Logic Programming Paradigm

Logic Programming Paradigm

• Sub Topics

• Definition - S1-SLO1
• First-class function, Higher-order function, Pure functions, Recursion- S1-
SLO2
• Packages: Kanren, SymPy – S2-SLO 1
• PySWIP, PyDatalog – S2-SLO 2
• Other languages: Prolog, ROOP, Janus S3-SLO 1
Introduction

• It can be an abstract model of computation.

• Solve logical problems like puzzles, series
• Have knowledge base which we know before and along with the question
• you specify knowledge and how that knowledge is to be applied through a series
of rules
• in logic programming, the common approach is to apply the methods of
resolution and unification
• Knowledge is given to machine to produce result. Exp : AL and ML code
Introductions

• The Logical Paradigm takes a declarative approach to problem-solving.

• Various logical assertions about a situation are made, establishing all known
facts.
• Then queries are made.
• The role of the computer becomes maintaining data and logical deduction.
• Programs are written in the language of some logic..
• Execution of a logic program is a theorem proving process; that is, computation is
done by logic inferences
• Prolog ( PROgramming in LOGic) is a ) is a representative logic language

• Exp : Prolog, ROOP, Janus

What is a logic ?

• A logic is a language.
• It has syntax and semantics.
• More than a language, it has inference rules.
• Syntax:
• The rules about how to form formulas;
• This is usually the easy part of a logic.
• Semantics:
• about the meaning carried by the formulas,
• mainly in terms of logical consequences.
• Inference rules
• Inference rules describe correct ways to derive
Features of Logical paradigms

• Computing takes place over the domain of all terms defined over a “universal”
alphabet.
• Values are assigned to variables by means of automatically generated substitutions,
called most general unifiers.
• These values may contain variables, called logical variables.
• The control is provided by a single mechanism: automatic backtracking.
• Strength - simplicity and Conciseness
• Weakness - has to do with the restrictions to one control
mechanism and the use of a single data type.
History of Logic Programming (LP)

• Logic Programming has roots going back to early AI researchers like John
McCarthy in the 50s & 60s
• Alain Colmerauer (France) designed Prolog as the first LP language in the early
1970s
• Bob Kowalski and colleagues in the UK evolved the language to its current form
in the late 70s
• It’s been widely used for many AI systems, but also for systems that need a fast,
efficient and clean rule based engine
• The prolog model has also influenced the database community –
• Exp datalog
General Overview

• Programs written in logic languages consist of declarations that are actually

statements, or propositions, in symbolic logic.
• One of the essential characteristics of logic programming languages is their
semantic
• The basic concept of this semantics is that there is a simple way to determine the
meaning of each statement, and it does not depend on how the statement might be
used to solve a problem.
Concepts of logic paradigm and theoretical background
• Includes both theoretical and fully implemented languages
• They all share the idea of interpreting computation as logical deduction.
• Notation Algorithm = Logic + Control
• Logic Programming uses facts and rules for solving the problem.
• That is why they are called the building blocks of Logic Programming.
• Facts
• Actually, every logic program needs facts to work with so that it can achieve the given goal.
• Facts basically are true statements about the program and data.
• Exp : Delhi is the capital of India.
• Rules
• are the constraints which allow us to make conclusions about the problem domain.
• Basically written as logical clauses to express various facts.
• Exp if we are building any game then all the rules must be defined.
Parts of Logical programming

1. A series of definitions/declarations that define the problem domain

2. Statements of relevant facts
3. Statement of goals in the form of a query
Advantages

• The system solves the problem, so the programming steps themselves are kept to a
minimum;
• Proving the validity of a given program is simple.
Perspectives on logic programming

• Computations as Deduction
• Theorem Proving
• Non-procedural Programming
• Algorithms minus Control
• A Very High Level Programming Language
• A Procedural Interpretation of Declarative Specifications
 Computation as Deduction

• Logic programming offers a slightly different paradigm for computation: computation is

logical deduction
• It uses the language of logic to express data and programs.
• Forall X, Y: X is the father of Y if X is a parent of Y and X is male
• Current logic programming languages use first order logic (FOL) which is often referred to
as first order predicate calculus (FOPC).
• The first order refers to the constraint that we can quantify (i.e. generalize) over objects, but
not over functions or relations.
• We can express "All elephants are mammals” but not
• "for every continuous function f, if n<m and f(n)<0 and f(m) >0 then there exists an x such
that n<x<m and f(x)=0"
Theorem Proving

• Logic Programming uses the notion of an automatic theorem prover

as an interpreter.
• The theorem prover derives a desired solution from an initial set of
axioms.
• The proof must be a "constructive" one so that more than a true/false
answer can be obtained
• E.G. The answer to
• exists x such that x = sqrt(16)
• should be x = 4 or x = -4
• rather than true
Non-procedural Programming

• Logic Programming languages are non-procedural programming languages

• A non-procedural language one in which one specifies what needs to be computed
but not how it is to be done
• That is, one specifies:
• the set of objects involved in the computation
• the relationships which hold between them
• the constraints which must hold for the problem to be solved
• and leaves it up the the language interpreter or compiler to decide how to
satisfy the constraints
A Declarative Example
• Here’s a simple way to specify what has to be true if X is the smallest number in a
list of numbers L
1. X has to be a member of the list L
2. There can be list member X2 such that X2<X

We need to say how we determine that some X is a member of a list

1. No X is a member of the empty list
2. X is a member of list L if it is equal to L’s head
3. X is a member of list L if it is a member of L’s tail.
Use logic to do reasoning

• Example: Given information about fatherhood and motherhood, determine grand

parent relationship
• E.g. Given the information called facts
• John is father of Lily
• Kathy is mother of Lily
• Lily is mother of Bill
• Ken is father of Karen
• Who are grand parents of Bill?
• Who are grand parents of Karen?
Example
domains
being = symbol

predicates
animal(being) % all animals are beings
dog(being) % all dogs are beings
die(being) % all beings die

clauses
animal(X) :- dog(X) % all dogs are animals
dog(fido). % fido is a dog
die(X) :- animal(X) % all animals die
 Logic Operators
• Equivalence means that both
expressions have identical truth tables
Name Symbol Example Meaning
• Implication is like an if-then statement
negation ¬ ¬a not a • if a is true then b is true
conjunction ∩ a∩b a and b • note that this does not necessarily
mean that if a is false that b must
disjunction ∪ a∪b a or b also be false
equivalence ≡ a≡b a is equivalent • Universal quantifier says that this is true
to b no matter what x is
implication ⊃ a⊃b a implies b • Existential quantifier says that there is
an X that fulfills the statement
⊂ a⊂b b implies a
universal X.P For all X, P is
true
existential X.P There exists a X.(woman(X) ⊃ human(X))
value of X – if X is a woman, then X is a human
such that P is
true X.(mother(mary, X) ∩ male(X))
– Mary has a son (X)
 Example Statements
Consider the following knowledge:
Bob is Fred’s father 🡪 father(Bob, Fred)
Sue is Fred’s mother 🡪 mother(Sue, Fred)
Barbara is Fred’s sister 🡪 sister(Barbara, Fred)
Jerry is Bob’s father 🡪 father(Jerry, Bob)
And the following rules:
A person’s father’s father is the person’s grandfather
A person’s father or mother is that person’s parent
A person’s sister or bother is that person’s sibling
If a person has a parent and a sibling, then the sibling has the same parent
These might be captured in first-order predicate calculus as:
x, y, z : if father(x, y) and father(y, z) then grandfather(x, z)
x, y : if father(x, y) or mother(x, y) then parent(x, y)
x, y : if sister(x, y) or brother(x, y) then sibling(x, y) and sibling(y, x)
x, y, z : if parent(x, y) and sibling(y, z) then parent(x, z)
We would rewrite these as
grandfather(x, z) ⊂ father(x, y) and father(y, z)
parent(x, y) ⊂ father(x, y)
parent(x, y) ⊂ mother(x, y) etc
Kanren

• It provides us a way to simplify the way we made code for business

logic.

• It lets us express the logic in terms of rules and facts.

• The following command will help you install kanren −

• pip install kanren

 Matching mathematical expressions
from kanren import run, var, fact
from kanren.assoccomm import eq_assoccomm as eq
from kanren.assoccomm import commutative, associative
add = 'add'
mul = 'mul' • Output
fact(commutative, mul)
fact(commutative, add)
• ((3,2))
fact(associative, mul)
• ()
fact(associative, add)
a, b = var('a'), var('b')
Original_pattern = (mul, (add, 5, a), b)
• Reference :
exp1 = (mul, 2, (add, 3, 1)) • https://www.tutorialspoint.com/artificial
_intelligence_with_python/artificial_int
exp2 = (add,5,(mul,8,1)) elligence_with_python_logic_program
print(run(0, (a,b), eq(original_pattern, exp1))) ming.htm
print(run(0, (a,b), eq(original_pattern, exp2)))
 SymPy Overview
• Simplification
• simplify
• Polynomial/Rational Function
Simplification
• Trigonometric Simplification
• Powers Reference:
• Exponentials and logarithms
• Special Functions • https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/pyth
• Example: Continued Fractions on-getting-started-with-sympy-
• Calculus
• Derivatives
module/
• Integrals
• Limits
• https://docs.sympy.org/latest/tutorial
• Series Expansion /index.html
• Finite differences
• Solvers
• A Note about Equations
• Solving Equations Algebraically
• Solving Differential Equations
• Matrices
• Basic Operations
• Basic Methods
• Matrix Constructors
• Advanced Methods
• Possible Issues
 SymPy module
• SymPy is a Python library for symbolic mathematics.
• It aims to become a full-featured computer algebra system (CAS)
• While keeping the code as simple as possible in order to be comprehensible and easily
extensible.
• SymPy is written entirely in Python.
# Example
• Installing sympy module:
from sympy import * x = Symbol('x')
• Pip install sympy
y = Symbol('y')
z = (x + y) + (x-y)
print("value of z is :" + str(z))
Output:
value of z is :2*x
 Find derivative, integration, limits, quadratic equation
# make a symbol
x = Symbol('x')
# ake the derivative of sin(x)*e ^ x Output :
ans1 = diff(sin(x)*exp(x), x)
print("derivative of sin(x)*e ^ x : ", ans1) derivative of sin(x)*e^x : exp(x)*sin(x) + exp(x)*cos(x)
# Compute (e ^ x * sin(x)+ e ^ x * cos(x))dx indefinite integration is : exp(x)*sin(x)
ans2 = integrate(exp(x)*sin(x) + exp(x)*cos(x), x) definite integration is : sqrt(2)*sqrt(pi)/2
print("indefinite integration is : ", ans2) limit is : 1
# Compute definite integral of sin(x ^ 2)dx roots are : [-sqrt(2), sqrt(2)]
# in b / w interval of ? and ?? .
ans3 = integrate(sin(x**2), (x, -oo, oo))
print("definite integration is : ", ans3) SymPy Live Shell Demo
# Find the limit of sin(x) / x given x tends to 0
ans4 = limit(sin(x)/x, x, 0) https://docs.sympy.org/latest/tutorial/intro.html#what-
print("limit is : ", ans4)
is-symbolic-computation
# Solve quadratic equation like, example : x ^ 2?2 = 0
ans5 = solve(x**2 - 2, x)
print("roots are : ", ans5)
 Datalog Concepts
• pyDatalog is a powerful language with very few syntactic elements, mostly
coming from Python :
• Variables and expressions
• Loops
• Facts
• Logic Functions and dictionaries
• Aggregate functions
• Literals and sets
• Tree, graphs and recursive algorithms
• 8-queen problem
Reference
• https://sites.google.com/site/pydatalog/Online-datalog-tutorial
 PySwip Introduction

• PySwip is a Python - SWI-Prolog bridge enabling to query SWI-Prolog in your

Python programs.
• It features an (incomplete) SWI-Prolog foreign language interface, a utility class
that makes it easy querying with Prolog and also a Pythonic interface.
• Since PySwip uses SWI-Prolog as a shared library and ctypes to access it,
• it doesn't require compilation to be installed.

• Reference :

• https://pypi.org/project/pyswip/