratio by weight of alumina to
the lime between 0.85 to 1.30.
Uses of High Alumina Cement
 It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like workshop,
refractory, foundries etc
 It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.

White Cement
White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for color. Amounts of iron
oxide and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is expensive then OPC so not
economical for ordinary work.

Uses of White Cement

 It is usually used in decorative work.
 It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles patching
materials and terrazzo surfaces.

Colored Cement
To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are grinded with OPC. Types of pigments are
selected according to the desired color.

Uses of Colored Cement

 Colored cement is used for different decorative work.

Air Entraining Cement

Air-entraining cement is a spatial type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles in concrete.
When water in concrete get frizzed due to low temperature, it expands. When air-entraining
cement, the air voids in concrete provides space for water to expand without cracking
concrete. But this type cement does not provide high strength in concrete.

Uses of Air-Entraining Cement

 Spatially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.
 It also resists Sulphet attack.
 It is used where the de-iceing chemical is used.

Expansive Cement
In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be possible to
overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.
There are three types of expansive cement:

1. K Type expansive cement

2. M Type expansive cement
3. S Type expansive cement
K Type expansive cement
Raw materials of these types of cement

 Portland cement
 Anhydrous tetracalcium trialuminate sulfate (C4A3S)
 Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)

 Lime (CaO).

M Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulfate.

S Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulfate (High amount)

 Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) (High amount)

Uses of Expansive cement

 It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.
 It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
 In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is used.

Hydrophobic Cement
To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are grinded with water
repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid. These chemicals form a layer on the cement
particle and do not allow water to mix and start the hydration process. When cement and aggregate are
thoroughly mixed in the mixer, protective layers break and start normal hydration with some air-entrainment
which increase workability.

Uses of Hydrophobic Cement

 Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams, spillways, or
other submerged structures.
 It is also used in the construction of underground structure like tunnel etc.

TEST FOR CEMENT

Checking the quality of cement is imperative because the strength of the structure depends on the quality of
cement. Like other building materials are important as we construct a structure, cement forms the most vital
material that goes into construction. Whichever building materials company you buy cement from its
necessary that you check it’s quality.

Field test.
These initial and basic tests, which are quite simple, check on the properties of cement, which
impact its strength and quality.

1) Date of manufacturing:

According to studies, it is revealed that the strength of cement reduces as time passes by. As per
International Standard Specifications cement should be re-tested if it is stored for more than three
months.

As the cement ages, its quality deteriorates. After 3 months, its strength reduces by 20% to 30%.

After 6 months, its strength reduces by 30% to 40%.

After 12 months its strength reduces by 40% to 50%

2) Lump formation:

Lump formation

You will observe some lumps in the cement and this happens due to the presence of moisture in it.
Lumps in cement are formed when it undergoes chemical reaction as it reacts with the
atmospheric moisture. This process is called hydration.

When moisture enters cement the quality of cement deteriorates. Cement becomes useless after
hydration with water.

So, you need to be extremely careful about hydration of cement.

Test by putting your hand in cement:

Test by putting your hand in cement

One simple test for hydration is when you put your hand in the cement bag it should give you a
cool feeling. If it gives a cool feeling it means that the cement is of good quality. If it gives a warm
feeling it means that the cement is hydrated, which isn’t good as we’ve shared earlier.

4) Colour:

Cement should be uniform in colour. If the cement is gray in colour with greenish shade it means
that it is of quality good. If you ask what does the colour of cement indicate? It indicates excess
lime or clay and the degree of burning.

5) Hydraulic Cement:

Hydraulic Cement

Cement is also referred as Hydraulic Cement as it sets under water. If you want to test the quality
of cement take 100gm of cement and prepare a stiff paste out of it by adding some water.

After this prepare a cement cake with sharp edges, which you need to place on a glass platter.
Now, immerse this plate in a water bucket. The shape shouldn’t get disturbed while it settles.
Good quality cement sets and attains strength in water.

6) Rubbing cement:
Good quality cement will feel smooth when you rub it within your fingers. If it is rough it only means
that sand is mixed with it.

7) Examining the strength:

Make a block of cement with the following dimensions:

25 mm x 25 mm and 200 mm long

Now, immerse that block in water for 7days. Then place this immersed block on supports 15000
mm apart. Then load it with a weight of 340 N. This block that you have made, should not show
any sign of failure.

8) Float test:
Throw a handful of cement in a bucket filled with water. It should float for some time before it sinks
in water.

9) Smell test:
Smell a pinch of cement. If it has an earthy smell, it means that it contains too much of pounded
clay and silt.

Laboratory test
The following tests are conducted on cement in the laboratory are as follows:

1. Fineness Test
2. Consistency Test
3. Setting Time Test
4. Strength Test
5. Soundness Test
6. Heat of Hydration Test
7. Tensile Strength Test
8. Chemical Composition Test.

Fineness test on cement

The fineness of cement is responsible for the rate of hydration, rate of evolution of heat and the
rate of gain of strength. Finer the grains more is the surface area and faster the development of
strength.

The fineness of cement can be determined by Sieve Test or Air Permeability test.

Sieve Test: Air-set lumps are broken, and the cement is sieved continuously in a circular and
vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes. The residue left on the sieve is weighed, and it should
not exceed 10% for ordinary cement. This test is rarely used for fineness.
Blaine’s Air Permeability Test Apparatus

Air Permeability Test: Blaine's Air Permeability Test is used to find the specific surface, which is
expressed as the total surface area in sq.cm/g. of cement. The surface area is more for finer
particles.

Consistency test on cement

This test is conducted to find the setting times of cement using a standard consistency test
apparatus, Vicat's apparatus.

Consistency Test Apparatus

Standard consistency of cement paste is defined as that water content which will permit a Vicat
plunger of 10 mm diameter and 50 mm length to penetrate depths of 33-35 mm within 3-5 minutes
of mixing. The test has to undergo three times, each time the cement is mixed with water varying
from 24 to 27% of the weight of cement.

This test should be conducted at a constant temperature of 25°C or 29°C and at a constant
humidity of 20%.

Setting Time of cement

Vicat's apparatus is used to find the setting times of cement i.e., initial setting time and final setting
time.

Initial Setting Time: For this test, a needle of 1 mm square size is used. The needle is allowed to
penetrate into the paste (a mixture of water and cement as per the consistency test). The time
taken to penetrate 33-35 mm depth is recorded as the initial setting time.
Vicat’s Apparatus

Final Setting Time: After the paste has attained hardness, the needle does not penetrate the
paste more than 0.5 mm. The time at which the needle does not penetrate more than 0.5 mm is
taken as the final setting time.

Strength test of cement

The strength of cement cannot be defined directly on the cement. Instead the strength of cement
is indirectly defined on cement-mortar of 1:3. The compressive strength of this mortar is the
strength of cement at a specific period.

Soundness test of cement

This test is conducted in Le Chatelier's apparatus to detect the presence of uncombined lime and
magnesia in cement.

Heat of Hydration Test

During the hydration of cement, heat is produced due to chemical reactions. This heat may raise
the temperature of concrete to a high temperature of 50°C. To avoid these, in large scale
constructions low-heat cement has to be used.

Hydration Test Apparatus

This test is carried out using a calorimeter adopting the principle of determining heat gain. It is
concluded that Low-heat cement should not generate 65 calories per gram of cement in 7 days
and 75 calories per gram of cement in 28 days.

Tensile Strength of Cement

This test is carried out using a cement-mortar briquette in a tensile testing machine. A 1:3 cement
sand mortar with the water content of 8% is mixed and moulded into a briquette in the mould.

This mixture is cured for 24 hours at a temperature of 25°C or 29°C and in an atmosphere at 90%
relative humidity.

The average strength for six briquettes tested after 3 and 7 days is recorded.

Chemical Composition Test

Different tests are conducted to determine the amount of various constituents of cement. The
requirements are based on IS: 269-1998, is as follows:

 The ratio of the percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide should not be less than 0.66.
 Lime Saturation Factor (LSF), i.e., the ratio of the percentage to that of alumina, iron
oxide and silica should not be less than 0.66 and not be greater than 1.02.
 Total loss on ignition should not be greater than 4%.
 Total sulphur content should not be greater than 2.75%.
 Weight of insoluble residue should not be greater than 1.50%.
 Weight of magnesia should not be greater than 5%.

Cement mortar is the most commonly used building materials for plastering.The main
ingredients of cement mortar are cement and sand. It’s prepared by mixing cement, sand,
and water.

For wall: A good solid surface is recommended to reduce water being absorbed by the mortar
mix. Add 3 parts sand and 1 part masonry cement. If the wall is going to be exposed to lots of wind
and rain you'll need the mix to be stronger, so use 1 part cement to 1/2 part lime and 4 parts sand.

For plastering: There is different ratio of cement-mortar for plastering.

1:3 - Very rich mortar mix. Not recommended for general usage at sites. Can act as a repair
mortar with a waterproofing/bonding agent.

1:4 - For External Plaster and for ceiling plaster.

1:5 - Brickwork Mortar and for Internal plaster (If sand is not fine Fineness Modulas > 3).

1:6 - For Internal Plaster (if fine sand is available).

For flooring: Non monolithic flooring in two layers:- In this method lower concrete layer of 1:2:4
and upper layer of 1:2 ratio of cement and sand mortar of 5 mm to 10 mm is made. In this polish
can be done later.
CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material in which a binding material mixed in water on solidification binds the inert
particles of well graded fine and coarse aggregates. Cement and lime are generally used as binding
materials, whereas sand cinder is used as fine aggregates and crushed stones, gravel, broken bricks,
clinkers are used as coarse aggregates
1. CONCRETE Freshly prepared concrete till it has not yet set is called wet or green concrete. After it
has thoroughly set and fully hardened it is called set concrete or just concrete.
2. Concrete and its composition

Water
The water in the concrete mix should be clean and free of impurities. The amount of water relative to the
amount of cement changes how easily the concrete flows, but also affects the final strength of the concrete.
More water makes for easier flowing concrete, but also makes for lower strength concrete upon curing.

Portland Cement
Cement hardens when mixed with water, which binds all of the ingredients together. Portland cement is the
most common cement used and is composed of alumina, silica, lime, iron, and gypsum. Small amounts of
other ingredients are also included.

Aggregates
The majority of a concrete mixture is made up of both coarse and fine aggregates, which help increase the
strength of the concrete beyond what cement can provide on its own. Sand, gravel, and crushed stone are
used as aggregates. Recycled materials, including blast furnace slag, glass (mostly for decorative
purposes), and ground-up concrete are starting to be used as concrete aggregates.

Air

The fourth main ingredient of concrete is entrained air. While it usually isn't considered an ingredient, the
fact is that a concrete mix includes anywhere from 1% to 9% entrained air. Higher quantities of air should be
included when the concrete will be exposed to very cold or freezing conditions.

Admixtures
Admixtures accomplish a variety of goals. This can be as simple as adding a pigment to color the concrete.
Other admixtures are used for faster curing times in cold weather, creating extremely high-strength concrete,
or for increasing the flowable nature of concrete without compromising the strength. Unfortunately,
admixtures can generate unwanted results such as poor adhesion of finish-flooring. For this reason, many
structural engineers and architects are hesitant to use admixtutres.

Aggregates for Concrete

Key points
• ‘Aggregate’ is a term for any particulate material. It includes gravel, crushed stone, sand, slag,
recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregate may be natural, manufactured or recycled.

• Aggregates make up some 60 -80% of the concrete mix. They provide compressive strength and bulk
to concrete.

• Aggregates in any particular mix of concrete are selected for their durability, strength, workability and
ability to receive finishes.

• For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed
chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete.

• Aggregates are divided into either ‘coarse’ or ‘fine’ categories.

- Coarse aggregates are particulates that are greater than 4.75mm. The usual range employed
is between 9.5mm and 37.5mm in diameter.

- Fine aggregates are usually sand or crushed stone that are less than 9.55mm in diameter.

• Typically the most common size of aggregate used in construction is 20mm. A larger size, 40mm, is
more common in mass concrete.
• Larger aggregate diameters reduce the quantity of cement and water needed.

20 mm aggregate

Common aggregates

• Crushed Stone and Manufactured Sand

Stone is quarried, crushed and ground to produce a variety of sizes of aggregate to fit both ‘coarse’ and
‘fine’ specifications.

• Gravel

Gravel is formed of rocks that are unconnected to each other.

‘Gravel is composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have a general particle size range and
include size classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments.’
• Sand
Sand occurs naturally and is composed of fine rock material and mineral particles. Its composition is
variable depending on the source. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt.

• Lightweight Aggregates

Vermiculite

Glass aggregate

Lightweight aggregates can be from natural resources, or they can be man-made. The major natural
resource is volcanic material whilst synthetic aggregates are produced by a thermal the thermal
treatment of materials with expansive properties.

These materials can be divided in three groups—natural materials, such as perlite, vermiculite, clay,
shale, and slate; industrial products, such as glass; and industrial by-products, such as fly ash,
expanded slag cinder, and bed ash.

(read more about recycled aggregates)

• Recycled Concrete

Recycled concrete is created by breaking, removing, and crushing existing concrete to a preferred size.
It is commonly used as a base layer for other construction materials.

Recycled concrete can be used as aggregate in new concrete, particularly the coarse portion. When
using the recycled concrete as aggregate, the following should be taken into consideration:

• Recycled concrete as aggregate will typically have higher absorption and lower specific gravity
than natural aggregate and will produce concrete with slightly higher drying shrinkage and creep.
These differences become greater with increasing amounts of recycled fine aggregates.
• The chloride content of recycled aggregates is of concern if the material will be used in
reinforced concrete. The alkali content and type of aggregate in the system is probably unknown,
and therefore if mixed with unsuitable materials, a risk of alkali-silica reaction is possible.

Aggregate extraction
Aggregates are extracted from natural sand or sand-and-gravel pits, hard-rock quarries, dredging
submerged deposits, or mining underground sediments.

Rock quarries
The process of extraction from rock quarries usually involves explosives to shift the rock from the
working face. Rock is crushed and passed through a series of screens. The output is a range of sizes
of rock produced to specified sizes. Crushed rock is transported from quarries by road or rail.
Sand and gravel quarries / ‘pits’

Reflecting the essential nature of the material, sand and gravel quarries, both working and defunct, are
a common feature of the UK landscape, particularly in the East of England. Pits are located in areas
where glaciers left behind clean deposits of sand and stone. Sometimes the gravel is deeper than the
groundwater table and the gravel is extracted through pumping - leaving behind ponds and lakes.

Marine aggregate

Much of today’s seabed was dry land 20, 000 years ago when sea levels were up to 100m lower. After
the last Ice Age sea levels began to rise and existing river valleys bearing sand and gravel deposited
by glaciers became submerged. Eventually sea levels rose to establish today’s coastline. The former
river sediment has been re-worked by the action of the sea to leave clean and well-sorted aggregates.
Between 20 and 30 purpose-built dredging vessels work 24/7 to extract marine aggregate. There are
two types of dredging technique:

Water

Aggregate washing

Water is critical in the making of concrete. Adding water to the mix sets off a chemical reaction when it
comes into contact with the cement. The water used in the mixing of concrete is usually of a potable
standard. Using non-drinking water or water of unknown purity risks the quality and workability of the
concrete.
The Importance of WATER CEMENT RATIO
In concrete, the single most significant influence on most or all of the properties is the amount of water used
in the mix.

In concrete mix design, the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement used (both by weight) is
called the water to cement ratio (w/c). These two ingredients are responsible for binding everything together.

The water to cement ratio largely determines the strength and durability of the concrete when it is cured
properly. The w/c ratio refers to the ratio of the weights of water and cement used in the concrete mix. A w/c
ratio of 0.4 means that for every 100 lbs of cement used in the concrete, 40 lbs of water is added.
Typical Water-Cement Ratios in Concrete Mixes.
Typical w/c ratios are as follows:

 Normal for ordinary concrete (sidewalks and driveways): 0.6 to 0.7

 Specified if a higher quality concrete is desired: 0.4
The practical range of the w/c ratio is from about 0.3 to over 0.8.

 A ratio of 0.3 is very stiff (unless superplasticizers are used).

 A ratio of 0.8 makes a wet and fairly weak concrete.
Typical compressive strengths when concrete is properly cured are:
Implications of Water-Cement Ratio Variations
The simplest way to think about the w/c ratio is to think that the greater the amount of water in a concrete
mix, the more dilute the cement paste will be. This not only affects the compressive strength, it also affects
the tensile and flexural strengths, the porosity, the shrinkage and the color.
 Explained more technically, more water results in larger spacing of the cement particles. As the crystals
grow, they are too far apart to knit together and form strong bonds.

Problems Caused by High Water-Cement Ratio

Concrete with a higher w/c ratio is also more susceptible to cracking and shrinkage. Shrinkage leads to
micro-cracks, which are zones of weakness. Once the fresh concrete is placed, excess water is squeezed
out of the paste by the weight of the aggregate and the cement paste itself. When there is a large excess of
water, that water bleeds out onto the surface. The micro channels and passages that were created inside
the concrete to allow that water to flow become weak zones and micro-cracks.

Using a low w/c ratio is the usual way to achieve a high strength and high quality concrete, but it does not
guarantee that the resulting concrete is always appropriate for concrete countertops. Unless the aggregate
gradation and proportion are balanced with the correct amount of cement paste, excessive shrinkage,
cracking and curling can result. Good concrete results from good mix design, and a low w/c ratio is just one
part of a good mix design.

Workability of Concrete
Workability of concrete is the property of freshly mixed concrete which determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished’ as defined by ACI Standard
116R-90 (ACI 1990b).

+The workability of concrete depends on many factors which are explained in factors affecting workability
of concrete. Water cement ratio has much effect in the workability. Workability is directly proportional to
water cement ratio. An increase in water-cement ratio increases the workability of concrete.

Types of Workability of Concrete

Workability of concrete can be divided into following three types:

1. Unworkable Concrete

2. Medium Workable

3. Highly Workable Concrete

1. Unworkable Concrete – Harsh Concrete
An unworkable concrete can also be called as harsh concrete. It is a concrete with very little amount of
water. The hand mixing of such concrete is not easy.
 Such type of concrete has high segregation of aggregates as cement paste is not lubricated properly to stick
to the aggregates. It is very difficult to maintain the homogeneity of concrete mix and compaction of concrete
requires much effort. Water cement ratio of such concrete is below 0.4.

2. Medium Workable Concrete

This type of concrete workability is used in most of the construction works. This concrete is relatively easy to
mix, transport, place and compact without much segregation and loss of homogeneity.

This type of concrete workability is generally used in all concrete construction with light reinforcement
(spacing of reinforcement is which allows the concrete to be compacted effectively). Water cement ratio for
medium workable concrete is 0.4 to 0.55.

3. Highly Workable Concrete

A highly workable concrete is very easy to mix, transport, place and compact in structures. Such concrete is
used where effective compaction of concrete is not possible or in mass concrete. Such concrete flow easily
and settle down without much effort. But there is high chances of segregation and loss of homogeneity in
this case.

The coarse aggregates tend to settle at the bottom and the concrete paste comes up. Such concrete is used
in case of heavy reinforcement is used where vibration of concrete is not possible. Example of highly
workable concrete is self-compacting concrete. Water cement ratio of such concrete is more than 0.55.

Workability requirement of concrete varies with each type of construction and compaction method used. For
example, concrete workability required for a slab construction can be same as a mass concrete footing
construction.

Workability requirement when vibrators are used for construction are different from when vibrators are not
used. Similarly, concrete workability used in thick section is not workable when used in thin sections.

Factors Affecting Workability of Concrete

The workability requirements for a concrete construction depends on:

o Water cement ratio

o Type of construction work

o Method of mixing concrete

o Thickness of concrete section

o Extent of reinforcement

o Method of compaction

o Distance of transporting

o Method of placement

o Environmental condition
Workability Vs. Strength of Concrete
The following figure explains the relation between workability and compressive strength of concrete:

As you can see from figure, the strength of concrete decreases with increase in
water cement ratio. The increase in water cement ratio indicates increase in
workability of concrete. Thus, the strength of concrete inversely proportional to the
workability of concrete.

The reason for this relation is that water from the concrete dries up and leaves
voids when setting of concrete occurs. The more the water is, the more will be the
number of voids. Thus, increase in number of voids decreases the compressive
strength of concrete. Thus it is important to balance the strength and workability
requirement for concrete work.

The workability of concrete can be enhanced by use of rounded aggregates and by

the use of workability enhancing admixtures. With the use of admixture such as air-
entraining admixtures, the workability in increased without increase in water-
cement ratio. This helps in attaining required strength and workability for concrete
work

DESCRIPTION OF WORK GRADE OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Concrete in columns, beams
M25 concrete mix=1:1:2
Water retaining structures, Piles, precast work or dense
M20 1:1.5:3 Concrete.
RCC beams, slabs, columns
M151 :2:4
Foundations for buildings,
M10=1:3:6 Mass reinforced works. For mass concrete work. 1:4:8
Adding to much water will reduce the strength of concrete and can cause seggregation. For
normal construction the water cement ratio is usually 0.5  In the preparation of concrete the
water cement ratio is very important WATER CEMENT RATIO

For different ratio of concrete the amount of water for 50kg of cement is Concrete ratio Water
quantity 1:3:6 34 liter 1:2:4 30 liter 1:1.5:3 27 liter 1:1:2 25 literWATER CEMENT RATIO

3. TYPES OF CONCRETE AND ITS USES

Concrete are classified into different types: 1. According to binding material used in concrete. 2.
According to design of concrete. 3. According to purpose of concrete.

TYPES OF CONCRETE AND ITS USES CLASSIFICATION ACCORDINGTO BINDING MATERIAL:

According to binding material used concrete are classified into two types.
(1) Cement concrete
(2) lime concrete.
CEMENT CONCRETE
The concrete consisting of cement, sand and coarse aggregates mixed in a suitable proportions in
addition to water is called cement concrete. In this type of concrete cement is used as a binding
material, sand as fine aggregates and gravel, crushed stones as coarse aggregates.

In cement concrete useful proportions of its ingredients are 1 part cement:1-8 part sand:2-16 parts
coarse aggregates.

LIME CONCRETE The concrete consisting of lime, fine aggregates, and coarse aggregates
mixed in a suitable proportions with water is called lime concrete. In this type of concrete hydraulic
lime is generally used as a binding material, sand and cinder are used as fine aggregates and
broken bricks, gravel can be used as coarse aggregates.

PLACING OF LIME CONCRETE : Placing of concrete shall be completed within three

hours of adding water in case of concrete is prepared with hydraulic lime. Concrete should be well
cured for a period of atleast 10 days.

TYPES OF CONCRETE AND ITS USES CLASSIFICATION ACCORDINGTO DESIGN OF CONCRETE

(1) Plain cement concrete.
(2) Reinforced cement concrete(RCC).
(3) Pre-stressed cement concrete(PCC).

PLAIN CEMENTCONCRETE The cement concrete in which no reinforcement is provided is called

plain cement concrete or mass cement concrete. This type of concrete is strong in taking
compressive stresses but weak in taking tensile stresses. USES: Plain cement concrete is
commonly used in for foundation work and flooring of buildings.

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE(RCC) The cement concrete in which reinforcement is

embedded for taking tensile stress is called reinforced cement concrete. In this type of concrete
the steel reinforcement is to be used generally in the form of round bars,6mm to 32mm dia.This
concrete is equally strong in taking tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Usual proportions of
ingredients in a reinforced concrete are 1part of cement:1-2parts of sand:2-4parts of crushed
stones or gravel. USES: RCC is commonly used for construction of slabs, beams, columns,
foundation, precast concrete.
PRE-STRESSED CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC) The cement concrete in which high compressive
stresses are artificially induced before their actual use is called pre-stresses cement concrete. in
this type of cement concrete, the high compressive stresses are induced by pre-tensioning the
reinforcement before placing the concrete, and the reinforcement is released when final setting of
the concrete take place. Uses :This concrete can take up high tensile and compressive stresses
without development of cracks.The quantity of reinforcement can be considerably reduced by
using this concrete.
TYPES OF CONCRETE AND ITS USES CLASSIFICATIONACCORDINGTO PURPOSE
According to purpose concrete is classified into following types.
a.Vacuum concrete: The cement concrete from which entrained air and excess water is removed after
placing it, by suction with the help of vacuum pump is called vacuum concrete. In this concrete the excess
water which is added to increase workability but not required for the hydration of cement of concrete is
removed by forming vacuum chamber
b. Air entrained concrete The concrete prepared by mixing aluminum in it is called air entrained ,cellular or
aerated concrete. In this concrete bubbles of hydrogen gas are liberated which forms cell and make the
concrete cellular. USES:This concrete is used for lining walls and roofs for heat and sound insulation
purpose.
c. Light weight concrete The concrete prepared by using coke breeze, cinder or slag as coarse aggregate
is called light weight concrete.The concrete is light in weight and posses heat insulating properties. USES
This concrete is used in making precast structural units for partition and wall lining.

Plastering is a process by which coarse surfaces of wall or ceiling roofs are changed or turned
or rendered to provide smoothness. At the beginning, wet materials are spread over the block or
brick works and then suitable equipment is used to make the surface smooth level.
the prime purpose of plastering is to obtain hard and smooth surface that could be painted and
provide nice aesthetic appearances.
Recently, wall surfaces in modern houses are finished with bricks or blocks or
aesthetically pleasing stones to show beautiful appearances.

Wet materials that spread over wall or roof surfaces should not be more than 0.3
cm. However, there are surfaces that irregularities are more than 3cm. In this case
under coat which is low cost coarse grain material is used to render the surface
followed by finish coat that is thin layer of fine grain materials.

Moreover, walls constructed from irregular and different size stones might require
three coating. This is because thick under coat tend to sag due to weight of thick
wet plaster.

That is why spreading thin layer and permitting to harden followed by employing
second under coat is the best practice as shown in Figure 1. Finally, finish coat is
applied for the surface.

Figure-1: Advantages of Two Under Coat of Plaster

Types of Plaster based on Material Used
Lime Plaster
Lime mixture consists of sand and line that are mixed by 1 sand to 3 of lime by
volume. Not only this mixture is used for under coat but also used as finish coat.
Lime plaster might be shrink after drying so animal hair of about 5 Kg is used for 1
m2 to avoid lime plaster cracking and shrinking. Lime plaster could be used for
ancient structure restoration and rehabilitation.
Cement Plaster
Grey powder Portland cement is mixed with water by the ratio of 1cement to 3 or 4
clean washed sand by volume as an under coat for hard background for example
brick block walls and partitions.

Mixture of sand and cement might be plastic and require experienced and skill
labor therefore plasticizer or lime is added to the mixture usually by volume ratio of
1cement:0.25 lime: 3 sand or 1 cement to 4 sand with plasticizer.
Plasticizer is a liquid that added to the mixture to ease plaster spreading over the
surface.

Gypsum Plaster
Gypsum plaster is widely used plaster materials that could be mined naturally or
produced as a by-product. So, important gypsum plaster that is employed as under
coat, finish coat, and replaced lime and cement broadly.

Moreover, small expansion of gypsum is considered significant propertied that

prevent shrinkages and cracks.

There are various types of gypsum plaster that are produced by heating gypsum to
a specific degree for example anhydrous gypsum manufactured by heating gypsum
up to 170 Co, hemihydrates gypsum produced by heating gypsum more than 170
Co.
Furthermore, depending on applications for walls or ceilings gypsum plasters can
be categorized such as casting, undercoat, finish, one coat and machine applied
plaster.
Background Surfaces for Plaster
Type of plaster and its application varies depending on the surface of the wall or
ceiling which are set to be plastered. Bricks or blocks with rough and solid surfaces
possess means of mechanical adhesion when plaster is applied to the background
walls or ceilings.

The mechanical keys which adhere hardened plaster to the surfaces is created
after spread wet undercoat plaster is dried. Plaster keys limit or restrain shrinkage
of the cement that is principal component of undercoat plaster.

Machine pressed bricks with high density and smooth surfaces absorb suitable
amount of water that will help adhering plasters to surfaces. The degree of water
absorption by dense smooth surface bricks which assist in plaster adhesion is
called suction.

Blocks produced by light weight concrete have large suctions that prevent attaching
plasters to surfaces properly. Therefore, it is advised to decrease water absorption
degree by either liquid primer or spraying water before plastering.

There are two different solutions for surfaces with low suction include PVA bonding
agent and polymer bonding agent. In the former method, polyvinyl acetate is
brushed on the surface and plaster is spread over when the PVA is still sticky
which creates bond. In the latter, surfaces are treated by combination of silica sand
and polymer and the bond is provided by silica sand grain after the polymer is
dried.
There are various types of galvanized steel beads and stops which are produced to
employ with plaster and plasterboard as angle and stop reinforcement. The beads
are used at the junction of wall to ceiling plaster and plaster to other materials.

Galvanized steel utilized as stops to create perfect finishes at junctions of plaster to

another material at angles, around windows and doors, and skirting as shown in
Figure 2.

Figure-2: Metallic Beads and Stop for Plasters

Plaster Finishes to Timber Joists and Studs
Plaster spreading on timber lath is an old and traditional technique that used to
create level finished surface to the timber floor ceiling and roofs and stud partitions.
This method to a large degree replaced by gypsum plasterboard that is why further
detailing is not provided.
 Gypsum plasterboard is made of hard gypsum plaster that bonded to two heavy
papers which prevent damages resulted from handling and installing of the gypsum
plaster. It is manufactured with various thicknesses for example 0.95 cm, 1.25 cm,
1.5 cm. and 1.9 cm that applied as dry lining or as plaster background in different
size boards.

Gypsum plaster board is widely utilized in ceilings of timber floors and roofs as
linings. Plasterboard is considerably cost effective and could be installed and
plastered easily.

Another outstanding advantage is resistant to fire because it is incombustible.

Nonetheless, poor sound insulation and movement or vibration cracks are
drawbacks of plaster boards.

Skirting and Architraves

Skirts are narrow band made around wall base at wall and floor intersection and
manufactured strong enough to resist hits. It serves to emphasize wall and floor
junction.

There are various types of skirting such as timber, metal, tile, and magnesite.
Architraves are mold or forms which are used for decorative purposes installed
around doors and windows.

Types of Plaster Finishes used in Building Construction are:

Different types of plaster finishes with different appearances are available as
follows.

o Smooth cast finish

o Rough cast finish

o Sand faced finish

o Pebble dash finish

o Scrapped finish

o Depeter finish

o Textured finish

Smooth Cast Plaster Finish

To obtain smooth cast finish, mortar used should be in the ratio 1: 3 [cement:
sand]. Fine Sand should be taken to prepare the mortar. For spreading the mortar,
skimming float or wood float is best suitable tool. Hence, smooth and levelled
surface is obtained finally.
Rough Cast Plaster Finish
Rough cast finish is also called as spatter dash finish. Mortar used to get rough
cast finish consist coarse aggregate along with cement and sand. Their ratio is
about 1: 1.5: 3. The size of coarse aggregate used is 3mm to 12mm.

Large quantity of mortar is taken by trowel and it is dashed into the surface and
levelled using wooden float. Usually this type of plaster finish is preferred for
external renderings.
Sand Faced Plaster Finish
To get sand faced finish two coats of plastering is required. For first coat, 12mm
thick layer of cement sand mortar in 1: 4 ratio is preferred. The first coat should be
provided in zigzag lines. And then it is allowed for curing for 7days.

After that 8mm thick layer of second coat with cement and sand in 1:1 ratio is
applied. Level the surface using sponge. Finally take some sand and screened it to
obtain uniform grain size. The screened sand is applied on the second coat using
skimming float or wooden float. Finally, sand faced finish with uniform grain size of
sand is obtained.

Pebble Dash Plaster Finish

Pebble dash finish requires mortar layer of 12mm thickness with cement and sand in the ratio of 1:
3. After plastering pebbles of size 10mm to 20mm are dashed on to the plastered surface. Then
press them into the plastered surface using wooden float slowly. After hardening they provide
aesthetic appearance to the structure.
Scrapped Plaster Finish
To obtain scrapped finish, apply final coat of 6 to 12 mm thickness and allowed it to dry. After
some time using steel blade or plate scrap the plastered layer up to 3mm depth. Scrapped finish is
less liable to cracks.

Depeter Plaster Finish

This is also similar to pebble dash finish. But in this case pieces of gravel or flints are used in place
of pebbles.

Textured Plaster Finish

Textured finish is obtained from the stucco plastering in which different textures or shapes are
made on the final coat using suitable tools.
Stucco textures
span the gamut from simple waves to smooth, flat surfaces, to faces made to look like brick
and stone. Additionally, stucco walls can also be painted, stained with finish, or mixed with
pigment for a fresh look. That’s a lot of options to consider, so without further ado,

Siding a home in stucco is a pretty labor-intensive process. If walls are made out of
concrete, brick, stone, or any other type of masonry, the stucco will adhere directly to the
walls.
After that, they’ll generally apply three layers of stucco. The first layer adheres the stucco to the
building wall. The second coat, called the brown, evens out the surface, and the last coat is where
they’ll add the finish. Texture is applied either by hand using a trowel, or sprayed with a stucco
sprayer connected to an air compressor.
The Finishes
On top of all the choices for texture, you can add color to your stucco walls, too, using pre-colored
mud or acrylic plaster, or by painting it after the surface dries.

 Colored Stucco. Forget the beiges and browns. Modern stucco can mixed in a wide range
of pigments, from dusky sage to slate gray to bright yellow. The coloring agent is usually
mixed into a white or gray base by your contractor. And, of course, pigmented stucco will
save you time and money painting the siding in years to come.
 Paint or Whitewash. For a more classical look—and a wider range of colors—
homeowners often choose to paint stucco siding. Latex exterior paint can be applied to
even textured finishes with a roller and a base coat of primer. Another common approach is
to whitewash the surface, in fact, which gives it that traditional, adobe look. Keep in mind
that painting will require a lot of upkeep—stucco usually develops small cracks as the
house settles over time, so it will need to be touched up every five to ten years.

External Rendering of Buildings.

Generally, external face of buildings constructed from concrete or clay blocks are not assumed to
be pleasing aesthetically and do not provide attractive appearances. That is why the external
faces are changed and rendered by two or three coats of lime or cement mixed with natural
aggregate and finished textured or smooth.

Moreover, rendering improves and increases wall resistant to penetration of rain fall. Furthermore,
external rendering is based on strong bond to the background, utilized mixtures, and surface
finish.

Waterproofing and damp proofing sound like the same thing, and the general
objective of both – minimizing the travel of water through a substance – is the same. However,
there are major differences.

Waterproofing

The process of waterproofing a concrete foundation provides a continuous barrier to water

penetration. By treating the surface with either tar, or an elastomeric rubber coating, that barrier is

created and it’s able to withstand hydrostatic pressures. These materials can either be sprayed

onto the surface, or applied by hand. The main concern when deciding whether waterproofing is

needed, is how often the structure will need to deal with standing water. The depth of the

foundation wall, the use of the interior space, and the surrounding climate, will all be factors in this

determination. In general, however, if there is any question over whether waterproofing is needed,

it most often is.

Damp proofing

When damp proofing a concrete surface, a coating is applied in a similar fashion as when you’re

waterproofing. This coating material is typically asphalt based and forms a membrane. The

primary difference between waterproofing and damp proofing is that this membrane isn’t expected

to prevent penetration by standing water when hydrostatic pressure is present. In other words,

damp proofing is intended to keep small amounts of moisture from damaging the surface, but

won’t completely seal the surface the way waterproofing does. Damp proofing is also unable to fill

large cracks or holes present in the concrete. If proper surface drainage is possible, and drains are

installed correctly, damp proofing can still be a viable solution in many applications, however, it’s

rarely used in modern residential construction.