ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 & 2026-2028 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Mbako Fx for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalised,

and the species are not.
1. Characteristics and The classification of organisms helps show the
evolutionary relationships between them.
Classification of Living Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help
classify organisms.
Organisms The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely the two
organisms are related.
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms
Dichotomous Keys
The Age-Old Acronym: MRS GREN
Dichotomous Keys use visible features to classify
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to
another option until the organism is narrowed down to its
genus and species.

Movement: an action by an organism or part of an

organism causing a change of position or place
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break
down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in
the internal or external environment 1.3. Features of Organisms
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the same The Five Kingdoms
kind of organism
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth,
and development

1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification

System
Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living
Sequence of Classification organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
Organisms are classified into groups by the features they their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
share. chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
Species: a group of organisms that can reproduce to Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic and
produce fertile offspring. saprotrophic organisms with cell walls not made of
Sequence of Classification: Kingdom → Phylum → Classes cellulose, spread by spreading spores in moist/dark/warm
→ Orders → Families → Genus → Species. environments. Most have hyphae and mycelium in
Acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Good Soup structure. Ex: yeast, mushrooms.
Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true nucleus
The Binomial Nomenclature or DNA in the cytoplasm. Many also have plasmids. Ex:
E.coli, Salmonella.
The Binomial System of Naming Species is an
Protist or Protoctist: Single-celled organism with a
internationally agreed system in which an organism's nucleus. Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba,
scientific name is comprised of two parts, namely, the
seaweed.
genus and species.

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Reproduce sexually through flowers and seeds

1.4. Vertebrates
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower

Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
One cotyledon/One-seed leaf Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf
Parallel veins Branching veins
Long Narrow Leaf Broad leaves
The Number of Petals is a The Number of Petals is a
Multiple of 3 Multiple of 4 or 5
Scattered Vascular Bundles Ringed Vascular Bundles
Types of Vertebrates Features
Fur on the skin, External ears Tip: Differentiating monocotyledons and
Mammals (pinna), Internal fertilisation, dicotyledons comes up frequently in Multiple
Mammary Glands Choice Questions
Thick, dry, scaly skin, Usually four
Reptiles legs, Internal fertilisation, Soft 1.7. Viruses
Shelled Eggs
Wet scales, Streamlined body Viruses are not part of any classification system due to
Fish shape, External fertilisation, and not being considered living things.
soft eggs They do not carry out the seven life processes for
Smooth, moist skin, External themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s metabolic
fertilisation, and soft eggs, Gills, & pathways to make multiple copies of themselves.
Amphibians
Lungs can live on land and water. Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA or
Most have four legs. DNA) inside a protein coat.
Feathers on the body and scales on Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
ribosomes)
legs, Constant internal body
Birds
temperature, Hard eggs, Internal
fertilisation, birth through eggs

1.5. Arthropods
Invertebrates: Organisms that do not have a backbone.
All arthropods have three standard features:

1. Exoskeleton
2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body

Type of Arthropod Number of Legs

Insects 6 2. Organisation of the
Arachnids 8
Crustaceans >10 Organism
Myriapods >20
2.1. Cell Structure
1.6. Classification of Plants All living things are made of cells.
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns
All typical eukaryotic cells (multicellular) have:
and flowering plants.
Cell Membrane: controls movement in and out of cells
Ferns: Cytoplasm: where chemical reactions take place
Do not produce flowers/seeds Nucleus: contains DNA (genetic material) and controls
They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves the cell
Reproduce by spores Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Flowering plants: Ribosome: allows protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves

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Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it The division of existing cells produces new cells.
looks rough under the microscope.
A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all the above. Key Terms
Plant cells especially also have:
Cells: Building Blocks of Life
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
Cell Wall: rigid to hold the shape of the cell,
together to perform a shared function
strengthens the cell
Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light
specific function
energy for photosynthesis
Organ system: Group of organs with related functions
A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has everything
working together to perform body functions.
above.
Organism: A human

Specialised Cells

Specialised Cells have Specific Functions.

Specialised Cells Specific Function Location of Cell

Movement of
Respiratory Tract,
mucus in the
Ciliated cells Fallopian Tube,
trachea and
Testes
bronchi
Root Hair cells Absorption Roots
Palisade Mesophyll
Tip: You are required to know the comparisons between them Photosynthesis Leaf Cells
cell
and their specific functions
Conduction of Everywhere in an
Neurones
Prokaryotes electrical impulses organism
Transport of Everywhere in an
Red Blood cells
Prokaryotes (Unicellular) DO NOT have mitochondria and a oxygen organism
true nucleus. Sperm and Egg
In their respective
cells/ovum For reproduction
One example of a prokaryote is bacteria. gonads
(gametes)
A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall made of
peptidoglycan, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and
plasmids. 2.3. Magnification
It lacks a nucleus and is represented by a circular
chromosome of DNA. The general formula is represented in this way:
Plasmids are small, circular rings of DNA in the cytoplasm
with extra genes outside the chromosomal DNA. size of drawing image I
M agnification = = =
size of specimen actual
​ ​ ​

A
Other Forms in Magnification Formula

Actual size = image size ÷ magnification

Image size = magnification x actual size

Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)

1cm = 10mm
1mm = 1000μm
1μm = 0.001mm

Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)

Syllabus 2.1.3: You must be able to identify the
cell structures in diagrams and images of Tip: This comes out frequently in all three
plant, animal and bacterial cells papers.

2.2. Levels of Organisation

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Conc. of Solute Conc. of Solute

3. Movement In and Out of (In-Cell) (Outside-Cell)
Condition of the Cell

Cells Low High

Cell Shrinks
(Flaccid/Hypertonic)
Same Same No Change (Isotonic)
3.1. Diffusion High Low Turgid/Hypotonic

Diffusion: Net movement of particles down the concentration

gradient (high → low) as a result of their random movement. In Animals

Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it

to burst (plasmolysis) because it has too much water and
no cell wall.

In Plants

Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the

cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up. The cell
wall can withstand the higher turgor pressure.
Decreasing solute concentration inside of the cell causes
the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole
gets smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from the
cell wall.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the
Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of the
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.
random movement of molecules and ions.
The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as without
it, molecules that are needed for life, for example, glucose
and oxygen for respiration, would not be able to get to the
places they are required.
Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
through the cell membrane.

Factors that influence diffusion (Passive Transport)

Concentration gradient
Temperature Dialysis Tubing Experiment
Surface area to volume ratio
Dialysis Tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living, partially
Distance
permeable membrane made from cellulose.
Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large
3.2. Osmosis molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller molecules
(such as glucose and water) to pass through by
The role of water acts as a solvent in organisms to aid diffusion and osmosis.
with digestion, excretion, and transport.

Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region of

higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially
permeable membrane.

3.3. Active Transport

Conc. of Solute Conc. of Solute
Condition of the Cell
(In-Cell) (Outside-Cell) Active Transport: Movement of particles through a cell
membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher

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concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient), Positive Negative

Test for: Solution Process
using energy from respiration. Result Result

Carrier Proteins or Protein Carriers are also used during Add ethanol to
active transport. the sample and
Cloudy
Fats Ethanol shake with an N/A
Emulsion
equal volume of
water.
Add DCPIP
Vitamin C DCPIP solution to the Colourless Blue
sample

It is embedded in the cell membrane to pick up specific

molecules and take them through the cell membrane
against their concentration gradient.
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by root
hair cells.

4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules 4.3. Structure of a DNA
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA
Oxygen (CHO) DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.
Fats and Oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
(CHO)
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})

Smaller molecules Larger molecules

Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids Proteins

4.2. Food Tests Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled
DNA
Positive Negative Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
Test for: Solution Process
Result Result Each strand contains chemicals called Bases
Add Benedict Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases
Reducing Benedict solution into a The bases always pair up in the same way:
Brick Red Blue A and T
Sugars Solution beaker and Heat
Up to 70-80°C C and G
You do NOT need to know the names of the DNA bases
Add Iodine
Iodine for this syllabus.
Starch solution to the Blue-Black Brown
Solution
specimen

Biuret
Add Biuret 5. Enzymes
Protein solution to the Purple/Violet Blue
Solution
sample

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If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken,

5.1. Enzymes
denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the
Catalyst: A substance which increases the reaction rate substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs.
Pepsin in acidic conditions, Amylase in neutral conditions
and causes no changes in the reaction.
and trypsin in alkalinity conditions.
Biological Catalyst: A living substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
Enzymes: Specific proteins involved in all metabolic 5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme
reactions, functioning as biological catalysts.
Activity
Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
reaction to take place.
Effect of Temperature Effect of pH
It is essential in all living organisms regarding the reaction
rate necessary to sustain life.
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused

Lock and Key Model

6. Plant Nutrition
6.1. Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
light+chlorophyll
C arbonDioxide + Water ​ Glucose + Ox
Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to react, light+cholorophyll
complementary to the active site.
6C O2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ +C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2
​ ​ ​ ​

Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of
Different sequences of amino acids may lead to different a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences may Chlorophyll is a green dye that traps light energy and
be deferred in their function. converts it into chemical energy to form carbohydrates
and their subsequent storage.
Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
5.2. Temperature on Enzymes cell walls, and making proteins and sugars.

Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the temperature Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in
at which they work best, giving the fastest reaction ≈ at Photosynthesis
37°C in animals & human bodies.
When temperature increases, molecules move faster, starch as an energy store
more effectively, and frequently collide. cellulose to build cell walls
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to glucose used in respiration to provide energy
bind to active sites. sucrose for transport in the phloem
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape and 6.2. Investigation of Chlorophyll
no longer binding with a substrate.
When the temperature is too low, there is not enough Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly. leaves.
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for
5.3. pH on Enzymes about 48 hours.
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
Enzymes are sensitive to pH. Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell
Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration
alkaline. by ethanol.
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH.

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Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract Hydrogencarbonate indicator: measures the carbon dioxide
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation concentration
Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf
The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it
will remain brown.

Key: PMROY, purple being the lowest carbon dioxide

concentration, and yellow the highest.
6.3. Investigation of Light
NOTE: This type of question is famous in IGCSE Biology Paper 6.5. Limiting Factors
2.
Limiting Factors: something present in the environment in
De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 hours such short supply that it restricts life processes.
Place a stencil over part of a leaf Light Intensity
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours As the amount of light
Remove the stencil and test for starch increases, the rate of
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue-black photosynthesis increases (a-
-ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain brown b)
The limiting factor is light
Increasing the amount of light
after a certain point does not
affect the rate (c)
The limiting factor is now
carbon dioxide or
temperature

6.4. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide

6.6. Leaf Structure
Take two de-starched potted plants.
Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area
B. and are thin.
Inside A, keep N aHC O3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
​

produces C O2 . ​

Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs

C O2 .
​

Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight

for at least 6 hours

Cuticle: the waxy layer that prevents water loss from the
top of the leaf
Upper/Lower Epidermis: transparent cell that allows
sunlight to pass through to the palisade cell
Palisade mesophyll: is found at the top of the cell and
contains many chloroplasts that absorb sunlight.
The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test Spongy mesophyll: irregularly shaped cells that create air
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch spaces to allow the gaseous exchange to take place; do
test not contain many chloroplasts
Vascular Bundles: made up of xylem and phloem

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Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved Nutrients Uses

minerals and has lignified walls made of cellulose Carbohydrates Energy
Phloem: a vessel that transports nutrients
Source of energy, building materials,
Stomata: little holes that open and close to allow the
Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy,
gaseous exchange to occur. The stomata are close to
making hormones
prevent water loss and open to letting gases in and out.
When guard cells lose water, the stoma closes (at night), Energy, building materials, enzymes,
while the stoma opens when guard cells gain water & Proteins haemoglobin, structural material
swell (during the day). (muscle), hormones, antibodies
Guard Cells: control the opening and closing of stomata Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases
Vitamin D Absorption of calcium
Development and maintenance of
Calcium
strong bones and teeth
Iron Making haemoglobin
Provides bulk for faeces, helps
Fibre (Roughage)
peristalsis
Chemical reactions, solvent for
Water
transport

7.3. Deficiencies
Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones
Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain how and teeth
the structures above adapt leaves for
photosynthesis 7.4. Digestive System
6.7. Mineral Requirements
Nitrate ions Magnesium ions
Making amino acids Making chlorophyll
Deficiency: small plant due to Deficiency: plant lacks
slow/stunted growth chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow

Tip! You need to know the purpose of these Process of Digestion

required nutrients.
Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the
body through the mouth.
7. Human Nutrition Physical/Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food into
smaller pieces without chemical change.
It increases the surface area of food for the action of
7.1. Diet enzymes in chemical digestion.
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food
Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of molecules into small, soluble molecules.
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
to maintain good health and metabolism.
into the blood
Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle: Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells
Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body
Children Below 12: Require more calcium
as faeces
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal
Males: Generally, require more energy
Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an
area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
7.2. Nutrition ingestion takes place

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Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase Structure of Tooth

and helps food slide down the oesophagus
Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums
(circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
from mouth to stomach
Stomach: has pepsin (a protease that works best in acidic
conditions) to break down proteins into amino acids and
kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They also have elastic
walls.
Mechanical digestion in the stomach occurs via
peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle.
Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from
Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
calcium salts
parts:
Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested by Cement: helps to anchor tooth
pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol. Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and
Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break nerve endings that detect pain.
down starch. Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
Jejunum: Contains many microvilli, majority of the collagen fibres
primary nutrient absorption happens here. Nerves
Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This Blood vessels
is where absorption also takes place.
Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin (a protease that 7.6. Chemical Digestion
works best in alkaline conditions), and lipase.
Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat Chemical Digestion: Enzymes break down large insoluble
molecules), deamination, and makes urea to be sent to substances, such as proteins, into smaller soluble
the kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol substances, like amino acids, so that they can be absorbed.
and other toxins.
Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is produced
Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two in the pancreas (but also in the salivary gland)
parts: Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose in the
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins membrane of the epithelium lining in small intestines.
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides and then
body’s water levels into amino acids. Pepsin comes from the stomach, and
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored trypsin comes from the pancreas (alkali).
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,
released. produced by the pancreas.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need to Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:
be known. Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms
Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Kills pathogens
7.5. Teeth Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid mixture
of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum from
Our teeth play a key role in mechanical digestion to help
the stomach to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action.
increase the surface area of food.
Incisors Canines Premolars Molars
7.7. Absorption and Villus
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood

Blunt for
Blunt chewing
Rectangular chewing and
Sharp-pointed and grinding.
shape, sharp grinding, one
for piercing Two or three
for cutting and or two roots,
and tearing roots, ridges
biting cusps/bumps
at the end
at the end

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Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and

images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
dicotyledonous plants

8.2. Water Uptake

The small intestine is the region for absorption of
digested food. Root Hair Cells
The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing the
surface area for absorption. One villus will have tiny folds Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil
on the cells on its outside called microvilli. They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area,
The epithelium is one cell thick, allowing efficient diffusion which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis and
of nutrients. ions by active transport.
A large surface area means more absorption of nutrients
The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases
can happen.
the uptake of water and mineral ions.
Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Capillaries: provide a good blood supply and a steep Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis
concentration gradient. because water potential is higher in soil than in the
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and cytoplasm.
some from the colon (large intestine). Then, it enters into the root cortex cells, xylem, and lastly,
the mesophyll cells.

8. Transport in Plants Investigate the Pathway of Water through the

Above-Ground Parts of a Plant
8.1. Xylem and Phloem
Water uptake can be investigated by placing a plant (like
Functions of Xylem celery) into a beaker of water with a stain (dye, food
colouring) added.
transport water and mineral ions, and support the plant’s A few hours later, the celery leaves turn the same colour
overall structure. as the dyed water.
When the cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain
Functions of Phloem
areas are stained by the colour of the water, showing that
transport sucrose and amino acids from the sink to the it is being carried in specific vessels through the stem -
source (and vice versa) a.k.a xylem vessels.

Adaptations of Xylem 8.3. Transpiration

1. thick walls with lignin (Information about lignification
are not required) Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, which
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the
2. no cell contents
3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
long, continuous tube

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air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata.

Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by

an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
diffuses out of the stomata. 9. Transport in Animals
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between 9.1. Circulatory Systems
mesophyll cells and the size and number of stomata.
Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
transpiration pull that draws up a column of water arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
molecules held together by forces of attraction between to ensure a one-way flow of blood.
water molecules.
Single Circulation System (fish):
Wilting Blood flows through the heart once every complete
circuit (No Septum)
Wilting: occurs if water loss exceeds water uptake – cells Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle)
become flaccid, and tissues become limp. Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills in lower-pressure
Released in body cells, then back to the heart
Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration Double Circulation System:
Four heart chambers
Temperature: The kinetic energy of the water molecules Blood passes through the heart twice every complete
increases, so they evaporate and diffuse faster from the circuit
mesophyll cells, increasing the transpiration rate Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body, and
Humidity: Low humidity increases the concentration back to the heart
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, hence Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
increasing the transpiration rate around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated
Wind Speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a blood to it from the lungs, preventing the mixing of
steep concentration gradient oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

8.4. Translocation 9.2. Heart

Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of circuit.
storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth
(sinks).

Translocation in different seasons:

Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.

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Right Atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to the Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and
right ventricle deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle.
Pulmonary Artery: carries deoxygenated blood from the
right ventricle to the lungs 9.5. Coronary Heart Disease
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood separate. The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.
Pulmonary Vein: carries oxygenated blood from the lungs
to the left atrium The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting blood
Left Atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to the supply to the heart muscle.
left ventricle Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
Left Ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via heart attack
the aorta Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to genetic predisposition, age and sex
the rest of the body This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty food
Atrioventricular and Semi-lunar Valves: prevent backflow (a good diet) and exercising regularly
of blood

IMPORTANT! Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right

9.6. Blood Vessels
Ventricle < Left Ventricle
Vessel Function Structure
Elastic tissue walls
9.3. Functioning of the Heart
stretch and relax as
The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows
blood is forced out;
Transport high-pressure causes pulse
into the right atrium via the vena cava. Arteries
Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is blood away from heart Thick walls to withstand
pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the right high pressure
ventricle. Small lumen maintains
The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed (high) blood pressure.
into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar valve, Valves prevent backflow
which prevents blood from flowing backwards into the of blood.
heart.
Blood is at low pressure,
The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the
but nearby muscles
capillaries, passing the alveoli. Transport low pressure
Veins squeeze veins and help
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the blood to the heart
push blood to the heart
pulmonary vein
It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the left
Large and wide lumen to
ventricle reduce resistance to the
The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push flow of blood
the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body One cell thick wall for
The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood from easy diffusion
flowing back down into the heart Highly branched; large
Allow substances to surface area
Example Past Year Question Capillaries
diffuse into cells Capillary beds
constantly supplied with
Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in arteries
fresh blood, so diffusion
(0610/42/F/M/23)
occurs
caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)
pressure increases when the heart / ventricles Major Blood Vessels
contract/pump
pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins
Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins
9.4. Exercise on Heart Rate
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein
The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and heart to the liver
listening to the sounds of the valves closing.

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The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the liver Phagocyte Lymphocyte
back to the heart Phagocytosis: engulfs
The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood Large nucleus/small
pathogen, vesicles fuse with
from the gut to the liver cytoplasm, and they produce
the vacuole, enzymes digest
antibodies,
bacteria.
Antigens: Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins
protein/carbohydrate on the bind to label pathogens,
surface of the pathogen which marking them for destruction
provokes the immune system by the phagocytes.

Blood Clotting

Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out

Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a
Arterioles and Venules
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to form
a scab.

10. Diseases and Immunity

10.1. Pathogens
Pathogen: a disease-causing organism.
The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called Transmissible Disease: a disease in which the pathogen
arterioles can be passed from one host to another.
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be
venules transmitted either:
Direct Contact: the pathogen is passed directly from
one host to another through blood, body fluids, semen,
9.7. Blood etc.
Indirect Contact: the pathogen leaves the host and is
Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and
carried in some way to another e.g., contaminated
oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
surfaces/food, from animals, from air
White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody production
Platelets: allows/promotes blood clotting
Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea, 10.2. Body Defences
hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
dissolved substances) The human body has many natural defences against
pathogens.
Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify red
and white blood cells in photomicrographs and Mechanical barriers:
diagrams Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells
Chemical barriers:
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens
In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which
kills many of the bacteria in food
Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these
defences are destroyed by white blood cells:
White Blood Cells
Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens
by phagocytosis
Phagocyte Lymphocyte
Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill the
Phagocytes have pathogen and vaccination against disease helps
Lymphocytes have a circular
lobed/irregular C-shaped antibodies to be made very quickly
nucleus and are found in
nuclei and vesicles containing
blood
digestive enzymes. Ways of Controlling the Spread of Diseases

a clean water supply

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hygienic food preparation

10.4. Cholera
good personal hygiene
waste disposal Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces
sewage treatment
Oral rehydration therapy and antibiotics are used to cure
this**.**
10.3. Active and Passive Immunity One of these is infectious by a bacterium, “Vibrio
cholerae”, causing cholera.
Antibody: proteins that bind to antigens, directly destroying or Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium transmitted in
marking pathogens for destruction by phagocytes. contaminated water.
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes the
The surface of the pathogen contains antigens, and they
secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing
have specific shapes.
lower osmotic water movement into the gut, causing
Specific antibodies have complementary shapes which fit
diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from the blood.
specific antigens.
To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be made
that are exactly the right shape to fit into antigens outside 11. Gas Exchange in Humans
the pathogen.
Antibodies lock onto antigens, leading to the destruction
of pathogens/marking of pathogens for phagocytes to 11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces
engulf.
If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many Properties Reasons
lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen Short distance to diffuse (one cell
Thin surface
and divide rapidly by mitosis. thick)
These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, creating Many molecules can diffuse at
active immunity. Large surface area
once/More alveoli
Regular fresh air supplies keep up
Active Immunity
Good ventilation concentration gradients for oxygen
and carbon dioxide.
Active Immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
production in the body. Gases can be carried to/from the
Good blood supply
cells that need/produce them
Active Immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen or
by vaccination.
Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by
11.2. Structure of the Lungs
pathogens.
The lung contains a diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles,
Having a population vaccinated against a particular
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated
disease helps to achieve herd immunity.
capillaries
Process of Vaccination:
weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into the
body
the antigens stimulate an immune response by
lymphocytes, which produce antibodies
memory cells are produced that give long-term
immunity

Passive Immunity

Passive Immunity: short-term defences against a pathogen by

antibodies acquired from another individual.
Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from
Memory cells are NOT made in passive Immunity
Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding. collapsing during the absence of air and protects it by
keeping it open.
Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother,
which are passed on to her baby. Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and expand
and contract (and efficient breathing).
Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated
between the ribs that create and move the chest wall.
against any diseases.
Some diseases are caused by the immune system Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in
the thorax, leading to the ventilation of the lungs.
targeting and destroying body cells.

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Composition of Breathing Dry Air Ciliated cells have cilia, little hairs which sweep/beat back
and forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus up the
Inspired Air Expired Air lungs into the mouth.
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4% 12. Respiration
Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water Vapour Lower Higher
12.1. Respiration
Test for CO2: Add CO2 through limewater. +ve result = Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient
turns cloudy molecules in living cells to release energy.

11.3. Physical Activity on Breathing Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle
contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active
Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the
respiration - and higher CO2 concentration in the blood. maintenance of a constant body temperature.
This is measured with a spirometer to produce a Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to
speed up the reaction.
spirogram.
During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate; the
change in breathing volume and rate helps keep CO2
Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast
concentration and pH safe.
An indicator, Methylene Blue, can be used to investigate
the effect of temperature on yeast cells.
11.4. Breathing Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically,
though, in this experiment, their aerobic respiration rate
Inspiration Expiration is being investigated.
External intercostal muscles External intercostal muscles The time taken for the methylene blue to lose its colour
contract – pulls ribcage relax – ribcage falls measures the respiration rate of the yeast cells in the
upwards and outwards downwards and inwards suspension.
Diaphragm muscles contract Diaphragm muscles relax – The faster the dye changes from blue to colourless,
the faster the respiration rate.
– the diaphragm moves return to a dome shape, and
IV: Effect of Temperature
downwards, and the volume the volume of the thorax
DV: Rate of Respiration (recording the time taken for
of the thorax increases decreases
methylene blue dye to change from blue to colourless)
Atmospheric Pressure > Atmospheric Pressure <
Pressure in Thorax Pressure in Thorax
Air moves into the lungs Air moves out of the lungs

Exam Tip! In the exam, always state that

energy is released; it is NEVER made,
produced, or created.

12.2. Aerobic Respiration

Internal intercostal muscles are used in coughing and Aerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells that use
oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy
sneezing.
Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
Glucose + Oxygen → C arbonDioxide + Water
and eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms.
C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6C O2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

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12.3. Anaerobic Respiration 13.2. Function of Liver

Anaerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells break down The role of the liver is in the assimilation of amino acids by
nutrient molecules to release energy without using oxygen. converting them to proteins.

In muscles (vigorous exercise):

Glucose → Lactic Acid
In yeast (single-cell fungi):
Glucose → Ethanol + C arbon Dioxide
C 6 H12 O6 → 2C 2 H5 OH + 2C O2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Disadvantages of Anaerobic Respiration:

Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose
molecule that aerobic respiration would
Produces poisonous lactic acid
Lactic Acid:
Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
exercise
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do
this, which causes you to continue breathing heavily Deamination: removal of the nitrogen-containing part of
after exercise.
amino acids to form urea.
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt. Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by body cells
Oxygen Debt is removed by:
continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.
in the blood from the muscles to the liver Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver.
continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply
oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid
13.3. Function of Kidney
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver
Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption
12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and of glucose and some salts
Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic Anaerobic
Oxygen Needed Not needed
Breakdown of
Complete Incomplete
Glucose
Animals: Lactic Acid
Carbon Dioxide
Products & Yeast: Carbon
and Water
Dioxide and Ethanol
Amount of Energy
More Less
Released

13. Excretion in Humans

13.1. Excretion
Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the
waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells
including respiration) and substances in excess of
requirements.
Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules
Substances should include carbon dioxide (lungs), urea, Ureter: carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
excess water and ions (kidney). Medulla: has loops of Henlé and collecting ducts
The importance of excretion is due to the toxicity of the Urethra: carrying urine from the bladder to the outside.
urea. Bladder: stores urine
Renal artery: brings wastes and water from the blood

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Renal vein: reabsorbs water and functional molecules and Motor Neurone
leaves wastes behind
Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or the
13.4. Structure and Function of the glands)

Nephron

Sensory Neurone

Carry impulses from the sense organs (sensory

receptors) to the CNS.
1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters the
glomerulus. Water, urea, salts, and glucose are forced
into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and large
proteins cannot pass through.
2. Selective reabsorption: in the tubule, two-thirds of the
salt and water and all the glucose move out of the
nephron by active transport. These substances are
reabsorbed back into the blood capillary.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to water but not
salt. Water is drawn out of the filtrate in the nephron
by osmosis because of the low water potential of the Relay Neurone (Interneurone)
medulla tissue fluid.
4. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move into The middleman inside the CNS connects sensory to motor
the collecting duct, forming urine. neurones.

14. Coordination and

Response
14.1. Mammalian Nervous System
The mammalian nervous system consists of two parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain
14.3. Simple Reflex Arc
and spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination.
Reflex Action: automatically and rapidly integrates and
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) comprises nerves
coordinates the stimuli with the responses of effectors
and neurones, which coordinate and regulate body
(muscles and glands).
functions.
Electrical impulses travel through the neurones. E.g. quickly removing your hand from the hot metal
The nervous system helps with the coordination and surface
regulation of body functions. They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay
neurone and a motor neurone.
14.2. Types of Neurones The gap between neurones is called a synapse.
How the simple reflex arc works:
Nerve Impulse: an electrical signal that passes along the A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that
nerve cells called neurones converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse)
Axons: Ensure less time is wasted when the impulse is A sensory neurone carries impulses from the receptor
transferred from one neurone to another to the CNS (spinal cord)
Dendrities: Extensions which form a network for easy Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly
communication. (because it has no myelin sheath) across the spinal

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cord
The motor neurone carries impulses from the CNS to
the effector
The effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out
the response

Cornea: refracts light

Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
Lens: focuses light onto the retina
Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of
different colours (Rods and cones)
Optic nerves: carry impulses to the brain
Pupil: A hole which allows light to enter

14.4. Synapse 14.6. Pupil Reflex

Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a

gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter
Adjusting for high and low light intensity
An involuntary response

Low Light High Light

Intensity Intensity
Radial Muscles Contract Relax
Circular Muscles Relax Contract
Pupil Size Wide Narrow
Amount of Light
More Less
Entering

14.7. Accommodation
Accommodation: Adjusting for near and distant objects.

The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called

The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction accommodation
only. The lens is elastic, and its shape can be changed when the
Synaptic cleft: the small gap between each pair of suspensory ligaments attached to it become tight or loose
neurones The contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles brings
Inside the neurone’s axon, there are 100s of tiny vacuoles about the changes
(vesicles, each containing a chemical called
neurotransmitter) Near Object Distant Object
When an impulse arrives, the vesicles move to the cell Ciliary muscles Contract Relax
membrane and empty their content into the synaptic cleft.
Suspensory Ligaments Slack Tighten
The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
Lens Short and fat Long and thin
and attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
of the relay neurone.
This can happen because the neurotransmitter
molecules' shape complements the receptor shape.

14.5. Sense Organs

Sense Organ: groups of receptor cells responding to specific
stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature, and chemicals.

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14.9. Hormones
Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and
carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more
specific target organs.
Example Past Year Question
Endocrine Glands
Explain why a person cannot focus on distant objects if the
suspensory ligaments become permanently overstretched. adrenal glands and adrenaline
(0610/42/F/M/23)
pancreas and insulin
1. ciliary muscles relax testes and testosterone
2. suspensory ligaments can no longer become tight ovaries and oestrogen
3. the lens is not stretched/remains wide
4. the angle of refraction remains unchanged Adrenaline

A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland.

14.8. Rods and Cones It increases pulse rate, heart rate and pupil diameter.
Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration.
Rods Cones Adrenaline is secreted, for example, bungee jumping or
Provide low detail, black & riding a rollercoaster.
Provide detailed, coloured
white images, suitable for
images; they work in high light Gland Hormone Function
seeing in low-intensity light (at
intensity.
night). Prepares the body for vigorous
Adrenal gland Adrenaline
Packed most tightly around action
Most tightly packed at the
the edge of the retina, so you Reduces the concentration of
retina's centre, objects are Pancreas Insulin
can see things most clearly glucose in the blood
seen most clearly when
when not looking directly at Causes the development of
directly looking at them. Testes Testosterone
them. male sexual characteristics
Causes the development of
Fovea: Ovary Oestrogen
female sexual characteristics
Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed
Increases concentration of
most closely together Pancreas Glucagon
glucose in the blood
Where light is focused when you look straight at an
object
Distribution of Rods and Cones 14.10. Nervous and Hormonal Control
More rod cells than cone cells
A number of cone cells peaked in the middle, showing Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
the location of the fovea. No rod cells are present in Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
the peak.
Chemical
No rod and cone cells at the blind spot, as the optic
Electrical impulses messengers
nerve is located there. \n
Nature of message travelling along (hormones)
nerves travelling in the
bloodstream

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Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry mouth,
blurred vision, and thirsty) or hypoglycaemia (tired,
Duration of Usually within It may take years
response seconds (puberty) showing confusion and irrational behaviour)
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large
Localized response Widespread
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce
Area of response (only one area response (in many
blood glucose concentration
usually) organs)
Development of the
Example of Reflexes such as
reproductive
14.13. Homeostasis: Temperature
process-controlled blinking
system Regulation

14.11. Homeostasis
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal
environment.

Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration.

The concept of homeostatic control by negative feedback
with reference to a set point
Constant body temperature is maintained by:
Negative Feedback Concept
Insulation: provided by fatty tissue retains heat. Hairs
Negative Feedback: controls the production of hormones and become erect to trap warm air by contracting erector
regulates their own production muscles and vice versa.
Vasodilation: when it is hot, arterioles, which supply blood
A negative feedback control is when the change in to the skin-surface capillaries, dilate (become wider) to
hormone level acts as a signal to cancel out that change, allow more blood near the skin surface to increase heat
so when the blood hormone level is low, hormone loss (face redder)
production is stimulated; when it is high, it is inhibited. Vasoconstriction: when it is cold, arterioles, which supply
blood to the skin-surface capillaries, constrict (become
14.12. Homeostasis: Blood Glucose smaller) to allow less blood near the skin surface to
decrease heat loss
Control Sweating: the water evaporates, giving a cooling effect
Skin receptors: sense heat, and sensory neurons send
Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the impulses to the hypothalamus
pancreas Shivering: muscular activity generates heat
The pancreas produces and releases different hormones Sweat Glands: Producing sweat to regulate heat.
depending on the blood glucose level Thermoregulatory Centre: the hypothalamus controls
Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high – corrective mechanisms (e.g. sweating and shivering).
the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen
Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low –
the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose and
releases it into the blood

When the control of blood glucose does not work, a

person is said to have diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes 14.14. Tropic Responses

Type 1 Diabetes: caused by the death of the cells that secrete Auxin:
insulin. Plant hormones or growth substances
Controls tropisms

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It is produced by cells at the tip of the roots and shoots Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei
of plants The nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a
zygote is diploid
Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards Diploid: Full Set of Chromosomes
(positive) or away (negative) from gravity. Haploid: Half Set of Chromosomes
Auxins’ role in gravitropism:
Advantages Disadvantages
Made in the shoot tip
Produces genetically different It takes lots of time and
Then, it diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip
offspring energy
Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light and
gravity Reduced risk of extinction Mate required
Auxin stimulates cell elongation Energy on improving
appearances or pollen
Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards volume for pollination (plants)
(positive) or away (negative) from the direction light is
coming.
15.3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Auxins’ role in phototropism:
If the sun shines on the right side of a plant’s shoot, Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant
auxins accumulate on the dark opposite left side. They usually contain both male and female reproductive
Auxins accumulating makes cells on the left side grow parts
faster than cells on the right. The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are
When the left side of the shoot starts growing faster slightly different as each is adapted for their specific
than the right side, the shoot will start to bend to the function
right side towards sunlight.
Insect Pollinated Flowers

15. Reproduction
15.1. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the production
of genetically identical offspring from one parent.

Bacteria:
Reproduced by binary fission, each bacterium divides Wind Pollinated Flowers
into two.
The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
divide into 2.

Advantages Disadvantages
Fast: no need to find a mate,
No variation/biodiversity
fertilise, etc.
Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred
Overcrowding- fighting for Functions
Do not need to carry offspring
food
Prone to extinction Sepal: protect the flower bud.
Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have
Syllabus 16.1.2: You must be able to identify nectarines, which are all used to attract insects. Petals in
examples of asexual reproduction in diagrams, wind-pollinated flowers are tiny and used for pushing the
bracts (leaf-like structures) apart from exposing stamens
images and information provided
and stigma.
Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains that contain the
15.2. Sexual Reproduction male nucleus (male gamete).
Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land
Sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls.
nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
production of offspring that are genetically different from Syllabus 16.3.1 and 16.3.2: You must be able to
each other identify in diagrams and images and draw the

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following parts of an insect-pollinated flower:

sepals, petals, stamens, filaments, anthers,
carpels, style, stigma, ovary and ovules,
together with its function.

15.4. Pollination
Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the
plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant 15.5. Germination
(stigma).
Germination: A process controlled by enzymes
Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water and
wind Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores
Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a into soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that
nucleus in an ovule the testa splits
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with
Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated water), and is used in aerobic respiration.
Bright, colourful petals – attract Dull petals Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
Sweetly scented No scent optimum temperature).

Contains nectar No nectaries

A moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen
15.6. Sexual Reproduction In Humans
Pollen is spiky/sticky Pollen round and smooth
Male Reproductive System
Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on the stigma and creates Testes: have many coiled tubes that produce sperm, and
a tunnel down the style, through the micropyle to ovules. the cells between tubes produce testosterone.
Ovule: seed Scrotum: holds testicles
Ovary: fruit Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid
Self Pollination Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of
the penis
Self Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther
Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the
of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a different
female.
flower on the same plant.
Advantages Disadvantages
Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation
High chance of successful Increases competition
pollination between plants
Susceptible to the same
Fast and saves time
disease

Cross-Pollination

Cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the

anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different
plant of the same species.
Advantages Disadvantages
Increases variation Reliance on pollinators
Female Reproductive System
Quick to adapt to surroundings Wastage of pollen
Less susceptible to diseases More energy required Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and
produces progesterone and oestrogen
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops.
Cervix: neck of the uterus: a robust and rigid muscle,
moist by mucus with a small opening

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Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way out

15.8. Adaptive Features of Gametes
for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and
secretes mucus
Sperm (Male Gamete)

1. Small in size
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes

Features Functions
Flagellum Propels the sperm to swim
Respiration to release energy
Mitochondria
for swimming
15.7. Fertilisation and Early Enzymes in the acrosome
Release digestive enzymes to
digest the jelly coat
Development
Egg Cell (Female Gamete)
Fertilisation: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete
(sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell).
1. Larger in size
Development of a Zygote: 2. Spherical protein/fat in the cytoplasm
3. Moved with the help of Cillia
One sperm penetrates
The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against 4. Released once per month containing 23 chromosomes
sperm
The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches
and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
The zygote divides over and over to make a ball of
cells called an embryo.
It implants itself in the uterus (implantation) wall,
followed by conception.
Development of fetus: The zygote is changed through Features Functions
growth (mitosis) and development (organisation of cells Energy storage Development of zygote
into tissues and organs)
Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation
Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from the
fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which carries 15.9. Sexual Hormones in Humans
oxygenated blood and soluble food from the placenta to
the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood) The roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development
Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as and regulation of secondary sexual characteristics during
foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus; puberty
physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains
mother’s blood) Primary sexual characteristics: present during
Amniotic Sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid, development in the uterus and are the differences in
broken at birth. reproductive organs etc., between males and females
Amniotic Fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes that
shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations occur during puberty as children become adolescents
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the
and affect the fetus. primary sex organs: the testes in males and the ovaries in
females.

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They only affect the target organs, which have receptors

that can recognize them.
Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the
growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs.

15.10. The Menstrual Cycle

Day 1 to 5:

In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to

stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary.
In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;
menstruation
Day 5 to 12:
In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the
ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
Day 13/14/15:
In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary Gland
to trigger the release of the egg from the follicle into
the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens on Day 14.
Day 15 to 28:
In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus
Luteum
In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus
Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for
possible embryo implants.
Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
No implantation takes place, and the Corpus Luteum 15.11. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle
degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.
This means that endometrium is no longer thick, back Oestrogen: secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from
to Day 1 being produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle,
Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the
Implantation occurs. hormone LH.
This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum Progesterone: secreted by the placenta during pregnancy,
maintained, which means that progesterone is high. while during the menstrual cycle is by the ovaries. Its
This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy primary function is maintaining the uterus lining during
the middle of the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): secreted by the
pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary and
stimulates ovaries to release oestrogen hormone.
Luteinizing hormone (LH): secreted by the pituitary gland
and causes mature eggs to be released from the ovary.

15.12. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a
sexually transmitted infection.

Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ

transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person
How it affects the immune system:
Infects and destroys lymphocytes
Decreases the efficiency of the immune system
The body becomes liable to infection by other
pathogens
This may lead to AIDS and death from infection

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16. Inheritance
16.1. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins
Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
information in the form of genes
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
Allele: an alternative form of a gene Mitosis is needed for:
Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new
chromosomes. cells when needed.
Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut
unpaired chromosomes (e.g., sperm and egg) your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cuts.
Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of Replacement of worn-out cells
chromosomes (e.g., in body cells) Asexual reproduction: in plants
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before
sequence of amino acids used to make a specific protein. mitosis
Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate,
to protein molecules. maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter
cell

16.2. DNA and Protein Synthesis Stem Cells: unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to
produce daughter cells that can become specialised for
DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of specific functions
proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers, and
receptors for neurotransmitters
16.4. Cell Division: Meiosis
DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG
mRNA has AU and CG bases Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome number
Overall, protein synthesis occurs outside of the nucleus in is halved from diploid to haploid
the cytoplasm
Protein synthesis has two stages:
Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into
bases of RNA)
Translation (using RNA base sequence to build amino
acids into a sequence in a protein)
How proteins are made:
the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
to the cytoplasm
the mRNA passes through ribosomes
Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced
molecules
are not all genetically identical.
the sequence determines the specific order of amino
Gametes such as sperm and ovum are produced via
acids of bases in the mRNA
meiosis.
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but
many genes in a particular cell are not expressed
because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs 16.5. Monohybrid Inheritance
Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from
16.3. Cell Division: Mitosis generation to generation.

Mitosis: The nuclear division gives rise to genetically identical Here are some common terminologies you should know
cells to understand monohybrid inheritance.

Terminologies

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Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of

the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g.
tall plant or green seed)
genotype + environment + random variation → phenotype
Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous individuals
that breed together will be pure-breeding
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T
or G)
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)

Pedigree Diagram

Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a 3:1 Monohybrid Crosses

specific characteristic (usually a disease) through There is more variation in this cross, with a 3:1 ratio of
generations of a family.
brown eyes: blue eyes, meaning each offspring has a 75%
Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that
chance of having brown eyes and a 25% chance of having
characteristic
blue eyes
This can determine the probability that someone in the
family will inherit the genetic disorder.

Genetic Diagrams

Monohybrid Inheritance can be determined using a

genetic diagram known as a Punnett square.
A Punnett square diagram shows the possible
combinations of alleles that could be produced in the 16.6. Modification of Mendelian
offspring. Genetics
The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter, and
the recessive allele uses the same letter but lowercase. Codominance
If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the
alleles in a Punnett square, try to choose a letter that is Codominance: a condition where two alleles of a gene are
obviously different as a capital than the lowercase so the equally dominant (50%)
examiner is not left doubt as to which is dominant and
which is recessive. Both alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype of the
heterozygote.
1:1 Monohybrid Crosses For example, if the parent phenotype is red and white, a
co-dominant will have both red and white colour in the
In this cross, there is a 1:1 ratio of boy to girl, meaning a
offspring.
50% chance of the offspring being a boy and a 50%
chance of the offspring being a girl.
ABO Blood Group (Codominance and Multiple
Allele)

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Inheritance of blood group is an example of codominance

There are three alleles for the blood group given by the
symbols IA, IB and IO.
IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB,
and both dominant to IO.

Sex-Linked Characteristics

Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the gene

responsible is located on a sex chromosome, making it more Mutation
common in one sex than in the other.
Mutation: A genetic change.
Generally, in the IGCSE syllabus, the most common is X-
linked recessive trait. Gene Mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA
X-linked recessive disorders are more common in males Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed
than in females. Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random
fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in populations
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate
of mutation

Syllabus 17.4.18: You must be able to use

genetic diagrams to predict the results of
monohybrid crosses involving codominance or
sex linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios.
17.2. Adaptive Features

17. Variation and Selection Adaptive Feature: an inherited (structural) feature that helps
an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment

17.1. Variation Xerophytes live in deserts where water is scarce, and

evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features
Variation: differences between individuals of the same are:
species Deep roots reach the water far underground
Both genetic and environmental factors cause phenotypic Leaves have reduced spines with minimum surface
variation area for transpiration
Continuous Variation: results in a range of phenotypes Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain
between two extremes; examples include body length and Rolled leaves, leaf hairs, and stomata sunk in pits to
body mass trap moist air
Discontinuous Variation: results in a limited number of Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable to water
phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. ABO blood groups, Stomata open at night and close at midday when
seed shape in peas and seed colour in peas) evaporation is highest
It is usually caused by genes only, and genes and the E.g. cactus and marram grass
environment cause continuous variation.
Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.
Syllabus 18.1.5: You must be able to investigate and describe Their features are:
examples of continuous and discontinuous variation Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface
area for absorption and photosynthesis
Minimal cuticle formation
Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves

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Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick The sun is the principal source of energy input to
waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata biological systems.
open and clear Energy flow is NOT a cycle; it starts from the sun, and then
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often that energy is harnessed by plants, which are eaten by
absent animals, which other animals eat.
At each step, energy is lost to the environment.
17.3. Selection
Food Chains and Food Webs
Natural Selection
Food Chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from
In any environment, the individuals that have the best one organism to the next, beginning with a producer, for
adaptive features are the ones most likely to survive and example:
reproduce. Food Web: showing a network of interconnected food chains.

The greater chance of the best-adapted organisms

passing on genes.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
is an example of natural selection.
The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get
eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve.

Process of Natural Selection:

1. genetic variation within populations

2. production of many offspring
3. struggle for survival, including competition for Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain
resources by ingestion
4. Individuals better adapted to the environment have a Producer: an organism that makes its organic nutrients,
greater chance of reproduction than others; these usually using energy from sunlight through
individuals pass on their alleles to the next generation. photosynthesis
Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on
Adaptation: the process of natural selection by which other organisms.
populations become more suited to their environment over Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary,
many generations. tertiary and quaternary according to their position in a
food chain
Artificial Selection Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
Artificial Selection: breeds organisms with valued animals
characteristics together to produce offspring that share those Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead
valuable characteristics. or waste organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph)
Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain,
It can be used to produce organisms that are more
food web or ecological pyramid.
economically valued
Primary consumer: eat vegetables
For example, cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk
easier to separate from grain, dogs that have a better
Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon
appearance
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels
Process of Selective Breeding:
because energy transfer is inefficient:
Selecting by individuals with desirable features
Sun produces light, and less than 1% of the energy falls
Crossing these individuals to produce the next generation
onto leaves.
Selection of offspring showing the desirable features
Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy because of
transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength.
18. Organisms and their Primary consumers only get between 5-10% because
some parts are indigestible (e.g., cellulose) and do not eat
Environment the whole plant.
The secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because
the animal matter is more digestible & has a higher
18.1. Energy Flow energy value.

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At each level, heat is lost by respiration. Nitrogen Cycle

Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans eating
animals because:

We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal but

to have the meat, we must feed the animal a lot of plant
material to get far less meat.
When raising an animal, plants lose energy to the
environment. Then, the animal loses energy to the
environment and does not use up all the plant material, so
it is inefficient.

Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for
plants; these may exist in the root nodules where they live
in symbiosis with the plants (nitrogen fixation), or this can
happen because of lightning or microorganisms providing
them through decomposition.
Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing substances
Shows the number of each Pyramid, which shows the into better nitrogen-containing substances for the plants
organism in a food chain biomass (nitrification).
When moving up the pyramid, Plants absorb these substances and convert them into
(number of individuals × their proteins
the number of individuals
individual mass) Death and decay happen at each trophic level, leading to
decreases
stage one
Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they convert
The pyramids of biomass are always pyramid-shaped or
nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric nitrogen
upright.

18.2. Nutrient Cycles 18.3. Population

Population: a group of organisms of one species living in
Carbon Cycle
the same area at the same time.
Community: all of the populations of different species in
an ecosystem.
Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of organisms
and their environment interacting together.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Population Growth

Food Supply: quantity and quality; snails need calcium to

reproduce to make a shell.
Predation: if the predator population falls, the prey
Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
(plants) population will rise.
It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding. Disease: causes organisms to die, so a high death rate
It is returned by respiration in plants and animals and partly cancels out the birth rate, meaning less population
decomposed by microorganisms. growth, especially if the organism dies before giving birth,
or even population decline.
Fossilisation is NOT needed anymore - from
2023 onwards 18.4. Sigmoid Curve of Population
Growth

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Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an

area.

Reason for habitat destruction

Increased area for food crop growth, livestock
production, and housing
Extraction of natural resources
Lag phase: The number of mature, reproducing
Freshwater and Marine pollution
individuals is low and they may be widely dispersed
By altering food webs and food chains, humans can harm
Exponential (Log) phase: exponential growth occurs, the
habitats.
conditions are ideal, and the maximum growth rate is
Effects of deforestation
reached. Limiting factors do not limit growth much.
Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as the
Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global
population has reached the “carrying capacity” of its
warming
environment; when mortality rate = birth rate, the curve
Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil and go into
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum population
rivers, making the water dirty & causing blockages,
size.
and the soil becomes less fertile
Death phase: death rate > birth rate due to lack of food,
Flooding: 75% of water is usually absorbed by foliage,
competition, etc.
root systems or evaporates. After deforestation, water
accumulates in valleys.
19. Human Influences on
19.3. Pollution
Ecosystems
Pollution due to pesticides:

19.1. Food Supply Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat
crops, but can kill other useful insects such as bees, which
Humans have increased food production because: are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the increase in the
dose of toxin from one level of the food chain to the next)
Agricultural Machinery to use larger areas of land and
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals which
improve efficiency
eat the plants
Chemical Fertilisers help crops grow better
Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects Non-biodegradable plastics:
Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds
Selective Breeding to improve production by crop plants Choke birds, fish and other animals
and livestock Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food
Collect in rivers and get in the way of fish
Large-scale Monoculture: the continuous production of one
type of genetically identical crop. Global Warming:

Negative Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture Increase in the average temperature of the Earth
If a natural disaster occurs, the whole crop could be Methane from the burping of cows
wiped out. It started at the same time as humans began burning
If pests & diseases attack crops, they could harm them fossil fuels
easily Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not proven
Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety yet
of species. This hinders biodiversity. It increased carbon dioxide and methane concentrations
When insecticides are used persistently, the pests in the atmosphere, causing an enhanced greenhouse
may eventually become resistant to them, reducing effect that leads to climate change.
their effectiveness
Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many
Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production nutrients.
Welfare issues for the livestock
Fertilisers are put in soil by farmers.
Diseases can spread easily among them
Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby Fertilisers with nitrates/detergents with phosphates leach
into rivers and lakes after rain
Water plants grow more than usual
19.2. Habitat Destruction They block sunlight and kill plants underneath
They die and sink to the bottom

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Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and Endangered species can be conserved by monitoring and
decreasing the O2 concentration protecting species and habitats, education, captive
Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation breeding programmes, and seed banks
Reasons for Conservation Programmes include:
reducing extinction
protecting vulnerable environments
maintaining ecosystem functions by nutrient cycling
and resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and
genes
increase biodiversity
19.4. Conservation
Sustainable Resource: one which is produced as rapidly as it 20. Biotechnology and
is removed from the environment so that it does not run out
Some resources can be conserved and managed sustainably, Genetic Modification
limited to forests and fish stocks.

1. Forests can be conserved using education, protected 20.1. Introduction

areas, quotas and replanting.
2. Fish stocks can be conserved using education, closed Bacteria are useful due to their rapid reproduction rate and
seasons, protected areas, controlled net types and their ability to make complex molecules.
mesh size, quotas and monitoring.

Natural Resources:

Water: used to grow food, keep it clean, provide power,

control fires, and drink. We get water constantly through
rainfall, but we use the planet’s freshwater faster than it
can be replenished.
Fossil fuels must be conserved as they will soon run out;
therefore, they should be replaced with green energy.
Why are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic
Recycling:
modification?
Water: water from sewage can be returned to the
1. few ethical concerns over their manipulation and
environment for human use by sanitation and sewage
growth
treatment
2. the presence of plasmids
Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
3. producing complex molecules
raw materials for industry
4. replicates rapidly
Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles → fleece clothing
Metal: mining takes a lot of energy, so recycling saves
energy 20.2. Biotechnology
Species and habitats need to be conserved because: Biofuel
Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value) Use plants to make sugars, which yeast then breaks down
Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants = to make ethanol.
new drugs) This process also uses anaerobic respiration.
Genetic resources are helpful to humans as well and are
lost when species disappear (DNA for genetic Bread-Making
engineering)
Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed, Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make
then the whole ecosystem could collapse the dough.
The use of artificial insemination (AI) and in vitro Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and
fertilisation (IVF) in captive breeding programmes glucose. This is used by yeast in respiration.
The dough is kept warm and moist (28°C). Yeast ferments
Endangered species:
sugar, making carbon dioxide, which creates bubbles, so
How they become endangered: climate change, habitat bread rises.
destruction, hunting, pollution and introduced species Cooking (at 180°C) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and
hardens the outer surface.
If the population size drops, variation decreases

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Use of Enzymes in Biotechnology 20.3. Fermenters

Pectinase:

Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down

pectin)
Pectin helps plant walls stick together
If pectin is broke down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from
the fruit
Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear, not
cloudy

Biological Washing powders:

Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzymes Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called
that help remove the stain Penicillium.
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in They require proper temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient
the wash, releasing the enzyme supply and waste products.
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier The stainless steel fermentation vessel contains a
for detergents to remove medium containing sugars and ammonium salts.
Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass, Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
blood for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil nucleic acids
Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’
as starch Probes monitor temperature and pH
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus
A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a
Lactase: temperature of 24°C.
Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended (allowing
The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in
access to nutrients and oxygen) while maintaining an
milk), people can stop making lactase naturally and,
even temperature.
therefore, can’t digest lactose.
It is filtered to remove fungus and then can be crystallized
to make capsules.

Mycoprotein

The fungus Fusarium is cultured (grown) on an industrial

scale in fermenters.
These fermenters are large vats that can be kept at the
optimum pH and temperature to grow.
The fungus is grown in aerobic conditions and provided
with glucose syrup as a food source.
The fungus grows and multiplies within the fermenter
It is then harvested and purified to produce mycoprotein
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich food suitable for
vegetarians, eg. It is used in QuornTM products.

20.4. Genetic Modification

Genetic Modification: changing the genetic material of an
organism by removing, altering, or inserting individual genes
Lactose-free milk production
Examples of genetic modification:
Lactase made from yeast the insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce
Lactase bound to the surface of alginate beads human insulin
Milk passed down beads the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose resistance to herbicides
Immobilized enzymes are reused

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the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using
resistance to insect pests DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid – insertion of
the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide the plasmid into bacteria.
additional vitamins Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids,
which make human protein as they express the gene
Human Insulin in Bacteria
20.5. Genetically Modified Crops
Advantages Disadvantages
Uniform in shape – easy to
transport/appeal to Natural species may die
consumers
Decrease biodiversity/genetic
Growing season shorter
diversity
Led to the development of
Drought resistant – less water superweeds – stronger than
GM
No one knows the long-term
Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using
Higher yields
effects on humans
restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends. Solve global hunger Expensive seeds
Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction
enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends.

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CAIE IGCSE
Biology

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