MODELS OF THE

CURRICULUM
4. MODELS OF THE CURRICULUM

➢Models are essentially patterns serving as guidelines to action. Brodbeck (1963)

says the term ‘model’ is often used in the most general sense as a synonym for
theory.
➢Models help us to conceptualise a process by showing certain principles and
procedures.
➢ Models are applied to curriculum to look at the relationship between the parts
of the process of curriculum development.
➢By examining curriculum models we can analyse the phases that their originator
conceived as essential to the process of curriculum development.
Ralph Tyler (1949) Model- Rational Curriculum
Planning
• The objectives model is the commonest model in the field of curriculum
development. It is sometimes called the: linear model, sequential model, logical
model, scientific model, classical model or means-end model.
• The objectives model tries to improve the practice of education by first obtaining
clarity about the ends of education.
• It is argued that once we are clear about what we are seeking to achieve we can
then plan more effectively the means to achieve those ends.
Ralph Tyler (1949) Model - Rational Curriculum
Planning cont’d
➢Tyler’s (1949) model for curriculum designing is based on the following questions:
✓ What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
✓ What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
✓ How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
✓ How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
cont’
Tyler’s Model
Objectives

Selection of learning experiences

Organisation of learning experiences

Evaluation
Adapted from Urevbu, A. 0. (1985: 20). Curriculum Studies.
➢ To Tyler, evaluation is a process by which one matches the initial expectation
with the outcomes.
Ralph Tyler (1949) Model- Rational Curriculum
Planning cont’d
• There are four major stages in the process of curriculum development.
• Framing of Goals and Objectives
• Selection of learning experiences
• Selection of Learning Experiences
• Evaluation
Application of Tyler’s Model in Curriculum
Design
Analyzing information
• This process starts with analyzing information from various
data sources. Data sources for curriculum according to Tyler
include:
• Contemporary society/life
• For this source, the designer analyzes the issues affecting society that
could be solved through education. Examples are cultural issues, socio-
economic issues, and health issues such as HIV/AIDS among.
• Learner’s needs and interests
• Subject specialists/subject matter
Application of Tyler’s Model in Curriculum
Design cont’d
Framing objectives for the curriculum
• From these sources, the designer develops general objectives
• Specific objectives are then derived from the general objectives
• For each of the specific objectives, learning experiences are
identified.
Application of Tyler’s Model in Curriculum
Design cont’d
Selection of learning experiences.
• In the context of curriculum design the learning experiences include
the subject matter/content and learning activities
• Selection of Subject matter/content
• The term subject matter/content refers to the data, concepts,
generalizations, and principles of school subjects such as
mathematics, biology, or chemistry that are organized into bodies of
knowledge sometimes called disciplines
• The selection of content and learning experiences is one crucial part
of curriculum making
Application of Tyler’s Model in Curriculum
Design cont’d
Selection of learning experiences cont’d
• Selection of Learning activities
• Learning experiences/activities refer to the interaction between the
learner and the external conditions in the environment which they
encounter.
• Learning takes place through the active participation of the students;
it is what the students are involved in that they learn, not what the
teacher does
Application of Tyler’s Model in Curriculum
Design cont’d
Organization of learning experiences cont’d
• The teacher needs to determine a logical order of experiences for the
students
• The various principles of the organization include scope, sequence,
integration, and continuity, among others are considered
Application of Tyler’s Model in Curriculum
Design cont’d
Evaluation
• This is to determine the extent to which the objectives have been
met.
• Feedback from the evaluation is then used to modify the learning
experiences and the entire curriculum as found necessary.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Ralph
Tyler Model
Advantage Disadvantage
• It provides an easy to follow • It does not have a feedback
step-by-step guide to curriculum mechanism to tell people how to
planning and development correct it.
WHEELER’S MODEL
• Wheeler’s model is an improvement upon Tyler’s model.
• Instead of a linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model.
• Curriculum should be a continuous cycle which is responsive to changes in
the education sector and makes appropriate adjustments to account for
these changes.
• Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is not terminal. Findings from the evaluation
are fed back into the objectives and the goals, which influence other
stages.
• This model illustrates the dynamic nature of the process of curriculum
development.
• It goes on as the needs and interests of society change and the objectives
also change
WHEELER’S MODEL CONT’D
• Wheeler contends that:
• Aims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end
product of learning which yields the ultimate goals. One can think
of these ultimate goals as outcomes.
• Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum
planning. This results in the formulation of objectives at both an
enabling and a terminal level.
• Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which
determine that content.
 1. 2.
Selection of
aims, goals
Selection of
and learning
objectives experiences

The
Wheeler’s 3.
5.
Evaluation Model Selection of
content

4.
Organisation
and
integration
of learning
experiences 17
Step 1: Selecting aims, goals and
objectives
• Selection must be relevant to the specific content
area.

Why?
 Tells the planner about the direction of educational
development.

18
Step 2: Selecting learning experiences
• Occur in the classroom.
• Concern about the learner with their learning
environment.
• Think about the best strategies to deliver the aims
and objectives.
• results in the changes of
pupils’ behaviours.

19
Step 3: Selecting content
• Refer to the subject matter of teaching / learning.
• Refer to several aspects such as significance, interest
and learnability

20
Step 4: Organising and integrating
experiences
• This step is important as they are connected to the
teaching / learning process.
• Organising learning activities based on pupils’
experiences.

21
Step 5: Evaluating
• Evaluation on different phases and an examination of
whether the goals have been attained.
• Through formative and summative assessment.

22
Significance of Wheeler’s Cyclical Model
• Provide logical sequence.
• Present the curriculum process as a continuing activity which
is constantly in a state of change as new information or
practices become available.
• Involve Situational Analysis, which involves the environment
where the curriculum is going to be introduced.
• Responsive to needs.
• Provide flexibility (and relevant to school situations and
teaching)

23
Significance of Cyclical Model
• View stages of the curriculum as interrelated and
interdependent.
• Five interrelated stages:
• Aims, goals and objectives
• Selection of learning experiences
• Selection of content
• Organisation and integration of learning experiences and
content
• Evaluation

24
HILDA TABA’S MODEL
• Hilda Taba was initially influenced by progressivists: John Dewey and
Ralph Tyler, and one of her goals was to nurture the development of
students and encourage them to actively participate in a democratic
society.
• Taba’s model was inductive rather than deductive in nature, and it is
characterized by being a continuous process.
• Taba’s model emphasized concept development in elementary social
studies curriculum and was used by teachers in her workshops
• Taba believes that teachers are aware of the students needs hence
they should be the ones to develop the curriculum
HILDA TABA’S MODEL cont’d
Taba’s inductive approach
• Taba advocated an inductive approach to curriculum development. •
• In the inductive approach, curriculum workers start with the specifics
and build up to a general design as opposed to the more traditional
deductive approach of starting with the general design and working
down to the specifics
Hilda Taba’s Model
Steps in Hilda Taba’s Model
Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society
• The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the process by
identifying the needs of the students for whom curriculum is to be
planned.
• Systematic diagnosis process include the following steps:
• Problem identification
• Problem analysis
• Formulating hypothesis and gathering data.
• Experimenting with action.
Steps in Hilda Taba’s Model cont’d
Formulation of learning objectives
• After the teacher has identified the needs of learners that require
attention, he or she specifies the objectives by which needs will be
fulfilled.
• Principle of formulation of objectives:
• Objective should useful
• Objective should describe both kind of behavior i.e. expected and content
• Objective should be realistic
• Scope of objective should be broad.
Steps in Hilda Taba’s Model cont’d
Selection of the learning content.
• The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of
the curriculum. Not only objectives and content should match, but also the
validity and significance of the chosen content need to be determined. i.e.
the relevance and significance of the content.
• Criteria for selecting content
• Content should be rational base
• Validity and significance of content
• Consistency with social realities
• Appropriateness to the need and interest of students
• Making proper distinctions between the various levels of content
Steps in Hilda Taba’s Model cont’d
Organization of learning content.
• A teacher must organize it in a particular sequence taking into
consideration the maturity of learners, their academic achievement
and their interests.
Selection of the learning experiences
• At this point teacher should select appropriate instructional
methodology that will involve the students with the content.
Steps in Hilda Taba’s Model cont’d
Organization of learning activities.
• The learning activities must be organized in a sequence depending
both on content sequence and learners’ characteristics.
• The teacher needs to keep in mind the kind of students he or she will
be teaching.
Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.
• The teacher must determine what objectives have been
accomplished.
• To assess the achievement of learning objectives, evaluation
procedures need to be designed by the teacher.
Application of Taba’s Model
• The steps in Taba model are currently used in most curriculum
designs:
• Identifying the needs of the students.
• Developing objectives
• Selecting instructional method
• Organizing learning experiences
• Evaluating
Advantages and Disadvantages of Taba’s
model
Advantages Disadvantages
• Gives teachers a greater role by not • Teachers may not have an
just making them implementers of the
curriculum but also developers understanding the connection
• Notes that teachers are aware of the between the content, activities,
students’ needs therefore they are teaching methods and
the ones that should develop the
curriculum  Sees curriculum as a evaluation.
“plan for learning”
• Gives importance to objectives in
order to establish a sense of purpose
for deciding what to include, exclude
and emphasize in a curriculum .
 MALAWI MODEL OF CURRICULUM
PRODUCTION (DEVELOPMENT) PROCESS
The Malawi model of curriculum development
• The Malawian model of curriculum development is based on some
of the ideas from the curriculum development models of Ralph
Tyler’s (1949), Hilda Taba’s (1962) and Wheeler’s(1967).
• The stages of curriculum development in the Malawi model of
curriculum development are not static. They interact with each
other.
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 1: Situation analysis
This stage involves the following:
• Establishment of the status of the existing curriculum
• Determination of learning needs
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 2: Conceptualisation of the Curriculum
Making decisions on development of outcomes; courses or subjects),
content (learning experiences), methods and means of evaluation
• Begin by deciding your curriculum intent. Your curriculum intent need
to reflect your school’s values, context, and needs. In essence, your
principles should clarify the vision for your curriculum.
• Consider what your pupils will experience as they move through
school and map these out for each year group. Link your entitlement
to your curriculum intent, where possible.
• Decide which concepts and subject aspects your curriculum will cover
and how they interconnect with other subjects
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 2: Conceptualisation of the Curriculum cont’d
Making decisions on development of outcomes; courses or subjects),
content (learning experiences), methods and means of evaluation
• Decide on or provide contexts for delivering the curriculum. The
teaching narrative within each project or unit should set out how
learning will be delivered.
• Decide on the how quality resources to support your curriculum will
be sourced.
• Decide how you will ensure that you evaluate your curriculum to
decide on what works well and where there will be room for
improvement
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework
• A conceptual framework provides boundaries within which facts, concepts,
theories, and propositions from theoretical sources interact with clarity,
coherence, and consistency.
• A curriculum framework sets the parameters, directions and standards for
curriculum policy and practice.
• A framework therefore organize, control and/or regulate the content of the
curriculum–that is, the subject descriptors or syllabuses, as well as textbooks and
other learning materials.
• The framework also apply to a range of matters that can have a direct impact on
the development and implementation of curriculum, such as how the curriculum
meets the current and future needs of the country, teaching methodology,
teacher recruitment and selection, assessment and examination practice, and
even class sizes.
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework
• The curriculum framework provide direction in curriculum making
process.
• From the framework objectives are derived.
• The framework gives direction to the curriculum design (Deciding on content
and learning experiences to be included).
• The conceptual framework serves as a background against which objectives
can be tested.
• A conceptual framework for curriculum encourages systematic curriculum
evaluation that will eventually allow us to more accurately describe, explain,
predict, and control the work of curriculum.
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework
cont’d
The development of a curriculum framework is characterized by a
number of important features:
• Planned and systematic
• The process should be effectively planned with properly sequenced
activities so as to produce the desired outcome in an efficient and
cost-effective way, and within reasonable timeframes.
• It should be systematic, so that all stakeholders are involved for
reasons they understand and in ways that will deliver the best result.
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework cont’d
Important features in Curriculum Conceptual Framework development
process cont’d:
• Comprehensiveness
• Its critical that the process of developing a curriculum framework be
comprehensive and considers all appropriate issues and challenges that
exist in the curriculum.
• While subsequent amendments and re-alignments can always be made, it
is important that the initial framework be as ‘correct’ and as completeas
possible so that the changes it requires in the education system
(particularly those to syllabuses, textbooks and assessment) can be
planned and initiated.
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework cont’d
Important features in Curriculum Conceptual Framework development process cont’d:
• Informed
• Development of a curriculum framework is a specialized task which should be led and
conducted by suitably experienced and qualified people:
• People who are experienced in the current curriculum, are aware of its strengths and weaknesses
and understand how curriculum is developed effectively in the context.
• They should be very familiar with the overall education system and context as well as with the
concept of a curriculum framework.
• They should have the experience to think through how a curriculum framework should be
structured to address challenges and shortcomings in the curriculum and to meet the needs for
the country.
• Another dimension of ‘informed’ is that all decisions related to the curriculum
framework and to the development process itself should be based on real information.
• These decisions should be based on documented evidence of some kind.
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework
cont’d
Important features in Curriculum Conceptual Framework development
process cont’d:
• Targeted
• The reasons for developing a curriculum framework and the
objectives to be achieved should be clear and well-documented.
• The development process should therefore be targeted to achieve
these objectives.
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework cont’d
Important features in Curriculum Conceptual Framework development process cont’d:
• Broadly Supported
• Because a curriculum framework will most likely have an impact across the
education system, it is important that the process of development have broad
systemic support, as well as support from relevant government ministries beyond
education.
• This support will rely on clear information about the process and its progress
being provided
• The support can be demonstrated through attendance at and involvement in
meetings, conferences and briefings, as well as policy development support
where appropriate.
• It is also important that the curriculum framework development process be
adequately resourced
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework cont’d
Important features in Curriculum Conceptual Framework development process cont’d:
• Inclusive
• The process of developing a curriculum framework should acknowledge the importance of
consulting with education stakeholders.
• Stakeholders might include representatives of:-
• Students and their families
• Teachers
• School leaders
• School inspectors;-
• Teacher training systems and institutes
• Textbook writers and publishing companies
• Higher education systems and institutions (universities, vocational and technical colleges and others)
• Employers and relevant industries
• Societal leaders (such as tribal elders, church leaders and other community leaders)
• Relevant government ministries and departments
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework
cont’d
Stages of the development process
Evidence gathering
• This is like a ‘pre-stage’.
• It ensures that there are clear reasons and evidence for undertaking
the process of developing a curriculum framework.
• Although not part of the development process itself its
importance should not be under estimated.
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework
cont’d
Stages of the development process
Preparation Stage
• The Preparation stage is critical in the process of developing a
curriculum framework.
• The preparation stage for developing a curriculum framework
will determine how the curriculum framework will be developed,
how long the development process should take, the challenges to
be met during the process and the resources that will be
needed.
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 3: Development a curriculum and assessment framework cont’d
Stages of the development process
Development Stage
• During this stage, the curriculum framework itself is developed. Normally
the process involves a series of planned activities, including
• Writing workshops
• Piloting significant ideas or proposals
• Consultations events (such as forums, community meetings and meetings with
selected stakeholder groups)
• Planned media briefings
• Periodic briefings to the Minister
• During this process, Ministerial approval of drafts and other documents
may be required
The Malawi model of curriculum
development
Stage 4: Development of syllabuses and assessment procedures
• Development of syllabuses for each subject.
• Development of assessment guidelines.
Stage 5: Development of (instructional) teaching and learning
materials
• Development of instructional materials materials
• Piloting and revision of the instructional materials
• Printing of the instructional materials
The Malawi model of curriculum development
Stage 6. Evaluation of teaching and learning materials
• This involves selection of textbooks.

• The selected textbooks are referred to as Approved textbooks while

the supplementary textbooks are called “Recommended” textbooks
as found in bookshops.

• For every subject, there are four Core textbooks selected which are
later given a Ministry of Education Seal as Approved textbooks.
The Malawi model of curriculum development

Stage 7: Training of teachers

• Development of training materials
• Training of core team of trainers
• Training of the curriculum implementers at
classroom level using the cascade model
The Malawi model of curriculum development

Stage 8: Curriculum implementation

• Distribution of teaching and learning materials to
educational institutions
• Development of training materials
• Training of core team of trainers
• Training of the curriculum implementers at
classroom level using the cascade model.
Stage 9: Monitoring and evaluation of the implementation
• Monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of the curriculum.
• This is aimed at identifying the challenges facing the implementation of the
curriculum early in its implementation phase such as finding out:
• the availability of teaching and learning materials in the schools
• the teacher’s perception of the challenges in terms of the new content as well as key
innovations included in the curriculum.
• The monitoring also checks on whether or not the various processes used
to develop and implement the framework were efficient and effective.
• It may also include assessing about the quality of the framework itself,
some of which could indicate the need for the framework to be amended
in some way.