ASSIGNMENT No.

2
JEHAN ZADA

0000281035

4669

Q.1 Discuss in detail the new of politics as had been assigned to

Aristotle. How this science had been considered new as compared
science of politics. (20)
ANS:

Title: Aristotle's Notion of Politics as a New Science: A

Comprehensive Exploration

Introduction:

Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers of ancient Greece, made

significant contributions to various fields, and his understanding of
politics remains influential to this day. In this essay, we will delve into
Aristotle's conception of politics as a new science, exploring the context
in which he developed his ideas, the foundational principles of his
political thought, and how his approach distinguished the science of
politics from other intellectual pursuits.

1. Aristotle's Historical Context:

a. The Classical Greek Era:

 Aristotle lived in the classical Greek era, a time of flourishing
intellectual and cultural achievements. The city-state (polis) was the
focal point of political life, and thinkers grappled with questions of
governance, justice, and the nature of political authority.

b. Influence of Predecessors:

 Aristotle was a student of Plato and, to some extent, Socrates. The

political philosophy of his predecessors laid the groundwork for his own
inquiries into the nature and functioning of political communities.

2. Politics as a New Science:

a. Differentiating from Other Sciences:

 Aristotle considered politics a "new science" (neos), distinct from other

branches of knowledge. Unlike mathematics or natural philosophy,
politics dealt with the practical affairs of human beings and the
organization of their shared life.

b. Practical Wisdom (Phronesis):

 Aristotle's focus on practical wisdom (phronesis) emphasized the

application of knowledge to achieve the best outcomes in human affairs.
This practical orientation distinguished politics from abstract or
speculative sciences.

c. Ethical Foundations:

 Aristotle believed that ethics and politics were interconnected. The

ethical foundations of politics reflected his conviction that the ultimate
aim of political life was the pursuit of the common good and the
flourishing (eudaimonia) of individuals within the polis.
 3. Politics and the Polis:

a. Defining the Polis:

 For Aristotle, the polis was the highest form of human association. It
was a self-sufficient community with its own laws, institutions, and
citizens. The polis provided the context for individuals to realize their
potential and participate in shared governance.

b. Political Animals (Zoon Politikon):

 Aristotle famously described humans as "political animals" (zoon

politikon). He argued that political association was natural to human
beings, distinguishing them from other species. The polis was viewed as
the environment in which human virtues and capacities could be fully
realized.

4. The Nature of Political Science:

a. Aristotle's Methodology:

 Aristotle's approach to political science involved a careful examination

of empirical realities. Unlike the abstract reasoning of some of his
predecessors, Aristotle observed and analyzed existing political
communities to derive general principles.

b. Empirical and Normative Dimensions:

 Aristotle blended empirical observations with normative considerations.

His political science aimed not only to describe how political
communities functioned but also to prescribe the best practices for
achieving a just and virtuous society.

c. Classifying Political Systems:

 In his work "Politics," Aristotle classified political systems based on the
number and character of rulers. This typology, which included
monarchy, aristocracy, and polity (as well as their corrupted forms), laid
the groundwork for understanding different forms of governance.

5. The Virtuous Citizen and the Good Life:

a. Aristotle's Ethical Framework:

 Aristotle's ethical framework was integral to his political thought. He

argued that the good life (eudaimonia) was attainable through the
cultivation of virtues, and the polis provided the context for individuals
to develop and practice these virtues.

b. The Virtuous Citizen:

 According to Aristotle, virtuous citizens were crucial for the well-being

of the polis. Virtue was not merely an individual trait; it had political
implications. The virtuous citizen contributed to the common good and
participated in the political life of the community.

c. Importance of Citizenship:

 Aristotle's emphasis on citizenship as a participatory role, rather than a

passive status, was groundbreaking. Citizenship, in his view, involved
active engagement in decision-making and a sense of responsibility for
the community.

6. Democracy and Its Critique:

a. Aristotle's Views on Democracy:

 Aristotle extensively analyzed different political systems, including

democracy. While he acknowledged its potential for promoting equality
 and participation, he also critiqued democracy for its susceptibility to
demagoguery and the tyranny of the majority.

b. Polity as a Balanced Form:

 Aristotle proposed a mixed or balanced form of government called

polity, which incorporated elements of both democracy and oligarchy.
He saw this as a way to mitigate the shortcomings of each system and
achieve a more stable and just political order.

7. The Role of Education:

a. Educating the Citizenry:

 Aristotle considered education essential for shaping virtuous citizens.

His educational philosophy emphasized the development of character,
practical skills, and a deep understanding of ethics and politics.
Education was seen as a means to foster civic virtue.

b. Eudaimonistic Education:

 Aristotle's eudaimonistic education aimed at preparing individuals for

the good life. It was not merely about acquiring knowledge but also
about cultivating the moral and intellectual virtues necessary for active
citizenship and meaningful participation in the polis.

8. Aristotle's Influence and Legacy:

a. Medieval Reception:

 Aristotle's works, including "Politics," had a profound impact on

medieval political thought. His ideas were preserved and transmitted by
scholars like Thomas Aquinas, who incorporated Aristotelian principles
into Christian theology.

b. Renaissance and Modern Political Philosophy:

 The Renaissance witnessed a revival of interest in Aristotle's works,
influencing thinkers like Machiavelli and later philosophers of the
Enlightenment. Elements of Aristotle's political thought can be traced in
the works of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau.

c. Contemporary Relevance:

 Aristotle's insights into the nature of politics, citizenship, and the

relationship between ethics and governance continue to resonate in
contemporary political philosophy. His ideas have influenced
discussions on democracy, virtue ethics, and the role of the state.

9. Challenges and Critiques:

a. Aristotle's Views on Slavery:

 One of the significant challenges to Aristotle's political thought is his

acceptance of slavery. Critics argue that his endorsement of slavery
contradicts his emphasis on equality and the shared pursuit of the good
life within the polis.

b. Limited Inclusivity:

 Some critiques highlight Aristotle's limited inclusivity, particularly

concerning the participation of women and non-citizens in political life.
His vision of the polis, while groundbreaking in its time, has been
criticized for not being fully inclusive.

c. Normative Elements and Cultural Bias:

 The normative elements in Aristotle's political thought, such as his idea

of the virtuous citizen, have been subject to criticism for reflecting
cultural biases and a particular vision of the good life that may not be
universally applicable.
10. Conclusion:

In conclusion, Aristotle's notion of politics as a new science represented

a groundbreaking departure from abstract or speculative philosophical
inquiries. His focus on the practical, empirical, and ethical dimensions of
political life laid the foundation for a comprehensive understanding of
governance, citizenship, and the pursuit of the good life within the polis.
Aristotle's enduring influence on political thought attests to the depth
and relevance of his insights, even as his ideas continue to be debated
and critiqued in the context of evolving philosophical and ethical
frameworks. The exploration of Aristotle's political science offers
valuable perspectives for contemporary discussions on governance, civic
engagement, and the pursuit of a just and virtuous society.
 Q.2 “The physiological principle behind all behavior is self-
preservation, and self-preservation means just the continuance of
individual biological existence. Good is what conduces to this end
and evil what has the opposite effect.” Discuss this statement in the
light of Hobb’s idea of self-preservation. (20)
ANS:

Title: Self-Preservation and the Moral Philosophy of Thomas

Hobbes: A Comprehensive Analysis

Introduction:

Thomas Hobbes, a 17th-century English philosopher, is renowned for

his seminal work, "Leviathan," where he expounds his political and
moral philosophy. At the core of Hobbesian thought is the concept of
self-preservation, a principle that deeply influences his understanding of
human behavior, morality, and political governance. This essay aims to
explore the statement, "The physiological principle behind all behavior
is self-preservation," and discuss how Hobbes's idea of self-preservation
shapes his understanding of good, evil, and the social contract.

1. Hobbes's Concept of Human Nature:

a. State of Nature:

 Hobbes begins his philosophical exploration by imagining a hypothetical

state of nature where there is no civil authority. In this condition,
individuals are in a constant state of war, and life is described as
"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
 b. Egocentric Individualism:

 Hobbes posits an egocentric individualism where human behavior is

driven by self-interest. The fundamental motive is self-preservation, and
individuals seek to maximize their own well-being and minimize threats
to their existence.

c. Equality in Desires and Power:

 According to Hobbes, in the state of nature, individuals are relatively

equal in their desires and power. The pursuit of self-preservation leads to
competition, and the scarcity of resources intensifies the struggle for
survival.

2. The Principle of Self-Preservation:

a. Biological Foundation:

 The statement asserts that the physiological principle behind all behavior
is self-preservation. Hobbes grounds his philosophy in a materialistic
understanding of human nature. The body, driven by vital motions, seeks
to maintain its existence, and this biological imperative underlies human
behavior.

b. Fear and Desire:

 Hobbes identifies two principal passions—fear and desire—as integral

to the principle of self-preservation. Fear arises from the anticipation of
harm, while desire is the inclination toward things that promote
individual well-being. Both emotions guide human action in the pursuit
of self-preservation.

c. Avoidance of Death:

 Central to Hobbes's philosophy is the avoidance of death as the ultimate

motive. The fear of death propels individuals to seek security and take
 actions that safeguard their lives. Morality, for Hobbes, is derived from
the imperative to preserve one's own existence.

3. Good and Evil in the Hobbesian Framework:

a. Subjective Nature of Good and Evil:

 Hobbes contends that good and evil are not intrinsic qualities but are
defined by individual desires and aversions. Good is what an individual
desires, and evil is what they seek to avoid. Morality, in this context, is
subjective and grounded in personal preferences.

b. Instrumental Value of Morality:

 Morality, according to Hobbes, is not an end in itself but a means to an

end—namely, self-preservation. Actions are deemed good or evil based
on their consequences for individual well-being. The instrumental value
of morality serves the overarching goal of survival.

c. Mutual Agreement on Good and Evil:

 In the absence of a common power to enforce moral norms, individuals

in the state of nature must reach mutual agreements on good and evil.
The social contract, as envisioned by Hobbes, is a pragmatic
arrangement where individuals surrender certain rights for the sake of
peace and security.

4. Hobbes's Social Contract:

a. Formation of the Commonwealth:

 Hobbes argues that individuals, recognizing the perils of the state of

nature, enter into a social contract to establish a commonwealth. The
commonwealth, represented by a sovereign authority, is entrusted with
the power to enforce laws and ensure the security of its citizens.
 b. Obligation to Sovereign:

 The social contract entails an obligation to the sovereign, as individuals

covenant to obey the laws in exchange for protection. Hobbesian
morality is thus rooted in the artificial construct of the commonwealth,
where good and evil are defined by the laws established for the
preservation of society.

c. Sovereign's Authority:

 Hobbes attributes absolute authority to the sovereign, who exercises

power over matters of religion, education, and legislation. The
sovereign's role is to maintain order and prevent the reversion to the
chaotic conditions of the state of nature.

5. Critiques and Challenges to Hobbesian Philosophy:

a. Critique of Individualism:

 Critics argue that Hobbes's radical individualism oversimplifies human

nature. The emphasis on self-interest as the primary motivator neglects
the complexities of human relationships, altruism, and collective action
for the greater good.

b. Overemphasis on Fear:

 Some critics contend that Hobbes places an excessive emphasis on fear

as a driving force. While fear may be a significant factor, it is not the
sole determinant of human behavior, and other motivations, such as love
and compassion, are marginalized in the Hobbesian framework.

c. Moral Subjectivism:
 Hobbes's moral subjectivism has been criticized for undermining the
objectivity of moral principles. The absence of a transcendent moral
standard raises questions about the stability and universality of the moral
framework established through the social contract.

6. Contemporary Relevance of Hobbesian Ideas:

a. Realism in International Relations:

 Hobbes's emphasis on self-interest and the pursuit of power has found

resonance in the field of international relations. Realist theories draw on
Hobbesian insights to analyze the behavior of states in the anarchic
system of global politics.

b. Individualism in Economic Theories:

 Economic theories that prioritize individual utility maximization and

rational self-interest echo Hobbesian themes. The pursuit of economic
self-interest, as observed in various economic models, aligns with the
Hobbesian conception of human behavior.

c. Limitations in Social Contract Theory:

 Social contract theories, inspired by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau,

continue to influence political thought. However, the limitations of the
social contract as a comprehensive framework for morality and
governance have prompted ongoing debates and alternative theories.

7. Conclusion:

In conclusion, the statement, "The physiological principle behind all

behavior is self-preservation," encapsulates the core tenet of Hobbes's
philosophy. Hobbes's idea of self-preservation serves as the foundation
for his understanding of human nature, morality, and the social contract.
The pursuit of individual well-being, grounded in the avoidance of
death, shapes Hobbes's conception of good and evil and underpins the
pragmatic formation of the commonwealth through the social contract.
While Hobbes's philosophy has faced critiques for its individualism and
moral subjectivism, its enduring influence is evident in contemporary
discussions on political realism, economic individualism, and the
limitations of social contract theory. The exploration of Hobbes's ideas
provides valuable insights into the complexities of human behavior and
the enduring quest for self-preservation in the context of social and
political life.
 Q.3 ‘A church therefore is corruption. Like any corporation it must
have a head and the head is the sovereign.” Critically analyze the
views of Hobbes on the relations between the state the church in
the light of the given statement. (20)
ANS:
Title: Hobbesian Perspectives on the State and Church Relations: A
Comprehensive Analysis

Introduction:

Thomas Hobbes, a 17th-century English philosopher, addressed the

intricate relationship between the state and the church in his seminal
work "Leviathan." The given statement, "A church therefore is
corruption. Like any corporation it must have a head and the head is the
sovereign," encapsulates Hobbes's views on the alignment of
ecclesiastical and political authority. This essay critically analyzes
Hobbes's perspectives on the relations between the state and the church,
exploring his arguments regarding the necessity of a sovereign head, the
potential for corruption in religious institutions, and the implications for
political order.

1. Hobbesian Political Philosophy:

a. State of Nature and Social Contract:

 Hobbes begins his political philosophy by envisioning a state of nature

marked by a "war of all against all." In this condition, life is solitary,
poor, nasty, brutish, and short. To escape this state, individuals enter into
a social contract, forming a commonwealth under a sovereign authority
for the sake of peace and security.

b. Sovereign Authority:
 Hobbes attributes absolute authority to the sovereign, who is entrusted
with the power to maintain order and prevent the reversion to the chaotic
conditions of the state of nature. The sovereign's authority is extensive,
covering matters of law, morality, and even religion.

2. The Church in Hobbes's Political Philosophy:

a. Ecclesiastical Authority:

 In Hobbes's Leviathan, ecclesiastical authority is treated as a component

of political authority. The church, like any other corporation, is seen as
an institution that requires a head. This head, according to Hobbes, must
be the sovereign, aligning religious authority with political authority.

b. Corruption in Ecclesiastical Institutions:

 Hobbes expresses skepticism about the potential for corruption within

ecclesiastical institutions. He contends that, like any corporation, the
church requires centralized authority to prevent internal discord and
ensure conformity to the laws of the commonwealth.

c. Theological Doctrines Subject to Sovereign Approval:

 Hobbes argues for the sovereign's control over theological doctrines.

The sovereign has the authority to determine and prescribe religious
doctrines that align with political stability. This position emphasizes the
subordination of ecclesiastical matters to the overarching political order.

3. The Necessity of a Sovereign Head for the Church:

a. Reasons for a Sovereign Head:

 Hobbes provides several reasons for advocating a sovereign head for the
church. Firstly, he asserts that the absence of a unified authority in
ecclesiastical matters can lead to conflict and division, disrupting social
 order. A sovereign head ensures doctrinal conformity, preventing dissent
within the church.

b. Unity of Belief and Worship:

 Hobbes sees the sovereign head as essential for maintaining unity of

belief and worship. The imposition of a common religious doctrine,
determined by the sovereign, contributes to social cohesion by
preventing religious disputes that could spill over into civil unrest.

c. Security and Control:

 The sovereign's authority over the church is also justified by

considerations of security and control. Hobbes argues that a centralized
religious authority prevents the emergence of alternative centers of
power that could challenge the supremacy of the sovereign in matters of
governance.

4. Critiques of Hobbes's Views on Church and State Relations:

a. Religious Liberty and Toleration:

 Critics argue that Hobbes's emphasis on a sovereign head for the church
undermines religious liberty and toleration. The imposition of a single
religious doctrine may stifle diversity and hinder individuals' freedom to
practice their faith according to their conscience.

b. Instrumental Use of Religion:

 Some critics contend that Hobbes instrumentalizes religion for political

purposes. The sovereign's control over religious doctrines is seen as a
means to consolidate power rather than a genuine concern for the
spiritual well-being of the populace.

c. Reductionist View of Religion:

 Hobbes's reductionist view of religion as a tool for social order has been
criticized for neglecting the complexity of religious beliefs and
practices. Critics argue that reducing religion to a political instrument
oversimplifies its role in shaping individual and collective identities.

5. Implications for Political Order:

a. Role of Religion in Political Stability:

 For Hobbes, religion serves a crucial role in maintaining political

stability. A common religious doctrine, determined by the sovereign,
contributes to social order by fostering a sense of unity and shared
values among the populace.

b. Prevention of Dissent and Rebellion:

 Hobbes's advocacy for a sovereign head in the church is rooted in the

desire to prevent dissent and rebellion. By controlling religious
doctrines, the sovereign minimizes the risk of religiously motivated
challenges to political authority, ensuring the stability of the
commonwealth.

c. Erosion of Ecclesiastical Independence:

 The alignment of ecclesiastical and political authority, as envisioned by

Hobbes, implies a degree of erosion of ecclesiastical independence. The
church becomes subject to the sovereign's control, raising questions
about the autonomy of religious institutions.

6. Historical Context and Hobbes's Influence:

a. Post-Reformation Context:

 Hobbes's views on church and state relations must be understood in the

context of the post-Reformation period, characterized by religious
conflicts and attempts to establish stable political orders. Hobbes's ideas
 reflect a pragmatic approach to the challenges posed by religious
diversity.

b. Influence on Later Thinkers:

 Hobbes's perspectives on church-state relations have influenced

subsequent political philosophers. His emphasis on the need for a
sovereign head in the church resonates with debates on the role of
religion in political governance, particularly in periods of political
upheaval.

7. Conclusion:

In conclusion, the critical analysis of Hobbes's views on the relations

between the state and the church reveals a complex interplay of political
and ecclesiastical authority. Hobbes advocates for a sovereign head in
the church, viewing it as a necessary component of political stability and
order. The alignment of religious and political authority is justified on
grounds of preventing dissent, ensuring doctrinal conformity, and
maintaining social cohesion. However, critiques highlight the potential
curtailment of religious liberty, the instrumental use of religion for
political ends, and the erosion of ecclesiastical independence. Hobbes's
ideas, rooted in the post-Reformation context, continue to influence
discussions on the role of religion in political governance and the quest
for a stable and orderly commonwealth. The exploration of Hobbes's
perspectives on church-state relations offers valuable insights into the
challenges and trade-offs inherent in the quest for social and political
harmony.
 Q.4 Discuss in detail the views of Locke about the individual and the
community. What were the effects of circumstances on his views
regarding the individual the community? (20)
ANS:

Title: John Locke's Views on the Individual and the Community:

Effects of Circumstances on his Political Philosophy

Introduction:

John Locke, a 17th-century English philosopher, is a pivotal figure in the

history of political thought. His works, especially "Two Treatises of
Government," significantly contributed to shaping modern ideas about
governance, individual rights, and the social contract. This essay
explores Locke's nuanced views on the individual and the community,
delving into the philosophical and historical circumstances that
influenced his perspectives.

1. Early Influences and Philosophical Foundations:

a. Locke's Intellectual Milieu:

 Locke lived during a period marked by political upheavals, including the

English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution. These events, along
with his exposure to the scientific revolution and thinkers like Descartes,
shaped Locke's intellectual environment.

b. Empiricism and Tabula Rasa:

 Locke's philosophical foundation rests on empiricism, the idea that

knowledge is derived from experience. He introduces the concept of the
"tabula rasa," suggesting that individuals are born with a blank slate, and
their experiences shape their character and understanding of the world.
 2. The State of Nature and Natural Rights:

a. Locke's State of Nature:

 Locke, like Hobbes, contemplates a state of nature to explore the origins

of political authority. However, unlike Hobbes, Locke's state of nature is
characterized by natural law, reason, and a degree of inherent equality
and cooperation.

b. Natural Rights:

 Locke posits the existence of natural rights—life, liberty, and property—

that individuals possess in the state of nature. These rights are
inalienable and serve as the foundation for his political philosophy.

3. Individual Rights and Autonomy:

a. Life, Liberty, and Property:

 Locke asserts that individuals have a right to life, liberty, and property.
These rights are not granted by the state but are inherent in human
nature. The protection of these rights becomes a central tenet in Locke's
political theory.

b. Individual Autonomy:

 Locke's emphasis on individual rights reflects a belief in individual

autonomy. He contends that individuals have the right to govern
themselves, make choices, and pursue their interests without arbitrary
interference.

c. Limited Government:
 Locke advocates for a limited government whose primary purpose is to
protect individual rights. If a government oversteps its bounds and
becomes tyrannical, individuals have the right to resist and even
overthrow it.

4. Social Contract and Political Legitimacy:

a. Formation of Civil Society:

 Locke introduces the concept of the social contract, where individuals

willingly come together to form a civil society. The purpose of this
contract is the protection of natural rights and the establishment of a just
government.

b. Popular Sovereignty:

 Locke's social contract theory emphasizes the idea of popular

sovereignty. Government legitimacy is derived from the consent of the
governed, and rulers are accountable to the people.

c. Right to Revolution:

 Locke's political philosophy includes the right to revolution. If a

government violates its duty to protect natural rights and becomes
oppressive, individuals have the right and, indeed, the obligation to
revolt and establish a new government.

5. Community and Civil Society:

a. Purpose of Civil Society:

 In Locke's view, civil society is established to mitigate the

inconveniences of the state of nature and ensure the protection of natural
rights. It serves as a framework for cooperative living and the pursuit of
individual and collective well-being.
 b. Equality and Consensual Governance:

 Locke envisions civil society as a space where individuals are equal and
engage in consensual governance. The idea of equality extends beyond
political equality to include the equal enjoyment of natural rights.

c. Importance of Property:

 Locke underscores the importance of property in civil society. While

property is a natural right, its secure enjoyment requires the
establishment of a legal and political framework that protects property
rights and ensures the peaceful exchange of goods.

6. Effects of Circumstances on Locke's Views:

a. Political Context of the Glorious Revolution:

 The Glorious Revolution of 1688 significantly influenced Locke's

political thought. The overthrow of James II and the establishment of
William and Mary on the throne reinforced Locke's ideas about the right
to resist tyranny and the legitimacy of constitutional monarchy.

b. Tolerance and Religious Freedom:

 Locke's experiences during a period marked by religious conflicts and

intolerance in England influenced his views on religious freedom. In his
"Letter Concerning Toleration," Locke argues for religious tolerance,
asserting that coercion in matters of religion is not conducive to a just
and peaceful society.

c. Colonialism and Property Rights:

 Locke's involvement in colonial affairs, particularly through his work on

the Carolina Constitution, shaped his views on property rights. His
 writings reflect considerations about property ownership, labor, and the
relationship between settlers and indigenous peoples.

7. Legacy and Contemporary Relevance:

a. Influence on Liberalism:

 Locke's ideas profoundly influenced liberal political philosophy. His

emphasis on individual rights, limited government, and the social
contract laid the groundwork for later thinkers and the development of
liberal democratic societies.

b. Contribution to Human Rights:

 Locke's recognition of natural rights contributed to the development of

the concept of human rights. His advocacy for the protection of life,
liberty, and property resonates in contemporary discussions about
individual freedoms and dignity.

c. Challenges and Critiques:

 Locke's views are not without challenges and critiques. Some argue that
his emphasis on property rights may have limitations in addressing
issues of economic inequality, and others question the feasibility of
achieving genuine equality in a society marked by diverse interests.

8. Conclusion:

In conclusion, John Locke's views on the individual and the community

are foundational to modern political thought. Shaped by the intellectual
and historical context of his time, Locke's philosophy emphasizes
individual rights, autonomy, and the social contract as essential elements
of a just political order. The effects of circumstances, including political
events and Locke's own experiences, further enriched and nuanced his
perspectives. Locke's legacy persists in the principles of liberal
democracy, human rights discourse, and the ongoing exploration of the
delicate balance between individual freedom and collective governance.
The examination of Locke's views offers a comprehensive understanding
of the philosophical foundations that underpin contemporary notions of
individual rights, community, and political legitimacy.
 Q.5 Make a critical analysis of Rousseau’s attack on reason. What
were his justifications for revolting against reasons? Explain with
cogent arguments. (20)
ANS:

Title: Rousseau's Critique of Reason: A Comprehensive Analysis

and Justifications for Revolting Against Reason

Introduction:

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, an influential figure in the Enlightenment era, is

renowned for his philosophical works that laid the groundwork for
modern political and educational thought. In his critique of reason,
Rousseau challenges the prevailing Enlightenment optimism about the
rational capacities of humans. This essay aims to provide a critical
analysis of Rousseau's attack on reason, exploring the underlying
justifications for his call to revolt against reason.

1. Context of Rousseau's Thought:

a. Enlightenment Optimism:

 The Enlightenment, characterized by a fervent belief in reason, science,

and progress, fostered an optimistic view of human nature and the
perfectibility of society through rationality. Thinkers like Descartes,
Locke, and Voltaire championed reason as the guiding force for societal
improvement.

b. Rousseau's Dissent:

 Rousseau's dissent from the prevailing Enlightenment optimism is

evident in works such as "Discourse on the Sciences and Arts" and
"Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men." His
 critique of reason emerges as a response to what he perceives as the
corrupting influence of civilization and the erosion of natural goodness.

2. Rousseau's Attack on Reason:

a. Reason as Corrupting Force:

 Rousseau contends that reason, particularly artificial reason cultivated

by civilization, is a corrupting force that distances humanity from its
natural state of goodness. The progress of the arts and sciences,
according to Rousseau, contributes to moral degeneration.

b. Civilization and Moral Decay:

 In "Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality," Rousseau argues

that the development of reason in the context of organized society leads
to inequality and moral decay. The pursuit of knowledge and
technological advancements, he suggests, is intertwined with the rise of
social hierarchies and moral degradation.

c. The Arts and Moral Deterioration:

 Rousseau attributes moral deterioration to the influence of the arts and

sciences. He argues that the cultivation of reason and aesthetic
refinement contribute to a societal context where appearances and
superficiality prevail over authentic human connections and virtues.

3. Justifications for Revolting Against Reason:

a. The State of Nature as Ideal:

 Rousseau posits a state of nature in which humans, uncorrupted by the

influences of society, exist in a primitive but harmonious condition. The
state of nature, for Rousseau, represents an idealized past where reason
had not yet veered into corrupting artificiality.
 b. Primacy of Feeling over Reason:

 A central tenet of Rousseau's philosophy is the primacy of sentiment and

feeling over reason. He contends that genuine morality and virtue arise
from authentic emotions and a connection to one's innate sense of
compassion, rather than the calculated and self-interested decisions of
reason.

c. Embrace of Emotive Knowledge:

 Rousseau encourages the embrace of emotive knowledge, which he sees

as an unmediated connection to the true essence of humanity. This form
of knowledge arises from direct experience and emotional engagement,
transcending the limitations and distortions introduced by rational
analysis.

4. Rousseau's Concept of Amour de Soi and Amour Propre:

a. Amour de Soi:

 Rousseau introduces the concept of "amour de soi" (self-love), which he

sees as a natural and healthy form of self-love grounded in the
preservation of one's well-being. In the state of nature, amour de soi is a
positive force that guides individuals toward self-preservation.

b. Amour Propre:

 In contrast, Rousseau identifies "amour propre" (self-love or vanity) as a

corrupting force that emerges with the development of society. Amour
propre involves the comparison of oneself to others, leading to
competition, envy, and the erosion of moral virtues. Reason, in
Rousseau's view, amplifies the negative aspects of amour proper.
 5. Emphasis on Spontaneity and Intuition:

a. Spontaneity as Virtue:

 Rousseau values spontaneity as a virtue that aligns with the natural

goodness of humanity. Spontaneous actions, unencumbered by the
calculations of reason, are seen as genuine expressions of one's true self
and moral inclinations.

b. Intuition as Moral Guide:

 Intuition, guided by natural feelings and emotional responses, serves as a

moral guide for Rousseau. He argues that individuals should trust their
intuitive moral sense rather than relying on the abstract and potentially
corrupted reasoning that emerges within the confines of societal
structures.

6. Criticisms of Rousseau's Attack on Reason:

a. Idealization of the State of Nature:

 Critics argue that Rousseau's idealization of the state of nature is a

romanticized and unrealistic portrayal that overlooks the harshness and
challenges inherent in pre-civilized existence.

b. Ambiguity in Emotive Knowledge:

 Rousseau's emphasis on emotive knowledge has been criticized for its

ambiguity and subjectivity. The reliance on feelings and intuition can be
interpreted differently by individuals, leading to potential conflicts and a
lack of clear ethical guidelines.

c. Underestimation of Reason's Capacity:

 Some critics contend that Rousseau underestimates the positive capacity

of reason to contribute to human progress and ethical decision-making.
 Reason, when properly guided, can be a tool for critical thinking and the
pursuit of justice.

7. Legacy and Contemporary Relevance:

a. Impact on Romanticism:

 Rousseau's attack on reason and emphasis on emotion influenced the

Romantic Movement, which celebrated individual expression, nature,
and emotion over rational calculation. Romantic thinkers echoed
Rousseau's critique of the dehumanizing aspects of industrialization and
progress.

b. Existentialist Thought:

 Elements of Rousseau's emphasis on authenticity and the rejection of

societal conventions resonate with later existentialist thinkers.
Existentialism, particularly in the works of thinkers like Jean-Paul
Sartre, explores the individual's struggle for authenticity and meaning in
a seemingly indifferent world.

c. Relevance to Environmental Ethics:

 Rousseau's emphasis on the corrupting influence of civilization on

human morality has implications for contemporary environmental ethics.
His critique of progress and technological development raises questions
about the ethical implications of human impact on the natural world.

8. Conclusion:

In conclusion, Rousseau's attack on reason emerges as a profound

critique of the Enlightenment's faith in rationality and progress. Rooted
in his observation of the corrupting influence of civilization, Rousseau
advocates for a return to the authenticity of human nature, with its
emphasis on sentiment, spontaneity, and emotive knowledge. The
justifications for revolting against reason lie in Rousseau's idealization
of the state of nature, the primacy of feeling over reason, and the
embrace of intuitive and emotive forms of knowledge. While his ideas
have faced criticism for their idealism and ambiguity, Rousseau's legacy
persists in influencing diverse philosophical movements, from
Romanticism to existentialism, and continues to provoke reflections on
the interplay between reason, emotion, and the pursuit of a more
authentic and humane existence.