Unit 5

MOTIVATION

Introduction

Motivation can be defined as the fulfillment of various human needs. These needs can
encompass a range of human desires, from basic, tangible needs of survival to complex,
emotional needs surrounding an individual's psychological well-being.
This unit is designed to discuss the concepts of Motivation and its different theories. In
this way, you come to understand better the implication of motivation theories for performance
and satisfaction.

Unit Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

a. To gain understanding on the concept of motivation
b. To analyse and differentiate the theories of motivation
c. To understand the Implication of Motivation Theories for Performance and
Satisfaction

Topic 1: Concept of Motivation

Time Allotment: 6 hours

Learning Objectives

At the end of the session, you will be able to:

a. Describe motivation
b. Discuss and analyze the different theories of motivation
c. To identify the factors that affect motivation
d. To analyse motivation factors that contribute to human behaviour
 Activating Prior Knowledge

What is motivation?

K W L
(What You Know) (What You want to (What You Learned and
Learn) still Want to Learn)

Presentation of Content

What is Motivation?
 The willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals,
conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need. Where
“need” is some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear
attractive.
 The individual forces that account for the direction, level, and persistence
of a person’s effort expended at work. Where “direction” refers to an
individual’s choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives
(e.g. whether to exert effort toward product quality or toward product
quantity. “Level” refers to the amount of effort a person puts forth (e.g. a
lot or a little). “Persistence” refers to the length of time a person sticks
with a given action (e.g. to try to achieve product quality and give up
when it is found difficult to attain.

Motivation Across Cultures

 The determinants of motivation and the best ways to deal with it are likely to vary across
different regions. Individual values and attitudes - both important aspects of motivation - have
strong cultural foundations.
THE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
The theories of motivation can be divided into 3 broad categories.
1. Reinforcement theories - emphasize the means through which the process of
controlling an individual’s behavior by manipulating its consequences takes place.
2. Content theories - focus primarily on individual needs - the physiological or
psychological deficiencies that we feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate.
3. Process theories - focus on the thought or cognitive processes that take place within the
minds of people and that influence their behavior.
Reinforcement Theories
Reinforcement is the administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior.
Managing reinforcement properly can change the direction, level, and persistence of an
individual’s behavior. This is a counterpoint to goal-setting theory. While goal-setting theory is a
cognitive approach proposing that an individual’s purposes direct his or her action;
reinforcement theory is a behavioristic approach which argues that reinforcement conditions
behavior. “What controls behavior are reinforcers -- any consequence that, when immediately
following a response, increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated.
Classical and Operant Conditioning:
Classical conditioning is a form of learning through association that involves the
manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior. (Ivan Pavlov) This learning occurs through
conditioned stimuli. A stimulus is something that incites action and draws forth a response (the
meat for the dogs).
Operant conditioning is the process of controlling behavior by manipulating, or
―operating‖ on, its consequences. Learning occurs through consequences of behavior. (B.F.
Skinner, 1948, 1953, 1969).
Classical and operant conditioning differ in two important ways.
First, control in operant conditioning is via manipulation of consequences.
Second, operant conditioning calls for examining antecedents, behavior, and
consequences. In operant conditioning, if a behavior is to be repeated, the consequences must be
manipulated. The basis for manipulating consequences is E.L. Thorndike’s law of effect. (The
behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in
an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated).
Reinforcement Strategies:
The integration of the notions of classical conditioning, operant conditioning,
reinforcement, and extrinsic rewards can lead to changes in the direction, level, and persistence
of individual behavior. This is known as OB Mod‖ or organizational behavior modification. OB
Mod is the systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the non-reinforcement or
punishment of unwanted work behavior. Four strategies of OB Mod include: positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement (for avoidance), punishment, and extinction.
 Positive reinforcement-Providing a reward for a desired behavior
 Negative reinforcement-Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired
behavior occurs
  Punishment-Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior
 Extinction-Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation
Schedules of Reinforcement
 Continuous Reinforcement-A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is
demonstrated
 Intermittent Reinforcement-A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated
 Fixed-Interval Schedule-Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals
 Variable-Interval Schedule-Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of
responses

Comparing Various Pay Programs

 Content/Need Theories
Hierarchy of Needs theory
Abraham Maslow hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of
five needs:
1. Physiological.
2. Safety.
3. Social.
4. Esteem.
5. Self-actualization.
Maslow then categorized these 5 needs into lower-order needs and higher-order needs.
Lower order needs are needs that are satisfied externally: physiological and safety needs. Higher-
order needs are needs that are satisfied internally (within the person): social, esteem, and self-
actualization needs.
Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is
based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior
toward subordinates according to these assumptions:
Theory X
Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it;
Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with
punishment to achieve goals;
Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.
Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display
little ambition.
Theory Y:
 Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play;
People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the
objectives;
The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility;
The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population
and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
According to Herzberg, the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct
from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors include factors such as: company
policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary,
Personal life, status, security. Motivator factors include factors such as: achievement,
recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth.
ERG Theory
ERG Theory proposed by Clayton Alderfer of Yale University: Alderfer argues that there
are three groups of core needs:
1) Existence
2) Relatedness
3) Growth
Existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements.
(They include physiological and safety needs)Relatedness group is the desire we have for
maintaining important interpersonal relationships. Growth group is the intrinsic desire for
personal development.
The ERG theory demonstrates that: more than one need may be operative at the same
time; if the gratification of a higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need
increases.

McClelland’s Learned Needs theory

Asserts that people learn many needs from culture. Three primary learned needs:
a. Need for achievement (nAch) — a high nAch is reflected in a person's:
i. Taking responsibility for solving problems.
ii. Setting moderate achievement goals and taking calculated risks.
iii. Desiring performance feedback.
b. Need for affiliation (nAff) — reflects desire for social interaction. Social relationships
valued more important than task performance.
c. Need for power (nPow) — need for obtaining and exercising power and authority.
Negative influence if manifested as dominance and submission; positive if it reflects persuasive
and inspirational behavior.
McClelland asserts that needs are learned from coping with the environment; rewarded
behaviors occur more often than unrewarded ones.
 Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarded
tends to decrease the overall level of motivation. (This concept was proposed in the late 1960s.)
The interdependence of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards is a real phenomenon.
Observations:
1. In the real world, when extrinsic rewards are stopped, it usually means the individual is
no longer part of the organization.
2. Very high intrinsic motivation levels are strongly resistant to the detrimental impacts
of extrinsic rewards.
3. On dull tasks, extrinsic rewards appear to increase intrinsic Motivation

Task Characteristic theories

These theories seek to identify task characteristics of jobs, how these characteristics are
combined to form different jobs, and their relationship to employee motivation, satisfaction, and
performance.
The task characteristics approach began with the pioneering work of Turner and
Lawrence in the mid-1960s.There are at least 7 different task characteristics theories. Three
most important task characteristics theories are:
1. Requisite task attributes theory
2. Job characteristics model, and
3. Social information-processing model.

Requisite Task Attributes Theory:

Turner and Lawrence predicted that employees would prefer jobs that were complex and
challenging; that is, such jobs would increase satisfaction and result in lower absence rates.
They defined job complexity in terms of six task characteristics:
1. Variety;
2. Autonomy;
3. Responsibility;
4. Knowledge and skill;
5. Required social interaction; and
6. Optional social interaction.
Turner and Lawrence’s requisite task attributes theory was important for at least 3
reasons: They demonstrated that employees did respond differently to different types of jobs.
They provided a preliminary set of task attributes by which jobs could be assessed. They focused
attention on the need to consider the influence of individual differences on employees‟ reaction
to jobs.

Job Characteristics Model:

 From the foundation laid by Turner and Lawrence in the mid-1960s, Hackman and
Oldham proposed a Job Characteristics Model (JCM).
According to JCM, any job can be described in terms of 5 core job dimensions, defined
as follows:
1. Skill variety.
2. Task identity.
3. Task significance.
4. Autonomy.
5. Feedback.

The more that the psychological states are present, the greater will be the employee’s
motivation, performance, and satisfaction, and the lower his or her absenteeism and likelihood of
leaving the organization.
For individuals:
High growth need ---> experience psychological states, given that their jobs are enriched than are
their counterparts, with a low growth needs.

The core dimensions can be combined into a single predictive index, called the motivating
potential score (MPS).Most of the empirical evidence supports the general framework-- that is,
there is a multiple set of job characteristics and these characteristics impact behavioral outcomes.

Given the current state of evidence, the following statements can be made with relative
confidence:
1. People who work on jobs with high-core job dimensions are generally more motivated,
satisfied, and productive than are those who do not.
2. Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work
outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.

Computing a Motivating Potential Score:

MPS = (skill + Task + Task ) /3 X autonomy X feedback

variety identity significance

Social Information-Processing Model:

Employees adopt attitudes and behaviors in response to the social cues provided by
others with whom they have contact.
 According to this model, the objective characteristic of a job does not change, but the job
incumbent reconstructed reality based on messages he/she has gotten from others, i.e. peers,
coworkers, etc.

Process/ Cognitive theories

Goal Setting theory
Focuses on the impact of performance goals on task performance
Central proposition: the performance goals that people hold for a particular task are likely to
determine how well they perform the task. Difference in the content of the performance goals
relate to differences in task performance Specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance
as they clearly define acceptable levels of performance, increase the amount of effort exerted,
increase task persistence, lead to more extensive strategy development and planning, orient
individuals toward goal-related knowledge and activities. Setting these kinds of goals also leads
to more effort, greater task persistence, directing individuals toward goal-relevant
activities/knowledge, the development of task strategies and more planning.

Feedback leads to higher performance than those non-feedback.

In addition to feedback, other factors have been found to influence the goals-performance
relationship. These are:
1. Goal commitment.2. Adequate self-efficacy (Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that
he or she is capable of performing a task. Individuals high in self-efficacy seem to respond to
negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, whereas those low in self-efficacy are
likely to lessen their effort when given negative feedback) 3.Task-relevant ability and 4.Task
complexity

Determinants of Self-Set Goals-

Goal choice is determined by
1. Past performance levels
2. Ability
3. Self-efficacy
4. Goal orientation
5. Conscientiousness
6.Need for achievement
7.Goal instrumentality
8.Mood

Control Theory
Developed to address the early criticisms of Goal Setting Theory (self-set goals; dynamic
self-regulation, multiple goals)
It has two forms
  Cybernetic control theory models (Miller et al, 1960; Powers, 1973, 1978)
 Rational control theory models(Campion & Lord, 1982; Kerman & Lord, 1990; Klein,
1989)

Both focus on how individuals gather and evaluate environmental feedback to regulate their
behavior.
A. Cybernetic Control Theory
The output passes through an environmental sensor and a comparison is made between current
behavior and behavioral referent (goal/standard). If there is no discrepancy behavior is
maintained. In case of discrepancy there is a self-correcting motivational tendency which
motivated the person to take a cognitive or behavioral measure to reduce the discrepancy and the
result is a changed output which again passes through the loop.

B. Rational Control Theory

 A goal-behavior discrepancy does not automatically trigger a self-correcting process
 Individuals are tolerant of small goal-behavior discrepancies
 For discrepancies to trigger a reaction, the discrepancy must be known (inward attention)
 Goal must be important factors likely to influence the choice of cognitive and behavioral
mechanisms for discrepancy reduction:
 Magnitude of discrepancy
 Expectancy of future success if discrepancy reduced
 Past success/failure in reducing discrepancy failure
 Tend to use cognitive strategies when discrepancy is large, expectancy for failure is high, and
recent failures present

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)

Also holds that goals are the primary determinants of motivated behavior
Self-regulation of behavior entails 4 interrelated processes
1. Goal establishment
2. Self-observation
3. Self-evaluation
4. Self-reaction

Goal establishment
Set goals that represent a desired behavioral state. Goals are a function of: Past behavior;
are arranged in hierarchies (proximal-distal); Do more than just facilitate progress; Source of
self-satisfaction; Personal mastery; Self-efficacy; Sustained interest. Proximal goals serve a self-
satisfying function—lead to increases in feelings of efficacy and task interest when utilized as a
means of facilitating distal goals
Goal- Behavior Discrepancy
Negative goal-behavior discrepancies reduces self-efficacy & satisfaction, increases effort and
leads to downward goal revision. Positive discrepancies leads to upward goal revision and
increases self-efficacy. Self-efficacy -impacts goal establishment, impacts performance and
increases strategy development & planning.
Discrepancy Reduction/Production
It is the change in satisfaction and/or self-efficacy that motivates discrepancy reduction
strategies. Some of these strategies are:
Increase effort
 Change task strategy
 Lower goal
 Abandon activity (if discrepancy is large)
Also a discrepancy production process (set higher standards) depends on:
 Self efficacy
 Ability level
 Perceived importance of the goal
The process is not automatic. Responses may differ due to factors that will alter
perceptions of discrepancies like Dispositional factors, Affective factors, Cognitive factors and
Contextual factors

Equity theory
Individuals make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relatives to those of
others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities. Inequity arises when an employee is
either under rewarded or over rewarded. Stacy Adams proposed that this negative tension state
provides the motivation to do something to correct it.
When employees perceive an inequity they can be predicted to make one of six choices:
1. Change their inputs.
2. Change their outcomes.
3. Distort perceptions of self.
4. Distort perceptions of others.
5. Choose a different referent.
6. Leave the field.

Specifically, the theory establishes 4 propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Given payment by time, over-rewarded employees will produce more than will equitably paid
employees.
2. Given payment by quantity of production, over-rewarded employees will produce fewer, but
higher-quality, units than will equitably paid employees.
3. Given payment by time, under-rewarded employees will produce less or poorer quality of
output.
4. Given payment by quantity of production, under-rewarded employees will produce a large
number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees

While most research on equity theory has focused on pay, employees seem to look for
equity in the distribution of other organizational rewards.
Equity theory demonstrates that, for most employees, motivation is influenced
significantly by relative rewards as well as by absolute rewards.

Justice and Equity Theory

Organizational justice is the overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. It has
three components
(a) Distributive justice: Perceived fairness of outcome
(b) Procedural justice: Perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome
(c) Interactional justice: Perceived degree to which one is treated with dignity and
respect.

Expectancy Theory
Based on early work of Tolman, 1932.

Vroom’s Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy Model (VIE; 1964)

Human behavior is the result of conscious choices made by individuals among alternative
courses of action. Goal is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. This goal is achieved via 3
perceptions.
 Expectancy: perceived likelihood that engaging in a given behavior will lead to a 1st
level outcome
 Instrumentality: perceptions of the link between obtainment of the 1st level outcome
and the attainment of 2nd level outcomes
 Valence: Affective orientation held toward the outcome. Positively valent outcomes
are desirable and negatively valent outcomes are undesirable
These 3 perceptions combine to create a motivational force. The strength of a tendency to
act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that an act will be followed by a
given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. (This is first proposed
by Victor Vroom)
Vj = ƒ*ΣIjkVk+
Vj = valence of outcome j
Ijk = instrumentality of outcome j for the attainment of outcome k
Vk = Valence is anticipated satisfaction
 Fi = fi Σ (EijVj)
Fi = force to perform act I
Vj = valence of outcome j
Eij = expectancy that act i will lead to (be followed by) outcome j
Thus, it includes 3 variables or relationships:
1. Attractiveness (of the outcome).
2. Performance - reward linkage. Performance = f ( A, M, O)Ability = intelligence
and skills
O = Opportunity to perform
3. Effort - performance linkage.
The key to understanding of an individual’s goals and the linkage between effort and
performance, between performance and rewards, and finally, between rewards and individual
goal satisfaction.

Some of the issues expectancy theory brought forward:

1. It emphasizes payoffs or rewards. (It is a theory based on self-interest. “Expectancy
theory is a form of calculative, psychological hedonism in which the ultimate motive of every
human act is asserted to be the maximization of pleasure and/or the minimization of pain.”
2. The attractiveness of rewards.
3. Expectancy theory emphasizes expected behaviors
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Rewards exert their influence on intrinsic motivation through their ability to satisfy or
frustrate two innate needs:
Need for competence (White, 1968)
Need for self-determination (deCharmes, 1968)
If a reward enhances perceptions of competence and self-determination, intrinsic
motivation will also increase
Theory considers both tangible and environmental rewards (feedback, recognition)

Factors that impact intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

Negatively:
 Performance contingent rewards
 Negative feedback
 Threats
 Deadlines
  Directives
 Competition
Positively:
 Positive performance feedback
 Choice
 Self-direction
Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation
1. Choice
2. Competence
3. Meaningfulness
4. Progress

Building Blocks for Intrinsic Rewards

In the book Intrinsic Motivation at Work: Building Energy and Commitment. Copyright
© K. Thomas, the author has classified intrinsic rewards as follows:
Leading for Choice
Delegated authority
Trust in workers
Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes
A clear purpose
Information
Leading for Competence
Knowledge
Positive feedback
Skill recognition
Challenge
High, non-comparative standards
Leading for Meaningfulness
A no cynical climate
Clearly identified passions
An exciting vision
Relevant task purposes
Whole tasks
Leading for Progress
A collaborative climate
 Milestones
Celebrations
Access to customers
Measurement of improvement

Putting It All Together

 However, for practical purposes all the motivation theories should be considered together
as an integrated concept as in the organizational setup all of them work together in a well-
blended way to have an effect on an employee’s attitude or behavior.

Implication of Motivation theories for Performance and Satisfaction

Reinforcement Theories
Reinforcement Theory - predicts factors like quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort,
absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.

Content Theories
Need Theories - These were Maslow’s hierarchy, motivation-hygiene, ERG, and McClelland’s
need theories. Employees will be motivated to satisfy their needs. Therefore …If needs are
assumed to differ: Match employees to situations (e.g., select leaders with high nPower). If needs
are assumed to be common: Design jobs to satisfy basic needs (e.g., job enrichment)
Task Characteristics Theories - address all four dependent variables: skill variety, task identity
and significance, autonomy, and feedback.

Process Theories
Goal-setting Theory - Clear and difficult goals lead to higher levels of employee productivity.
Equity Theory - deals with all 4 dependent variables. But it is strongest when predicting absence
and turnover behaviors and weak when predicting differences in employee productivity.
Expectancy Theory - proves to offer a relatively powerful explanation of employee
productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. But expectancy theory assumes that employees have
few constraints on their decision discretion.

APPLICATION

I. Answer the following questions, write your answers on the space provided.

1. Why is it important for a manager to consider the various components of motivation

when diagnosing motivation problems? Explain.
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 2. Which of the content approach or the process approach best explains motivation?
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3. What implications does Herzberg's two-factor theory have for the design of
organizational reward systems? How can the theory be used to explain differences in
the three components of motivation?
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4. What would it be like to manage an organization where all the employees were self-
actualized? What kinds of opportunities and problems would this situation present to
management?
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5. How important a role does perception play in determining whether an employee is

receiving equitable treatment? What kinds of things might a manager do to influence
those perceptions?
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6. Goal-setting can be a difficult system to implement effectively. What kinds of
problems might be encountered in an effort to implement a goal-setting program in an
organization? As a manager, what would you do to minimize the likelihood you
would encounter these problems
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Feedback
I. What do you think is the value of studying MOTIVATION?

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SUMMARY
Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals,
conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need.
The theories of motivation can be divided into three broad categories which includes the
Reinforcement theories that emphasize the means through which the process of controlling an
individual’s behavior by manipulating its consequences takes place, Content theories that focus
primarily on individual needs - the physiological or psychological deficiencies that we feel a
compulsion to reduce or eliminate and Process theories that focus on the thought or cognitive
processes that take place within the minds of people and that influence their behavior.
Reinforcement theories includes the classical and operant conditioning, Content need
theories includes the Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Theory x and Theory y, Motivation-Hygiene
Theory, ERG Theory, McClelland’s Learned Needs theory and Task Characteristic theories. And
Process/ Cognitive theories includes the Goal Setting theory, Control Theory, Equity theory,
Justice and Equity Theory and Expectancy Theory.
The Reinforcement Theories implication for performance and satisfaction predicts factors
like quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.
 On Content Theories, Need Theories were Maslow’s hierarchy, motivation-hygiene,
ERG, and McClelland’s need theories. Employees will be motivated to satisfy their needs.
Therefore, if needs are assumed to differ: Match employees to situations (e.g., select leaders with
high nPower). If needs are assumed to be common: Design jobs to satisfy basic needs (e.g., job
enrichment). While Task Characteristics Theories addresses all four dependent variables: skill
variety, task identity and significance, autonomy, and feedback.
Lastly, Process Theories wherein Goal-setting Theory is a Clear and difficult goals lead
to higher levels of employee productivity. Equity Theory deals with all 4 dependent variables.
But it is strongest when predicting absence and turnover behaviors and weak when predicting
differences in employee productivity. And Expectancy Theory proves to offer a relatively
powerful explanation of employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. But expectancy
theory assumes that employees have few constraints on their decision discretion.

REFERENCE
Organizational Behaviour, Stephen P.Robbins, Timothi A.Judge and Seema Sanghi, 12th ed,
Pearson Education
Organizational behaviour-Human behaviour at work by John W Newstrom, 12th edition,
McGrawHill
Organizational behavior and management by Ivancevich, Konopaske and Matteson 7th edition,
Tata McGrawHill
Organisational Behaviour by Steven L Mc Shane Mary Ann Von Glinow Radha R Sharma Tata
McGrawHill
Organizational behavior by Don Hellriegel; John W. Slocum; Richard W.Woodman-8th edition,
Thomson South-Western