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CHAPTER
6.3 General Features of Bones
Skeletal System: Long bones- longer than they are wide (femur,

6 Bone and Joints tibia, fibula)

Short bones- as wide as they are long; helps
transfer force between long bones. (carpals,
6.1 Functions of the Skeletal System tarsals, phalanges)
Skeleton- Greek word meaning dried Flat bones- thin, well suited to providing a
-Skeletal system consists of dynamic, strong barrier around soft organs. (ribs, sternum,
Joint or articular- place where two bones come skull)
together. Irregular bones- shapes that do not fit readily
into the three other categories (facial and
Major function of the Skeletal system: vertebrae)
-specialized function: providing protection while
• Support allowing bending and flexing of certain body
• Protection region such as the spine.
• Movement
• Storage Structure of a Long Bone
• Blood cell production
• Diaphysis- growing between
6.2 Extracellular Matrix • Epiphysis- growing upon
- The bone, cartilage, and ligaments of the • Articular cartilage- covers the end of
skeletal system are all connective tissue. the epiphyses.
Collagen- tough, ropelike protein • Epiphyseal plate or growth plate-
Proteoglycans- are large molecules consisting where the bone grows in length;
of many polysaccharides attaching to and composed of cartilage.
encircling core proteins. • When the bone growth stops, the
- can attract and retain large amounts of water cartilage of each epiphyseal plate is
between the polysaccharides. replaced by bone and becomes
- The extracellular matrix of tendons and epiphyseal line.
ligaments contains large amount of collagen • Medullary cavity- center of diaphysis
fibers, making these structures very tough, like - filled with soft tissues called marrow
ropes and cables. Ligaments contain collagen Yellow marrow- adipose tissue
and proteoglycans. Collagen makes cartilage Red marrow- blood forming cells; only
tough, whereas the water filled proteoglycans site of blood formation in adults.
make it smooth and resilient.
• Periosteum- covers the bones
*The extracellular matrix of bone contains
-covered by dense connective tissue
collagen and mineral, including calcium and
-contain blood vessel and nerves.
phosphate.
• Endosteum- surface of the medullary
Hydroxyapatite- the mineral in bone is in the
cavity is lined with a thinner connective
form of calcium phosphate cyrstals.
tissue membrane.
Brittle bone disease or osteogenesis imperfect-
imperfect formation of bone; rare disorder; Histology of the Bone
results in either little collagen formation or poor
quality of collagen. • Osteoblast- formation of bone; repair
and remodelling of bone

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• Osteocytes- bone cells; maintain bone -consists of delicate interconnecting rods

matrix. or plates of bone called trabeculae.
-when osteoblast surrounded by matrix, • Trabeculae- beams or scaffolding of a
they are referred as osteocytes, building. Add strength to a bone.
• Osteoclast- repair and remodelling by *The spaces between trabeculae are filled with
removing existing bone, called bone
marrow.
reabsorption.
*Nutrients exit vessels in the marrow and pass
• Lamellae- where the bone formed, thin by diffusion through canaliculi to the osteocytes
sheets of extracellular matrix. of the trabeculae.
• Lacunae- osteocytes located
• Canaliculi- cell processes extend from Bone Ossification
the osteocytes across the extracellular
matrix of the lamellae within tiny • Ossification- formation of bone by
canals; osteoblast.
-transports nutrients and remove waste • Intramembranous ossification- occurs
within connective tissue membranes
*Nutrients leave the blood vessels of the central (skull bone)
canals and diffuse to the osteocytes through the
• Endochondral ossification- occurs
canaliculi Waste products diffuse in the opposite inside hyaline cartilage. (All bones
direction. except skull)
Compact Bone (Decalcified) • Ossification center- where bone
formation begins.
• Compact bone or cortical bone- solid • Chondrocytes- cartilage cells, release
matrix and cells matrix vesicles which initiate the
-perimeter of the diaphysis and the formation of hydroxyapatite cyrstals.
thinner surfaces of all other bones. • Primary ossification center- center part
-Has more matrix and is denser of diaphysis, where bone first begins to
-has a predictable pattern of repeating appear.
units. • Secondary ossicication centers- form
• Osteons- repeating unit; consist of the epiphyses.
concentric rings of lamellae surrounding
a central canal or Haversian canal. Process of Endochondral Ossification of a
*Central canal- center of osteons; Long Bone
contain blood vessel.
1. A cartilage model, with the general
Spongy Bone (Cancellous) shape of the mature bone, is produced
by chondrocytes. A perichondrium
• Spongy bone- has no osteons; very surrounds most of the cartilage model.
porous and located in the epiphyses of 2. The chondrocytes enlarge, and cartilage
long bones and lines the medullay is calcified. A bone collar is produced an
cavity. the perichondrium of the diaphysis
-no blood vessel and no central canals becomes periosteum
-less bone matrix and more open spaces 3. A primary ossification center forms as
blood vessels and osteoblasts invade the

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calcified cartilage. The osteoblasts Process of Calcium Homeostasis

invade the calcified cartilage. The
1. Decreased blood Ca2+ stimulates PTH
osteoblast lay down bone matrix,
secretion from parathyroid glands.
forming trabeculae.
2. PTH stimulates osteoclasts to
4. Secondary ossification centers from in
breakdown bone and released Ca2+ into
the epiphyses of long bones.
the blood.
Process of Endochondral Bone Growth 3. In the kidneys, PTH increases Ca2+
reabsorption from the uterine. PTH also
1. New cartilage is produced on the stimulates active Vitamin D formation.
epiphyseal side of the plate as the 4. Vitamin D promotes Ca2+ absorotion
chondrocytes divide and form stacks of from the small intestine into the blood.
cells. 5. Increased blood Ca2+ stimulates
2. Chondrocytes mature and enlarge. calcitonin secretion from the thyroid
3. Matrix is calcified and chondrocytes die. gland.
4. The cartilage on the diaphyseal side of 6. Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts, which
the plate is replaced by bone. allows for enhanced osteoblast uptake of
Ca2+ from the blood to deposit into
Process of Bone Repair bone.
1. Hematoma formation. Blood released 6.5 General Consideration of Bone Anatomy
from damage blood vessels forms a
hematoma. Anatomical Terms of Features of Bones
2. Callus formation. The internal callus
forms between the ends of the bones and • Body, shaft- main portion
the external callus forms a collar around • Head- enlarged end
the break • Neck- constricted area between head
3. Callus ossification. Woven, spongy and body
bone replaces the internal and external • Condyle- smooth and rounded articular
calluses. surface
4. Bone remodelling. Compact bone • Facet- small, flattened articular surface
replaces woven bone and part of the • Crest- prominent ridge
internal callus is removed, restoring the • Process- projection
medullary cavity. • Tubercle or tuberosity- knob or
enlargement
*Callus- network of fibers and islets of cartilage
• Trochanter- large tuberosity found only
between two bone fragments.
on proximal femur.
6.4 Bone and Calcium Homeostasis • Epicondyle- enlargement near or above
Bone- major storage site for calcium. Calcium is a condyle.
part of bone matrix. • Foramen- hole
Hypocalcemia- low calcium in blood • Canal, meatus- tunnel
Hypoxemia- lack of oxygen in blood • Fissure- cleft
Hypercalcemia- too much calcium in blood. • Sinus- cavity
• Fossa- depression

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6.6 Axial Skeleton *The optic nerve, for the sense of vision,
Axial Skeleton- skull, the vertebral column and passes from the eye through the optic
the thoracic cage. foramen and enters the cranial cavity
Nasolacrimal canal- passes from the
Skull -22 bones orbit into the nasal cavity.
Braincase (neurocranium)- encloses the cranial -it contains a duct that carries tears
cavity, consist of 8 bones that intermediately Lacrimal bone- can be seen in the orbit
surround and protect brain; 14 facial bones just above the opening of this canal
(viscerocranium) from the structure of the face. Nasal Septum- divides the nasal cavity
into left and right halves.
• Lateral View 2 structure form the nasal septum
Parietal bones and temporal bones- a 1. Vomer bone- forms the interior
large portion of the side of the head. half
Squamous suture- unites the parietal 2. Perpendicular plate of
and temporal bone. ethmoid bone- forms the
Coronal suture- anteriorly, parietal superior half
bone joined to the frontal bone Nasal bones- bridge of the nose
Lambdoid suture- posteriorly, parietal Nasal conchae- conchae increase the
bone joined to the occipital bone. surface area in nasal cavity.
External auditory canal- prominent Paranasal sinuses- large cavity of nasal
feature of the temporal bone is a large cavity
opening. Mastoid air cells- additional sinuses;
Sphenoid bone- extends completely located inside the mastoid process of the
across the skull; butterfly shape. temporal bone.
Zygomatic bone- anterior to the
sphenoid bone. Interior of the Cranial Cavity
Zygomatic arch- joined processes of Foramen magnum- which the spinal cord joins
the temporal and zygomatic bones; the brain, is located in the posterior fossa
provides a major attachment site for a Sella turcica- central region of the sphenoid
muscle moving the mandible. bone; contains the pituitary gland
Maxilla- upper jaw
Mandible- lower jaw Base of Skull Viewed from Below
Occipital condyles- smooth points of
• Frontal View articulation between the skull and vertebral
Orbits and nasal cavity- the most column; located beside the foramen magnum
prominent opening into the skull Styloid process- project from the inferior
*The bones of the orbits provide surface of the temporal bone;
protection for the eyes and attachment -tongue, hyoid bone, pharynx originate from this
point for the muscle that moves the eye. process
Superior and inferior orbital fissures- Mandibular fossa- where the mandible
provide opening through which nerves articulates with the temporal bone is anterior to
and blood vessels communicate with the the mastoid process.
orbit or pass to the face. Hard palate- forms the roof of the mouth; floor
of the nasal cavity.

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* The anterior 2/3 of the hard palate is formed General Plan of the Vertebrae
by the maxillae, the posterior 1/3 by the One spinous process- posteriorly
palatine bones. The connective tissue and two transverse process- laterally
muscles that make up the soft palate extend Intervertebral disks- separated by pads if
posteriorly from the hard and bony palate. fibrocartilage
* The hard and soft palates separate the nasal Vertebral arch- surrounds a large called the
cavity and nasopharynx from the mouth, vertebral foramen
enabling us to chew and breathe at the same Vertebral canal- encloses and protects the
time. spinal cord and protects from injury
two Pedicles- extend from the body to the
Hyoid Bone transverse process of each vertebra
-unpaired; U-shaped, not part of the skull, two laminae- extend from the transverse
-no direct bone attachment processes to the spinous processes.
-provides attachment for some tongue muscle Intervertebral foramina- the spinal nerves exit
-it is an attachment point for important neck the spinal cord through gaps between successive
muscles that elevate the larynx during speech or vertebrae.
swallowing. Articular process- vertebrae articulate with
Vertebral Column or spine each other
- central axis; extending the base of the skull to articular facet- smooth “little face”
slightly pass the end of the pelvis
-Adults, consists 26 individual bones Regional Differences in Vertebrae
5 regions Cervical vertebrae- delicate and have small
bodies
• 7 cervical vertebrae Atlas- first cervical vertebra
• 12 thoracic vertebrae Axis- second cervical vertebra
• 5 lumbar vertebrae Dens- rotation occurs around a process;
• 1 sacral bone protrudes superiorly from the axis.
• 1 coccyx bone Thoracic vertebrae- have extra articular facets
on their lateral surfaces that articulate with ribs;
Kyphosis- abnormal posterior curvature of the possess long, thin spinous processes that are
spine; upper thoracic region; hunchback condion directed inferiorly.
Lordosis- anterior curvature of the spine; Lumbar vertebrae- carry a large amount of
lumbar region; swayback condition weight, they have massive bodies; have large
Scoliosis- lateral curvature of the spine. thick bodies and heavy, rectangular transverse
and spinous processes.
5 Major Function of the Vertebral Column
*The five sacral vertebrae are fused into a single
1. Supports the weight of the head and
bone called sacrum. The spinous process of the
trunk
first four sacral vertebrae form the median
2. Protects the spinal cord
sacral crest. The spinous process of the fifth
3. Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal
vertebra does not form, leaving a sacral hiatus a
cord the inferior end of the sacrum, which is often the
4. Provides a site for muscle attachment
site of “caudal” anaesthetic injections given just
5. Permits movement if the head and trunk
before child birth. The anterior edge of the body

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of the first sacral vertebra bulges to form the • Coracoid process- curves below the
Sacral promontory- reference point to clavicle and provides attachment of arm
determine the pelvic openings; can be felt and chest muscle.
vaginal examination.
Arm
Rib Cage
• Humerus- proximal end the humerus
Rib cage protects the vital organs within the
has a smooth rounded head, which
thorax and prevents the collapse of the thorax
attaches the humerus to the scapula at
during respiration.
the glenoid cavity.
• Greater and lesser tubercle- hold the
Ribs and Costal Cartilage
humerus to the scapula
True ribs- 1 to 7, attach directly to the sternum
• Deltoid tuberosity- where the deltoid
False ribs- 8 to 12, do not attach directly to the
muscle attaches.
sternum
Ribs 8-10, attach to the sternum by a common • Epicondyles- provide attachment sites
cartilage for forearm muscles.
Ribs 11-12 do not attach at all to the sternum; Forearm
called floating ribs
• Ulna- the medial (little finger)
Sternum or breastbone • Radius- lateral (thumb)
3 parts of the Sternum • Trochlear notch- proximal end of the
1. Manubrium- body ulna; extension of the ulna
2. Xiphoid process- landmark for CPR • Olecranon process- point of the elbow
3. Jugular notch- between the end of clavicle • Coronoid process- completes the “grip”
Sternal angle- slight elevation; it identifies the of the ulna on the distal end of the
location of the second rib humerus.
• Styloid process- locate on the medial
6.7 Appendicular Skeleton side.
Pectoral Girdle or shoulder girdle • Radial tuberosity- where arm of
muscles, the biceps brachii attaches.
• Scapula or shoulder blade- flat,
triangular with three large fossae Wrist- composed of 8 carpal bones
• Glenoid cavity- fourth fossa; head of ( Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform,
humerus connects to the scapula Hamate, Capitate, Trapezoid, Trapezium)
• Spine- runs across the posterior surface
of the scapula Hand- five metacarpal bones are attached
• Acromion process- extends from the digits- the thumbs and fingers
scapular spine to form the joint of the - each finger consist of three small bones called
shoulder. phalanges.
• Clavicle or collar bone- articulates with -the phalanges of each finger called proximal,
the scapula at the acromion process middle and distal according to their position in
- the first bone to begin ossification in the digit.
the fetus

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Pelvic Girdle • Sesamoid bone- patella is a uniquely

-where the lower limbs attach to the body. shaped bone

• Left and right hip bones- join each other Leg

anteriorly
• Tibia- medial
• Sacrum- posteriorly to form a ring of
• Fibula- lateral
bone called pelvic girdle.
• Tibial tuberosity- where the muscle of
• Pelvis- includes the pelvic girdle and the
the anterior thigh attach.
coccyx

• Ilium- most superior

Ankle
• Ischium- inferior and superior -consist of the distal ends of the tibia and fibula
• Iliac crest- along the superior margin of forming a partial socket that articulates with a
each ilium bone of the foot (talus)
• Anterior superior iliac spine- hip - A prominence can be seen each side of the
landmark; located at the end of iliac ankle; medial malleolus of the tibia and the
crest lateral malleolus of the fibula.
• Pubic symphysis- articulate with the
sacrum posteriorly at the sacroiliac Foot- 7 tarsals
joints ( Talus, Calcaneus, Cuboid, Navicular, Medial,
• Acetabulum- socket of the hip joint Intermediate and Later Cuneiform)
• Obturator foramen- large hole in each
6.8 Joints
bone that is closed off my muscles and
Joint or Articulation- commonly name
other structures.
according to the bone and portions of bone join
• Pelvic inlet- formed by the pelvic and
together.
the sacral promontory
Synarthroses- nonmovable joint
• Pelvic outlet- bounded by the ischial
Amphiarthroses- slightly movable joints
spines, pubic symhysis and the coccyx
Diathroses- freely movable joints
Thigh Fibrous joints- articulating surface of two bones
united by fibrous connective tissue,
• Femur- single bone; the head of the -have no joint cavity and no movement
femur articulates with the acetabulum of Sutures- fibrous joints between bone of the skill
the hip bone. Fontanels- soft spot; allow flexibility in the
• Condyles- articulate with the tibia. skull during birth process
• Epicondyles- located medial and lateral Syndesmoses- fibrous joints; separated by some
to the condyles, are point of ligament distance and held together by ligaments
attachment. Gomphoses- consist of pegs fitted into socket
• Trochanters- point of muscle and held in place of ligaments.
attachment
• Patella or knee cap- located within the Cartilaginous Joints
major tendon of the anterior thigh - unite two bones by means of cartilage.
muscles and enables the tendon to bend -connecting cartilage can be either hyaline
over the knee. cartilage or fibrocartilage.
- Joints containing hyaline cartilage called
synchondroses.

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Synovial Joints Types of Movement

- freely movable joints
• Flexion- bending movement that
-contain fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of
decreases the angle of the joint; bones
articulating bones.
closer together.
-most joints that unite the bone of the
• Extension- increases the angle of the
appendicular skeleton are synovial joints.
joint to extend the articulating bones.
-articular surfaces are enclosed within fluid
• Hyperextension- extension of joint
filled Joint cavity.
beyond 180 degrees.
Articular cartilage- provides a smooth surface
• Plantar flexion- standing on the toes
where the bones meet.
• Dorsiflexion- walking on the heels
Joint capsule- helps hold the bones together
while still allowing for movement. • Abduction- away from the median
Synovial membrane- lines the joint cavity • Adduction- toward the median
everywhere except over the articular cartilage. • Pronation and supination- unique
Synovial fluid- produced by membrane; mixture rotation of the arm; best demonstrated
of polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and cells with the elbow flexed at 90 degree
-lubricating film surfaces of the joint. angle.
Bursa- extended as pocket or sac • Eversion- faces laterally
Bursitis- inflammation of bursa; resulting in • Inversion- faces medially
abrasion • Rotation- turning along its axis; shaking
*Synovial membrane may extend as a tendon in the head “no”
sheath. • Circumduction- occurs at freely
movable joints
Types of Synovial Joint
Other movement types
• Plane joints or gliding joints-
composed of two opposed flat surfaces • Protraction- glided anteriorly
that glide each over each other. (mandible)
• Saddle joints- two saddle- shape • Retraction- glides posteriorly
articulating surfaces oriented at right • Elevation- superior direction
angles • Depression- inferior direction
• Hinge joints- permit movement in one • Excursion- to one side
plane only. • Opposition- to thumb and little finger, it
Menisci- curved surface occurs when the tip of the thumb and
• Pivot joints- restrict movement to little finger brought toward each other
rotation around a single axis.; consist across the palm of the hand.
cylindrical bony process. • Reposition- returns the digit to the
• Ball and socket joints- joint allows a anatomical position.
wide range of movable joints in almost
6.9 Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System
any direction.
and Joints
• Ellipsoid joints or condyloid- the joints
-Bone matrix becomes more brittle and
limits its range of movement nearly to
decreases in total amount during aging.
that of a hinge motion but in two planes.
-Joint lose articular cartilage and become less

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flexible with age.

-Prevention measures include exercise and
calcium and Vitamin D supplements.

Representative Diseases and Disorders:

Skeletal System

SKELETAL DISORDER
Growth and Development Disorder

• Gigantism- abnormally increased body

size due to excessive growth of the
epiphyseal plate
• Dwarfism- small body size due to
improper growth at the epiphyseal plate
• Rickets- growth retardation due to
nutritional deficiencies in mineral
(Ca2+) or vitamin D
-bone are weak, soft and easily fractured

Bacterial Infection

• Tuberculosis- a lung bacterium that can

also affect the bone

Decalcification

• Osteomalacia- softening of adult bones

die to calcium depletion; caused by
vitamin D deficiency

JOINT DISORDER

• Arthritis- inflammation of a joint;

causes infectious agents, metabolic
disorder, trauma, immune disorder
• Rheumatoid arthritis- general
connective tissue autoimmune disease
• Gout- increased production and
accumulation of uric acid crystals in
tissues, including joint capsule
• Bursitis- inflammation of bursa
• Bunion- deformations of the first
metatarsals (the great toe); bursitis may
accompany this deformity; irritated by
tight toes

Talosig, K.A.