Design of Structural Steelwork

Consulting Editor: Ray Hulse, Coventry University

Other titles of related interest:

Civil Engineering Construction- Design and Management D.R. Warren

Civil Engineering Contract Administration and Control, Second Edition I.H. Seeley

Civil Engineering Materials, Fourth Edition N. Jackson and R. Dhir (Editors)

Civil Engineering Quantities, Fifth Edition I.H. Seeley

Finite Elements- A Gentle Introduction David Henwood and Javier Bonet

Highway Tratlic Analysis and Design, Third Edition R.J. Salter and N. Hounsell

Plastic Analysis of Steel and Concrete Structures, Second Edition S.J.J. Moy

Soil Mechanics - Principles and Practice G. Barnes

Reinforced Concrete Design, Fourth Edition W.H. Mosley and J.H. Bungey

Reinforced Concrete Design to Eurocode 2 W.H. Mosley, R.Hulse and J.H. Bungey

Structural Masonry, Second Edition Arnold W. Hendry

Structural Mechanics J. Cain and R. Hulse

Surveying for Engineers, Third Edition J. Uren and W.F. Price

Understanding Hydraulics L. Hamill

Understanding Structures, Second Edition Derek Seward

Design of Structural Steelwork
to BS 5950 and C-EC3

W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, PhD, CPhys, MlnstP, CEng

Lecturer, Napier University, Edinburgh
© W.M.C. McKenzie 1998

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this

publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or

transmitted save with written pennission or in accordance with the
provisions ofthe Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under
the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London WlP 9HE.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this

publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims
for damages.

The author has asserted his right to be identified as

the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.

First published 1998 by

MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS
and London
Companies and representatives throughout the world
ISBN 978-0-333-71579-6 ISBN 978-1-349-14612-3 (eBook)
DOl 10.1007/978-1-349-14612-3

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from
fully managed and sustained forest sources.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98
To my parents Jeannie and Robert
Contents

Preface Xll
Acknowledgements Xlll

1. Structural Steelwork 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Design Process 5
1. 2.1 Aims of Design 5
1. 2. 2 Structural Loading 6
1. 2. 3 Structural Analysis and Load Distribution 8
1.3 Example 1.1 Load distribution one-way spanning slabs 8
1.4 Example 1.2 Two-way spanning slabs 9
1.5 Example 1.3 Secondary beams 11
1.6 Example 1.4 Combined one-way, two-way slabs and beams 12
1.7 Limit State Design BS 5950:Part 1: 1990 13
1. 7.1 Ultimate Limit State 14
1. 7.2 Serviceability Limit State 14
1. 7.3 Partial Safety Factors 14
1. 7. 4 Application ofPartial Safety Factors 14
1.8 Example 1.5 Brewery part floor plan load distribution 15
1.9 Application ofWind Loads 18
1.10 Example 1. 6 Storage hopper 18
1.11 Example 1. 7 Industrial warehouse 22
1.12 Example 1.8 Radar reflector 32

2. Flexural Members 34
2.1 Introduction 34
2.1.1 PlasticSections 37
2.1.2 Compact Sections 38
2.1.3 Semi-Compact Sections 38
2.1.4 Slender Sections 38
2.2 Shear Capacity (Clause 4.2.3) 39
2.3 Example 2.1 Shear check of a simply supported beam 40
2.4 Moment Capacity (Clause 4.2.5) 41
2. 4.1 Compression Flange Restraint 41
2.4.2 Effective Length L. (Clauses 4.3.5 and 4.3.6) 44
2. 4. 3 Moment Capacity (Me) ofBeams with Full Lateral Restraint 46
2.5 Exan1ple 2.2 Bending in fully restrained beam 47
2.6 Moment Capacity (Mb) of Beams without Full Lateral Restraint
(Clause 4.3. 7) 48
2.6.1 Rigorous Method (Clause 4.3. 7.1) 48
2.7 Example 2.3 Beam with intermittent lateral restraint 49

Vll
Vlll Contents
2.8 Example 2.4 Beam with intermittent lateral restraint 53
2.9 Example 2.5 Rectangular hollow section as a beam 56
2.10 Example 2.6 Cantilever beam 57
2.11 Web Buckling and Web Bearing 60
2.11.1 Web Buckling (Clause 4.5.2) 61
2.11.2 Web Bearing (Clause 4.5.3) 62
2.12 Example 2.7 Web bearing and web buckling at support 63
2.13 Deflection ofBeams (Clause 2.5.1) 65
2.1 3.1 Equivalent UDL Technique 66
2.14 Example 2.8 Deflection of simply supported beam 68
2.15 Conservative Method for Lateral Torsional Buckling Moment
Capacity (Clause 4.3. 7. 7) 70
2.16 Example 2.9 Simply supported beam 1- conservative method 70
2.17 Example 2.10 Simply beam 2 - conservative method 71
2.18 Safe Load Tables 72
2.19 Example 2.11 Beam with intermittent lateral restraint - Use of safe
load tables 73
2.19.1 Shear 75
2.19.2 Bending 75
2.19. 3 Web Buckling 75
2.19.4 Web Bearing 76
2.19.5 Deflection 76
2.20 Example 2.12 Pedestrian walkway 77
2.21 Solution to Example 2.2 78
2.22 Solution to Example 2.12 82

3. Axially Loaded Members 86

3.1 Introduction 86
3.2 Pin-jointed Frames 87
3.3 Resume of Analysis Techniques 90
3. 3.1 Method ofSections 90
3.4 Example 3.1 Pin-jointed truss 91
3. 4.1 Joint Resolution 93
3.4.2 Tension Coefficients 96
3.5 Example 3.2 Two dimensional plane-truss 97
3. 6 Example 3. 3 Three dimensional space truss 98
3. 7 Design of Tension Members (Clause 4. 6) 99
3. 8 Example 3 .4 Lattice girder 105
3.9 Design of Compression Members (Clause 4. 7) 106
3.9.1 Slenderness (Clause 4. 7.3) 107
3.9.2 Compressive Resistance (Clause 4. 7.4) 109
3 .1 0 Example 3. 6 Secondary bracing in lattice girder 114
3 .11 Example 3. 7 Concentrically loaded single storey column 118
3.12 Column Baseplates 120
3.13 Example 3.7 Slab base 121
 Contents IX

4. Members Subject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 123

4.1 Introduction 123
4.1.1 Combined Tension and Bending 123
4.1. 2 Reduced Moment Capacity 125
4.1. 3 Combined Compression and Bending 127
4.2 Eccentricity of Loading 129
4.3 Section Classification 130
4.4 Example 4.1 Industrial unit 130
4.5 Columns in Simple Multi-Storey Construction (Clause 4. 7. 7) 135
4.6 Example 4.2 Multi-storey colunm in simple construction 136
4. 7 Example 4. 3 Lattice girder with secondary bending 141

5. Connections 145
5 .1 Introduction 145
5.1.1 Simple Connections 146
5.1.2 Moment Connections 147
5. 2 Bolted Cmmections 153
5. 2.1 Black Bolts 153
5.2.2 High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (H.S.FG.) 156
5. 2. 3 Design of Simple Connections 158
5. 3 Welded Connections 159
5. 3.1 Fillet Welds· 160
5.3.2 Butt Welds 161
5. 3. 3 Design ofFillet Weld Connections 162
5 .4 Beam End Connections 164
5. 4.1 Double-Angle Web Cleats 164
5. 4. 2 Flexible End Plates 165
5.4.3 Fin Plates 165
5.5 Example 5.5 Web cleat, end plate and fin plate connections 166
5.6 Design of Moment Connections 167
5. 6.1 Typical Site Connection Using H. SF G. Bolts 168
5. 6. 2 Example 5. 6 Moment connection in rectangular portal frame 168
5. 6. 3 Example 5. 7 Crane bracket moment connection 170
5.7 Splices 171
5. 7.1 Beam Splices 171
5. 7. 2 Example 5. 8 Beam splice 172
5. 7. 3 Column Splices 178
5. 7. 4 Example 5. 9 Column splice 180
5. 8 Solution to Example 5.1 183
5.9 Solution to Exan1ple 5.2 185
5.10 Solution to Example 5.5 187
5. 11 Solution to Example 5. 6 196
X Contents
6. Plate Girders 198
6. 1 Introduction 198
6.1.1 Design Load Effects 200
6.2 Initial Sizing 201
6.3 Moment and Shear Capacity 201
6 .4 Deflection 203
6. 5 Intermediate Stiffeners 203
6. 6 Load Bearing Stiffeners 203
6.7 Example 6.1 Plate girder in multi-storey office block 203
6. 7.1 Design Loading 205
6. 7. 2 Column Loads 205
6. 7. 3 Initial Sizing 206
6. 7.4 Section Classification (Clause 3.5) 207
6. 7. 5 Flanges 207
6. 7.6 Web 208
6. 7. 7 Moment Capacity (Clause 4.4.4.2(a)) 209
6. 7.8 Shear Capacity (Clause 4.4.5.3) 209
6. 7.9 Deflection (Clause 2.5) 210
6. 7.10 Intermediate St~ffeners (Clause 4. 4. 6) 212
6. 7.11 Load Bearing St~!Jeners (Clause 4. 5) 213
6. 7.12 Flange to Web Connection 217
6.8 Example 6.2 Plate girder with intermittent restraint to flange 218
6.9 Solution to Example 6.2 219

7. Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 230

7. 1 Introduction 230
7.1.1 National Application Document (NAD) 230
7.1.2 Concise EC3 (C-EC 3) 230
7.2 Tem1inology, Symbols and Conventions 231
7. 2.1 Decimal Point 231
7.2.2 Actions 231
7. 2. 3 Resistance 232
7. 2. 4 Subscripts 232
7. 2. 5 Design Values 232
7. 2. 6 Partial Safety Factors 232
7. 2. 7 Symbols 233
7. 2. 8 Conventions 234
7. 2. 9 Materials 235
7.3 Section Classification 236
7.4 Use ofC-EC 3 236
7. 4.1 Example 7.1 Beam with full lateral restraint 236
7.5 Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB) (Clause 5.5.5) 246
7.6 Example 7.2 Beam with intermediate and end restraints 247
7.7 Example 7.3 Truss members with axial tension/compression 251
7.8 Example 7.4 Concentrically loaded single storey column 256
 Contents X1

7. 9 Axially Loaded Members with Moments 260

7.10 Example 7.5 Multi-storey column in simple construction 263

Bibliography 270

Index 272
Preface

Most engineers/engineering technicians develop their initial understanding of structural

design by undertaking a recognised, structured undergraduate course of study. The material
covered in such courses requires the student to refer to and use relevant British Standard
Codes of Practice. Many practising engineers/technicians do not become involved in design
immediately following graduation and require reference material with which to update and
refresh their knowledge of design.
This text has been prepared for both types of reader. It is suitable for students
undertaking degree or diploma level studies in architecture, civil, structural or building
engmeermg.
The aim of the text is to develop an understanding of Limit State Design as applied to
structural steelwork. It is assumed that readers will have access to and use the relevant
British Standard Codes of Practice, i.e. BS 5950:Part 1, BS 6399:Parts 1 and 2 and the
Concise Eurocode C-EC3.
The British Standards Institution publishes a selection of extracts from various codes
entitled Extracts from British Standard'i for students of structural design; students using
this document will be undertaking a course of study which is less extensive than the range
covered by the present text and they may choose to ignore the additional more detailed
material and clause references that it includes.
The use of the codes, particularly BS 5950:Part 1 is explained and demonstrated in
numerous worked example and illustrations. The text is both extensive and comprehensive;
it includes explanations of structural analysis and load distribution techniques where
considered appropriate. Student readers are strongly advised to read, use and familiarise
themselves with the terminology adopted in design codes by frequent references to relevant
clauses throughout the text. Structural design cannot be efficiently carried out without
reference to design codes.
The complexity and nature of modem design codes necessitates reference to additional
material for full explanations of the rationale behind their development; appropriate sources
are provided in the bibliography.
A selection of design examples from Chapters 2, 5 and 6 are presented in a format
typical of that used in a design office in order to encourage students to adopt a methodical
and rational approach in preparing structural calculations. The solutions for these examples
are given at the end of their respective chapters.

W.M.C. McKenzie

Xll
Acknowledgements

The author and the publishers are grateful to the following organisations for permission to
reproduce copyright material in this book.

Extracts from BS 5950: Part 1: 1990 are reproduced with the permission of BSI. Complete
editions of the standards can be obtained by post from BSI Customer Services, 389
Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL.

Extracts oftables from

Steelwork design guide to BS 5950: Part 1: Volume 1
C-EC3- Concise Eurocode for the design of steel buildings in the United Kingdom
have been reproduced by kind permission of the Director, The Steel Construction Institute.
Complete copies can be obtained from The Steel Construction Institute, Silwood Park,
Ascot, Berks SL5 7QN.

Xlll
1. Structural Steelwork

1.1 Introduction

Modern steelmaking processes employing blast furnaces to produce pig-iron from iron-ore,
coke and limestone are refmements of those methods used by early ironworkers. Despite
smelting techniques being used for several thousand years it is only relatively recently (i.e.
the 1800s), with William Kelly's 'pneumatic' steelmaking process in America, and shortly
after, Sir Henry Bessemer's converter in England, and the Siemens-Martin open-hearth
process, that methods of mass production of steel have evolved.
Essentially, the raw materials are heated to temperatures in the region of 1500°C. During
this heating process the coke releases carbon monoxide, which when combined with the iron
oxides in the ore, produces metallic iron. Impurities (e.g. silica which combines with the
limestone to form calcium silicate) form a slag which floats to the top of the molten metal
and is removed leaving 'pig-iron' behind. Further refinements of the pig-iron, in which it is
combined with scrap steel and iron ore are carried out to remove excess carbon and other
impurities such as silica, phosphorus, manganese and sulphur. The resulting molten steel
can be poured into cast-iron moulds to form ingots or continuously cast into slabs which are
subsequently cut to required lengths.
The precise method of refinement used depends on the type of steel required. There are
five main categories:

(i) carbon steels containing varying amounts of carbon, manganese, silica and copper;
(ii) alloy steels as in (i) and in addition containing varying amounts of vanadium,
molybdenum or other elements;
(iii) high-strength low-alloy steels as in (i) and in addition containing small amounts of
expensive alloying elements;
(iv) stainless steels as in (i) and in addition containing chromium, nickel and other
alloying elements;
(v) tool steels as in (i) and in addition containing tungsten, molybdenum and other
alloying elements.

Each type of steel exhibits different characteristics such as strength, ductility, hardness,
and corrosion resistance. The most widely used type of structural steelwork is carbon steel,
although stainless steel is frequently used for architectural reasons and has been used on
some of the world's most famous structures, e.g. the Chrysler Building in New York and the
Canary Wharf Tower in London. In addition to aesthetic considerations, stainless steel
significantly reduces the maintenance requirements and costs during the lifetime of a
structure.
The physical properties of various types of steel and steel alloys depend primarily on the
percentage and distribution of carbon in the iron; in particular the relative proportions of
ferrite, pearlite and cementite, all of which contain carbon. Heat treatment of steel is carried
out to control the amount, size, shape and distribution of these substances and to develop
2 Design ofStructural Steelwork

other compounds such as austenite and martensite. This treatment hardens and strengthens
the steel but in addition induces additional residual strains. Following heat treatment,
tempering (annealing) is normally carried out to relieve these strains. This consists of
reheating to a lower temperature which results in a reduction in hardening and strength but
produces an increase in ductility and toughness.
The first major structural use of modem steel in Britain was in the construction of the
Forth Railway Bridge in Scotland. This impressive elegant structure designed by Baker and
Fowler makes use of tubular and angular sections riveted and forged together to form the
appropriate structural elements. The development of hot-rolling, welding and bolting
techniques during the twentieth century has resulted in a vast range of available cross-
section and fabrication options which enable designers to produce a limitless variety of
structures reflecting the lightness, stiffuess and strength of modem steel.
Steel is in many respects an ideal structural material which exhibits a number of useful
characteristics such as:

+ structural behaviour up to initial yield which is linearly elastic,

+ deformations which are directly proportional to applied loads, and are fully recovered
on removal of the loading,
+ the yield strength in tension is approximately equal to the crushing strength in
compress10n,
+ isotropic behaviour,
+ long-term deformation (creep) at normal temperatures is not a problem.

In addition, the plastic deformation which steel structures exhibit after initial yield gives
a margin of safety and early warning that the structure is stressed beyond the elastic limit,
and that loads should be removed and the structure should be strengthened.
As a result of these properties, structures in steelwork can be analysed using a variety of
classic elastic analysis techniques, elasto-plastic and plastic methods. The deformations and
stresses predicted using such techniques have good correlation with experimentally
measured values.
There are some aspects of the behaviour of steel structures which require more rigorous
analysis than is possible using the principles of statics and linear elastic techniques. When
structural steel sections, which may be hot-rolled or cold formed into thin sections, are
subject to stress concentrations at locations such as support points or re-entrant comers,
local yielding may occur with a subsequent redistribution of loading through the structure.
A result of this is that these structural elements are susceptible to failure by buckling under
compression, lateral torsional buckling (bowing laterally along the member length) or
bearing (crinkling) locally under concentrated loads.
Steel is a material which offers a designer wide scope to create original and unique
structural forms and systems. There are, however, several structural forms which have
evolved to fulfil clearly defined requirements, and which have a widely adopted range of
standardised structural sections and connection details. In addition to the requirements of
economy and speed of construction on site, a client may have specific reasons for choosing
a steel-framed structural system; for example a large column-free internal space, ease in
 Structural Steelwork 3

accommodating future expansion in both the horizontal and vertical directions,

demountability, ease of transport and handling on site.
Technical developments in the production, fabrication, finishing and on-site construction
of steel have had a significant impact on the economics of steel design. Typical of such
developments are:

+ Steel-rolling mills which are highly automated, as are the fabrication workshops,
thereby improving product quality and reducing the cost of finished steel
sections for delivery to site,
+ Specialist companies exist which design, fabricate and in some cases, deliver
and erect, widely used special structural members and systems,
+ A variety of special alloy steels for specific functional or aesthetic applications
have been developed. Many structural steel sections are for example available in
several grades of stainless steel containing a percentage of chromium and/or
nickel for use in hostile corrosive environments. Weathering steel contains a
small percentage of copper which permits an outer layer of corrosion to develop
on the exposed surfaces which inhibits further deterioration within the section,
+ Fully automated, computer-controlled cutting and welding of steel sections,
particularly rolled hollow sections, has led to the development of prefabricated
trusses and space-frame modules. The extensive use of High-Strength Friction-
Grip bolts and to a lesser extent site welding, is now widely adopted to achieve
efficient and economic rigid connections.

The two most widely used applications of structural steelwork in buildings are:

(i) Single-storey industrial/commercial warehouse facilities, which may be braced or

rigid-jointed as shown in Figure 1.1, and

(ii) Multi-storey braced frames in which the lateral wind loads are resisted by steel
bracing elements or reinforced concrete shear walls as shown in Figure 1.2, or
alternatively rigid-jointed frames in which lateral stability is provided by moment
connections between the columns and floor beams.

In braced frames the lateral loading is assumed to be transmitted by the vertical

elements, (i.e. diagonal bracing and/or reinforced concrete shear walls), while the vertical
load is transmitted by simple shear connections between the columns and beams. This
enables a simple static distribution of floor and roof loadings to supporting beams, as
indicated in Section 1.2.3.
In rigid-jointed frames, sway forces induced by the lateral loading are transmitted
throughout the frame by providing full moment and shear connections at an appropriate
number of beam to column connections to ensure continuity of the structure. This technique
requires a more complex analysis procedure to determine the design bending moments,
shear forces and axial loads.
4 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Both systems have advantages and disadvantages; the most appropriate one for any
given structure will depend on a number of factors, such as the need for adaptability, speed
and ease of fabrication, contract programme constraints and fire-proofing requirements.

Note: Roof purlins omitted for clarity

Wind bracing in roof and vertical planes

Single-storey braced frame Single-storey rigid jointed frame

Figure 1.1

Multi-storey braced frames with K-bracing Reinforced concrete shear core

Figure 1.2
 Structural Steelwork 5

Some types of building have a structural form and proportions which lend themselves to
a particular system, but there is inevitably some overlap between structural systems and
applications.
The adoption of a particular structural form or system may be the result of economic or
architectural style as much as structural and functional necessity. In the 1970s significant
investment in modernising and renewing urban light rail systems resulted in a number of
bright, attractive rail stations with space deck roofs, such as those built for the Newcastle
Metro and the Glasgow Underground railways. In the 1980s there was a major drive to
develop London's Docklands as a new commercial and financial centre, resulting in the
widespread construction of 'fast-track' multi-storey steel frames with composite floor
construction. In the 1990s, extensive reconstruction of football stadia has taken place
following the Taylor Report (Ref:21) on crowd safety at football grounds. Again steel-
framed construction has been adopted to take advantage of the speed of erection.

1.2 The Design Process

The design of a structure is initiated by the acceptance of a client's brief defining specific
requirements. The brief will generally indicate the use which is to be made of the
structure(s), e.g. an office block with specified usable floor areas, a commercial
development utilizing a limited plot of land, or a transportation development scheme
comprising a variety of structures such as bridges, terminal buildings and associated
facilities.
Preliminary designs and scheme drawings are prepared and considered by the design
team, which may include structural engineers, architects, local authority representives, the
potential user and the client.
After evaluation of the possible alternatives, including an estimate of budget costs and
approval by the client, final detailed design and preparation of working drawings is carried
out. Most contracts go through a tender stage in which a number of contractors are asked to
submit a tender price (bid) to carry out the construction work; this sometimes involves
design and build arrangements. There are numerous variations in the precise details for
which bids are made. Site supervision of the successful contractor is normally carried out
by a representative of the consultant engaged by the client.

1.2.1 Aims ofDesign

The aim of design is to produce structures which

+ satisfY the clients' needs during their intended life,

+ sustain, with adequate margins of safety, all the loads and deformations expected
during their use,
+ are resistant to disproportionate damage caused by events such as explosions,
impacts or accidents,
6 Design ofStructural Steelwork

+ are serviceable and durable throughout their design life,

+ are economic to construct and maintain,
+ enhance, where possible, their environment or minimize their intrusive effects.
These aims can be achieved by careful consideration being paid to the selection of materials,
adopting recognised good practice in design and detailing techniques and using control
procedures for all stages of the design and construction process.

1.2.2 Structural Loading

All structures are subjected to loading from various sources. The main categories of loading
are: dead, imposed and wind loads. In some circumstances there may be other loading types
which should be considered such as settlement, fatigue, temperature effects, dynamic
loading, impact effects, e.g. when designing bridge decks, crane-gantry girders or maritime
structures. In the majority of cases design considering combinations of dead, imposed and
wind loads is the most appropriate.
The defmition of dead and imposed loading is given in BS 6399:Part 1:1984, while wind
loading is defined in BS 6399:Part 2:1995. Part 2 is a technical revision of, and supersedes,
CP3:Chapter V:Part 2:1972. Both wind codes are currently in use, but the intention is to
withdraw CP3:Chapter V: Part:2 1972.

1.2.2.1 Dead Loads: BS 6399:Part 1: 1984 (Clause 3.0)

Dead loads are loads which are due to the effects of gravity, i.e. the self-weight of all
permanent construction such as beams, columns, floors, walls, roof and finishes etc.
If the position of permanent partition walls is known their weight can be assessed and
included in the dead load. In speculative developments, internal partitions are regarded
as imposed loading.

1.2.2.2 Imposed Loads: BS 6399:Part 1: 1984 (Clauses 4. 0 and 5. OJ

Imposed loads are loads which are due to variable effects such as the movement of
people, furniture, equipment and traffic. The values adopted are based on observation
and measurement and are inherently less accurate than the assessment of dead loads.
Clause 4. 0 and Tables 5 to 12 define the magnitude of uniformly distributed and
concentrated point loads which are recommended for the design of floors, ceilings and
their supporting elements. Loadings are considered in the following categories:
Residential:
Type 1 Self-contained dwelling units
Type 2 Apartment houses, boarding houses, guest houses, hostels, lodging houses,
residential clubs and communal areas in blocks of flats.
 Structural Steelwork 7

Type 3 Hotels and motels

Institutional and educational
Public assembly
Offices
Retail
Industrial
Storage
Vehicular

Most floor systems are capable of lateral distribution of loading and the recommended
concentrated load need not be considered. In situations where lateral distribution is not
possible the effects of the concentrated loads should be considered, with the load applied at
locations which will induce the most adverse effect, e.g. maximum bending moment, shear
and deflection. In addition, local effects such as crushing and punching should be considered
where appropriate.
In multi-storey structures it is very unlikely that all floors will be required to carry the
full imposed load at the same time. Statistically, it is acceptable to reduce the total floor
loads carried by a supporting member by varying amounts depending on the number of
floors or floor area carried. This is reflected in Clause 5.0 and Tables 2 and 3 of
BS6399:Part 1, in wh a percentage reduction in the total distributed imposed floor loads
is recommended when designing columns, piers, walls, beams and foundations. It should be
noted that the loadings given in Table 3 do not include the imposed load carried by the roof.

1.2.2.3 Imposed RoofLoads BS 6399:Part 3: 1995 (Draft version)

Imposed loading caused by snow is included in the values given in this part of the code
which relates to imposed roof loads. Flat roofs, sloping roofs and curved roofs are also
considered. This part of BS 6399 is a draft version for public comment and should not be
used as a British Standard.

1.2.2.4 Wind Load~: BS 6399:Part 2: 1995

Environmental loading such as wind loading is clearly variable and its source is beyond
human control. In most structures the dynamic effects of wind loading are small and static
methods of analysis are adopted. The nature of such loading dictates that a statistical
approach is the most appropriate in order to quantify the magnitudes and directions of the
related design loads. The main features which influence the wind loading imposed on a
structure are:

+ geographicallocation - London, Edinburgh, Inverness, Chester .. .

+ physicallocation - city centre, small town, open country, .. .
8 Design ofStructural Steelwork

+ topography - exposed hill top, escarpment, valley floor, ...

+ building dimensions - height above mean sea level,
+ building shape - square, rectangular, cruciform, irregular, ...
+ roofpitch - shallow, steep, mono-pitch, duo-pitch, multi-bay ...
+ wind speed and direction
+ wind gust peak factor.

Tabulated procedures enable these features to be evaluated and hence produce a system
of equivalent static forces which can be used in the analysis and design of the structure.

1.2.3 Structural Ana(vsis and Load Distribution

The application of the load types discussed in Section 1.2.2 to structural frames results in
axial loads, shear forces, bending moments and deformations being induced in the floor/roof
slabs, beams, colunms and other structural elements which comprise a structure. The
primary objective of structural analysis is to determine the distribution of internal moments
and forces throughout a structure such that they are in equilibrium with the applied design
loads. There are a number of mathematical models, some manual and others computer
based, which can be used to idealise structural behaviour. These methods include: two- and
three-dimensional elastic behaviour, elastic behaviour considering a redistribution of
moments, plastic and non-linear behaviour. Detailed explanations of these techniques can be
found in the numerous structural analysis text books which are available; they are not
explained in this text.
In braced structures where floor slabs and beams are considered to be simply supported,
vertical loads give rise to three basic types of beam loading condition:

(i) tmiformly distributed line loads,

(ii) triangular and trapezoidal loads,
(iii) concentrated point loads.

These load types are illustrated in Examples 1.1 to 1.4.

1.3 Example 1.1 Load distribution- one-way spanning slabs

Consider the floor plan shown in Figure 1.3 where two one-way spanning slabs are
supported on three beams A-B, C-D and E-F. Both slabs are assumed to be carrying a
uniformly distributed design load of 5 kN/m2 .
 Structural Steelwork 9

E F E F
-.-
I 1.5 m
] 5 kN/m 2 3.0 m -t
1.5 m

5 kN/m 2
~ 5.0 m
c Dj
2.5 m

-t
AJ 8.0 m JB
J A
2.5 m
_j
8

(a) (b)
Figure 1.3

Both slabs have continuous contact with the top flanges of their supporting beams and
span in the directions indicated. The floor area supported by each beam is indicated in
Figure 1.3 (b).

BeamAB
Total load = (floor area supported x magnitude of distributed load/m2)
= (2.5 X 8.0) X (5.0) = 100 kN
Total Load
Beam CD r;;
Total load
BeamEF
= (4.0 X 8.0) X (5.0) = 160kN
Af ~B
c D
Total load (1.5 X 8.0) X (5.0) 60kN E F

Check: the total load on both slabs= (8 .0 x 8.0 x 5.0) = 320kN

Note: Beams AC, CE, BD and DF are assumed to be supporting only their self-weight in
addition to loading which may be applied directly such as brickwork walls.

1.4 Example 1.2 Two-way spanning slabs

Consider the same floor plan as in Example 1.1 but in this case the floor slabs are two-way
spanning as shown in Figure 1.4.
Since both slabs are two-way spanning, their loads are distributed to supporting beams
on all four sides assuming a 45° dispersion as indicated in Figure 1.4(b).
10 Design ofStructural Steelwork

+
E

5kN/m 2

+
c

5kN/m 2

AI 8.0 m IB A I 2.5 m I 3.0 m I 2.5 m IB

(a) (b)
Figure 1.4

BeamAB

Load due to slab ABCD ( 8·0 ; 3·0 x2.5) x (5.0) 5 68.75kN

js
68.75 kN

Beam EF

Load due to slab CDEF ( 8·0 ; 5·0 X 1.5) X (5.0)

bU 48.75 kN
=: 48.75 kN
Ej iF
Beams AC and BD
31 .25 kN
( 5~0 x 2.5)
En
Load due to slab ABCD x (5.0)
AT
=:

Tc
31.25 kN D 8

Beams CE and DF

Load due to slab CDEF =:

e~O 1.5) (5.0) c o11 .25 kN
cT TE
X X

=: 11.25 kN D F

The loading on beam CD can be considered to be the addition of two separate loads, i.e.
Load due to slab ABCD == 68.75 kN (as for beam AB)
Load due to slab CDEF == 48.75 kN (as for beam EF)

E 68.75 kN 5 48.75 kN

Ts + El tF
 Structural Steelwork 11

Check: the total load on all beams 2(68 .75 + 48 .75 + 31.25 + 11.25)
320kN

1.5 Example 1.3 Secondary beams

Consider the same floor plan as in Example 1.1 with the addition of a secondary beam
spanning between beams AB and CD as shown in Figure 1.5. The load carried by this new
beam imposes a concentrated load at the mid-span position ofboth beams AB and CD.

E F E F
~~~-r~~r-~~-r~ --r

5 kN/m 2
I 3.0m -t
1.5 m

~
1.5 m
~~~~T-~~~~~~ __l
c G C D
5 kN/m 2 5 kN/m 2
·- - · - -

J
5.0m

o _m__
A ll-_ 4_ ._ Ha_~_o_m_ 4_.o_m_---il B
Figure 1.5

Beam EF
Total load (1.5 X 8.0) X (5.0) c 60kN
60kN
ET TF
BeamGH
c
Gr
100 kN
Total load (4.0 X 5.0) X (5 .0)
= 100 kN
lH

Beams AC and BD
Total load (2.0 X 5.0) X (5 .0)
c 50kN

50kN AT Tc
B D

Bean1AB l5o kN
Total load = End reaction from beam GH
= 50 kN AT Ts
Bean1 CD
The loading on beam CD can be considered to be the addition of two separate loads, i.e.
12 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Load due to beam GH = 50kN (as for beam AB)

Load due to slab CDEF = 60kN (as for beam EF)

c 60kN 150 kN

1.6 Example 1.4 Combined one-way, two-way slabs and beams

Considering the floor plan shown in Figure 1.6, with the one-way and two-way spanning
slabs indicated, determine the type and magnitude of the loading on each of the supporting
beams .

4.0 m 2.0 m F E

'I'
5 kN/m 2
IH
5 kN/m 2
J I
5 kN/m 2
'1'1 ~~~~-r.-r-~~~ -.

1.5 m
-t
~I I~ 3.0 m
l
c G
~· c

+ 5 kN/m 2
5.0 m

J
AI 8.0 m 18 AI 2.5 m 3.0 m
I
Figure 1.6

The loads on beams AB, AC and.BD are the same as in Example 1.2.

Beams CE, DF, GH and IJ

Total load = (3 .0 x 1.0) x (5 .0) G 15kN

= 15 kN
~c
D
H
J

BeamEF
End reaction from beam GH = 7.5 kN
End reaction from beam IJ 7.5 kN
 Structural Steelwork 13

Load from slab GHIJ = (4 .0 X 1.5) X (5.0) G 30kN

= 30kN

Total loads on beam EF due to beams GH, IJ and slab GHIJ

7.5 kNl 17.5 kN
..!ll 30 kN"'

Beam CD 7.5 kNl 17.5 kN

End reaction from beam GH = 7.5 kN
End reaction from beam IJ 7. 5 kN cT To
[ 30 kN
Load from slab GHIJ = (4 .0 x 1.5) x (5.0) 30 kN
=
cT To
Trapezoidal load from slab ABCD is the same as in Example 1.1

5 68 .75 kN

To
Total loads on beam CD due to beams GH, IJ and slab GHIJ and ABCD

7.5kN± 17.5kN
30 kN ... [68 .75 kN

cT To + c f To

1. 7 Limit State Design BS 5950:Part 1: 1990

The synthesis of a particular design solution evolves from the interaction of a wide range of
considerations to ensure that a structure does not become unsatisfactory in use during its
intended lifetime. The concepts of limit state design examine conditions which may be
considered to induce failure of a structure; such conditions are known as limit states. In BS
5950:Part 1: 1990 Structural use of steelwork in building two types of limit state are
classified, they are:

+ Ultin1ate limit states

+ Serviceability limit states.

14 Design of Structural Steelwork

1. 7.1 Ultimate Limit State

This is a consideration of the strength and/or stability of a structure and its component parts
at the onset of collapse and includes effects such as yielding, rupture, buckling, local and
overall instability, fatigue and brittle fracture.

1. 7.2 Serviceabili~v Limit State

This is a consideration of the response of a structure and its component parts while in
service and includes effects such as deflection, vibration, corrosion or any behaviour which
renders the structure unsuitable for its intended purpose when subjected to service loads.
The general principles of limit state design as applied to the structural steelwork design of
buildings are given in Section two of BS 5950:Part I.

1. 7.3 Partial Safe~v Factors

When checking the suitability of a structure or structural element with respect to a

particular limit state it is necessary to introduce appropriate safety factors. Although not
stated explicitly in BS 5950:Part I: 1990, it is generally accepted that material strengths
and applied loading which have not been factored are referred to as characteristic values
and those which have been multiplied by a safety factor as design values.
The inherent variability in material strengths and applied loads (as discussed in section
1.2), and in assessing their magnitudes, dictates that different safety factors should be used
to reflect different circumstances. The introduction of Partial Safoty Factors applied to
different types of loading conditions and material types is a feature of limit state design.
In BS 5950 these factors have been simplified to allow for a number of effects such as
mathematical approximations in analysis and design techniques and tolerances in material
manufacture, structural fabrication and erection methods. Material design strengths are
given in Table 6 of BS 5950 and include the appropriate partial safety factors, while the
design loadings are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by the appropriate
partial safety factors (y 1) given in Table 2.
A detailed explanation of the rationale adopted by BS 5950 in determining the
recommended partial safety factors is given in Appendix A of the code.

1. 7.4 Application of Partial Safe~v Factors

The application of the partial safety factors to applied loading, in addition to BS6399:Parts
I and 2 referred to in section 1.2.2, is illustrated in Example 1.5.
 Structural Steelwork 15

1.8 Example 1.5 Brewery part floor plan load distribution

A part-plan of a brewery building is shown in Figure 1.7. Using the data provided and the
relevant BS codes, determine the design shear force and bending moment for beams CD, EF
andAB.

2.0m 5.0 m 1.0 m

I I J
c E I 1\,-.
General General storage motor room
office area Maximum I I
area height of 2.0 m
- 3.0 m
- ! -

A D F

225 mm thick
40 m3 Storage
brickwork wall
area for Brewers 5.0 m
3.5 m high
grain (wet)
I
~

All floor slabs 150 mm thick v

sohd remforced concrete
Figure 1.7
Solution:
Unit weight of wet brewers grain 5.5 kN/m3
(this information is available from the client)
Unit weight of concrete = 24.0 kN/m3
Self-weight of 150 mm thick R.C. slab 0.15 x 24.0 = 3.6 kN/m2
Unit weight of 100 mm thick brickwork 2.2 kN/m of surface area
2

2.2 X 225
Self-weight of 225 mm thick brickwork = 4.95 kN/m2
100
BS 5950:Part 1 Table 2
Partial safety factor for dead loads = 1.4
Partial safety factor for imposed loads = 1.6
In all three cases the critical load combination is the combined dead and imposed loading.
The design loads can therefore be determined by adding the factored dead and imposed load,
I.e.
Design load = (1.4 x dead load)+ (1.6 x imposed load)

BS 6399:Part 1: 1984
Table 10: Imposed load in motor room = 7.5 kN/m2
16 Design ofStructural Steelwork

General storage = 2.4 X 2.0 = 4.8 kN/m2

Table 8 Imposed load in general office = 2.5 kN/m2
Brewers grain (wet) =5.5x40 = 220kN
Beam CD
Design dead load due to self-weight of slab = 1.4 X 3.6 X 3.0 = 15.12 kN
Design dead load due to brick-work wall = 1.4 x 4.95 x 10.5 = 72.77 kN
Design imposed load due to general office = 1.6 X 2.5 X 3.0 = 12.0 kN
Total design load =( 15.12+72.77+ 12.0)
= 100 kN

100 kN

50kN~50kN
Design shear force = 50kN
WL (100 X 3.0) =
Design bending moment 37.5 kNm
8 8
BeamEF
Design dead load due to self-weight of slab = 1.4 X 3.6 X 1.5 = 7.56 kN
Design dead load due to brickwork wall = 1.4 X 4.95 X 10.5 = 72.77 kN
Design imposed load due to general office = 1.6 x 7.5 x 1.5 = 18.0 kN
Total design load = (7.56 + 72.77 + 18.0)
= 98.3 kN

98.3 kN

49.1kN~ 49.1kN

Design shear force = 49.1 kN

WL = (98.3 X 3.0)
Design bending moment = - 36.9 kNm
8 8
BeamAB
Design dead load due to self-weight of slab in grain storage area
= 1.4 X 3.6 X 2.5 X 8.0 = 100.8 kN
Design dead load due to brickwork wall = 1.4 X 4.95 X 8.0 X 3.5 = 194.0 kN
Design imposed load due to wet grain = 1.6 X 110.0 = 176.0 kN
Total design load = (100.8 + 194.0 + 176.0)
= 470.8 kN
 Structural Steelwork 17

Design dead load due to self-weight of slab in general storage area

= 1.4 X 3.6 X 1.5 X 5.0 = 37.8 kN
Design imposed load due to general storage
= 1.6 X 4.8 X 1.5 X 5.0 = 57.6 kN
Total design load = (37.8 + 57.6) = 95.4 kN
50 kN 49.1 kN

= [(50 X 2.0) + (470.8 X 4.0) + (95.4 X 4.5) + (49.1 X 7.0)] = 344 .5 kN

8

(665.3- 344.5) = 320.8 kN

320.8 kN

285.65 kN 344.5 kN
Shear Force Diagram
Note:
The value of the UDL between D and F= 95 .4 + 470 ·8 = 77.93 kN/m
5 8
153.1
x = = 1. 96 m this is the position of the maximum bending moment
77.93

Design Shear Force= 344.5 kN

Design bending moment is equal to the shaded area in the shear force diagram.

. B end"mg M oment = [320.8

D es1gn - + 203.1] 2 + [1.96 X 153.1] = 673 .94 kNm
2 2
18 Design ofStructural Steelwork
1.9 Application of Wind Loads

Two methods of analysis for determining the equivalent static wind loads on structures are
given in BS 6399:Part 2: 1995, they are:

+ the standard method

+ the directional method

The standard method is a simplified procedure and is intended to be used by designers

undertaking hand-based calculations. This method gives conservative results for a wide
range of the most commonly used structures.
The directional method, while assessing wind loads more accurately, is more complex
and is intended for use with computational analysis; it is not considered in this text.
Structures which are susceptible to dynamic excitation by virtue of their structural
properties, e.g. mass, stiffuess, natural response frequencies or structural form such as
slender suspended bridge decks or long span cable stayed roofs will generally require more
complex mathematical analysis techniques and/or wind tunnel testing. The standard method
is illustrated in Examples 1.6 to 1.8.

1.10 Example 1.6 Storage hopper

A closed top storage hopper as shown in Figure 1.8 is situated in an industrial development
near Edinburgh and adjacent to the sea. Assuming the altitude of the location to be 5. 0 m
above mean sea level, determine the overall horizontal wind loading on the structure, while
considering the wind to be acting in the direction indicated.
8.0 m

Wind
direction
r---1l Wi nd
direction 1i 0----IT
8.0m
..r-:::-=-=-=h
1

==:> 30m ==:> \ \8.0 m

L----~
Plan

Elevation

Figure 1.8
Solution:
Clause 2. 2. 3. 2
Since the crosswind breadth (8 .0 m) is less than the height {30.0 m) a reduction in lateral
loading is permitted.
Figure 11 (c) of BS 6399:Part 2 H =30m, B = 8.0 m :. H > 2B
 Structural Steelwork 19
Consider the building surface to be divided into a number of parts A, B, C and D

r
B.Om
t- Area= 64m2
I
Area= 56m2
I
Area= 56m 2
I
Area= 64m 2

Figure 1.9
Clause 2.1.3. 6
The overall load on the building P = 0.85(LPrront- LPrear) (1 + Cr)
where:
LPrront is the sum of the horizontal components of surface load on the windward facing
wall
is the sum of the horizontal components of surface load on the leeward facing wall
is a dynamic augmentation factor

Clause 2.1.3.5
Net load on an area of surface P=pA
where:
p is the net pressure across the surface
A is the area of surface being considered

Clause 2.2.1 Figure 6

For Edinburgh the basic wind speed Vi, = 23.5 m/sec

Clause 2. 2. 2. 2. 2 Figure 7
Assuming that the topography of the site is not considered significant
altitude factor S. = 1 + 0.001L\s
1 + (0.001 X 5)
s. = 1.005
Clause 2. 2. 2
site wind speed v.
= vb Xs. Xsd Xs. XSp
In many cases the direction factor (Sct), seasonal factor (S.) and probability factor (Sp) can
be considered to be equal to 1.0 (see Clauses 2.2.2.3 to 2.2.2.5).
V';; = (23.5 X 1.005)
= 23.62 m/sec
20 Design ofStructural Steelwork
Clause 2. 2. 3
effective wind speed Ve = v.
Xsb
where:
Sb is the terrain and building factor obtained from Clause 2. 2. 3. 3 and Table 4

Clause 2.2.2.3 Table 4

The effective wind speed for each of the areas A, B, C and D can be determined assuming
an effective height He equal to the reference height Hr to the top of each area.

Table 4
Area A He= 8.0m sb = 1.73
AreaB He= 15.0 m sb = 1.85
AreaC He=22.0m sb = 1.91
AreaD He= 30.0 m sb = 1.96
Effective wind speeds
Area A Ve = 23.62 x 1.73 = 40.9 m/sec
AreaB Ve = 23.62 x 1.85 = 43.7 m/sec
AreaC V., = 23.62 x 1.91 = 45.1 m/sec
AreaD Ve = 23.62 x 1.96 = 46.3 m/sec

Clause 2.1.2.1 Table2

Dynamic wind pressure qs = 0.613~2
Area A qs = 0.613 x 40.92 = 1.03 kN/ m2
Area B qs = 0.613 x 43.70 = 1.17 kN/m2
Area C q. = 0.613 x 45.10 = 1.25 kN/m2
Area D qs = 0.613 x 46.30 = 1.31 kN/m2

Clause 2.1.3.1
External surface pressure Pe = q.CpeCa
where:
Cpe is the external pressure coefficients (Clause 2.4)
Ca size effect factor (Clause 2.1. 3.4)

Note: In this problem it is not necessary to consider internal pressure coefficients since the
overall horizontal loading is being considered. Internal pressure coefficients are considered
in Example 1. 7.

Clause 2.1.3.4 Figures 4 and 5

Diagonal dimension a = .J302 + 82 = 31.05 m
From Figure 4 use line A in the graph to determine Ca ::::J 0.89
 Structural Steelwork 21

Clause 2.4 Figure 12 and Table 5

D 8
Table 5 = - = 0.27 < 1.0
H 30
windward face + 0.8
leeward face = -0.3
Note: +ve indicates pressure on a surface
-ve indicates suction on a surface

In this problem the wind loading on the side faces and roof are not being considered.

External surface pressure Prront = qs X 0.8 X 0.89 + 0.712q.

Prear = qs X 0.3 X 0.89 = - 0.267q.

Area A Prront = + 0.712 X 1.03 = + 0.73 kN/m2

Prear = - 0.267 X 1.03 =- 0.28 kN/m2
AreaB Pfront = +0.712 X 1.17 = + 0.83 kN/m2
Prear = -0.267 X 1.17 =- 0.31 kN/m2
AreaC Pfront + 0.712 X 1.25 = + 0.89 kN/m2
Prear - 0.267 X 1.25 =- 0.33 kN/m2
Area A Prront = + 0.712 X 1.31 = + 0.93 kN/m2
Prear = - 0.267 X 1.31 = - 0.35 kN/m2

Clause 2.1.3.5
Net load on building surface area = p x loaded area
Area A Frront = 0.73 X 64= + 47.72 kN Frear -0.28 X 64 = -17.92 kN
AreaB Prront 0.83 X 56=+ 46.48 kN Frear -0.31 X 56 -17.36kN
AreaC Prront = 0.89 X 56=+ 49.84 kN Frear -0.33 X 56 - 18.48 kN
Area A Prront = 0.93 X 64= + 59.52 kN Frear = -0.35 X 64 = - 22.40 kN

Clause 2.1. 3. 6
The overall horizontal load on the buildingF = 0.85(~rront- ~rear) (1 + Cr)

Clause 1.6.1 Table 1 Figure 3

Table 1 Building type factor
Figure 3 Dynamic augmentation factor

L.Frront = + (47.72 + 46.48 + 49.84 + 59.52) + 203.56 kN

L.Frear = - (17.92 + 17.36 + 18.48 + 22.4) = -76.16 kN

Overall horizontal load P = 0.85(203.56- (-76.16)) x (1 + 0.04)

P 247.3kN
22 Design ofStructural Steelwork
1.11 Example 1. 7 Industrial warehouse

An industrial warehouse is to be designed comprising a series of three-pinned pitched roof

portal frames as shown in Figure 1.10. Using the data provided determine the wind loading
on the structure.

Design Data:
Location open country near Preston
Altitude of site 20.0 m above mean sea level
Closest distance to sea 8.0km
Overall length of building 24.0m
Centres of frames 4.0m

Frames at 4.0 m
centres Pinned base
"---------20.0 m - -- ---1

Typical internal frame

Figure 1.10
Solution:
Clause 2.2.3.2
Figure 11 (a) H = 10 m B=24m H < B
.·. consider building as one part

Clause 2. 2.1 Figure 6

Location Preston Basic wind speed vb = 23.0 m/sec

Clause 2.2.2.2.2 Figure 7

Assuming that the topography is not considered significant
~s = 20.0 m Altitude factor Sa = 1 + (0.001 x 20.0)
= 1.02
Clause 2.2.2
Site wind speed v.
= vb X s . X sd X Ss X Sp
Assuming Sd = s. = SP = 1. 0
V. = 23.0 x 1.02 = 3.46 m/sec
 Structural Steelwork 23

Clause 2.2.3 Table 4

Effective wind speed

Clause 2.2.3.3 He= Hr =actual height = 10.0 m (see Clause 1. 7.3.2)

Table 4 closest distance to sea = 8 km :. sb = 1.78
Ve = 23.46 x 1.78 = 41.76 rnlsec
Clause 2. 1. 2.1
Dynamic wind pressure q. = 0.613 r-:2
= (0.613 x 41.762)/103 = 1.07 kN/m2
Clause 2.1.3.1
External surface pressures Pe = qsCpeCa

Clause 2.1.3.2
Internal surface pressures Pi

External Pressure Coefficients

Consider the wind acting on the longitudinal face of the building

D = 20 = 2 _0 20.0 m
H 10

U wind direction

Figure 1.11

Clause 2. 4 Table 5
The values of Cpe in Table 5 can be interpolated in the range 1 < D < 4
H
i 0.2

leeward face
windward face
Cpe = -0.23
Cpe = + 0.73 D i 0.7
Figure 1.12

In the case of the gable faces, different values of Cpe should be used depending on the
gap between adjacent buildings; in this example assume that the building is isolated.
24 Design ofStructural Steelwork
Clause 2.4.1.3 Figure 12
The surfaces on which the wind is blowing are considered as separate zones which are
defined in Figure 12 and depend on a variable 'b ',
where:
b ::=:; crosswind breadth = 24.0 m
::=:; 2 x height = 2 x 10.0 = 20.0 m
Use the smaller value of b i.e. b = 20.0m

Figure 12(b) D = b :. consider the gable surface as two zones A and B

The width of zone A is equal to 0.2 x b = 0.2 x 20 4.0 m

The width of zone B is equal to = (20.0- 4.0) = 16.0 m

zone zone
A B
4m 6m Figure 1.13

gable faces zone A Cpe = -1.3 1.3+-D--+ 1.3

0.8+- --+ 0.8
zoneB Cpe = -0.8
Figure 1.14

Consider the wind acting on the gable face of the building

q 20.0 m
wind direction

D 24
-=-=2.4
H 10
6 bays at 4.0 m =24.0 m
Figure 1.15
 Structural Steelwork 25

Using Table 5 and interpolating as before

windward face
leeward face
Cpe
Cpe
= +0.71
= -0.21 0.71 __. 0 _. 0.21

Figure 1.16
Clause 2. 4.1. 3
b s crosswind breadth = 20.0 m
s 2 x height 2 x 10.0 = 20.0 m
Use the smaller value of b 1.e. b 20.0 m

Figure 12(b) D = 24.0 > b :. consider the longitudinal surface as three zones A, Band C.

The width of zone A is equal to 0.2 x b = 0.2 X 20 = 4.0m

The width of zone B is equal to 0. 8 x b = 0.2 X 20 = 16.0 m
The width of zone C is equal to D - b 24-20 = 4.0m

zone A zoneB zone C

Longitudinal elevation
Figure 1.17

1.3 0.8 0.4

i i i
zone A
zoneB
zoneC
Cpe
Cpe
Cpe
=
- 1.3
- 0.8
-0.4 D~ ~ ~
1.3 0.8 0.4 Figure 1.18

Clause 2.5.2.4 Table 10 Figure 20

This clause defines the external pressure coefficients for the roof of buildings

Figure 20 pitch angle a = tan -I~ = 21.8°

10

Clause 2.5.2.2 this clause defines the loaded zones which are indicated in Figure 20 and
are based on variables bL and bw
where:
bL s L (crosswind dimension with the wind on the side of the building)
s 2H
26 Design ofStructural Steelwork

bw ~ W (crosswind dimension with the wind on the gable ofthe building)

~ 2H
L =24.0m W=20.0m 2H= 20.0 m :. bL = bw = 20.0 m

Consider the wind on the longitudinal face of the building

G 8.0 m
E I Fl E 2.0m

c 8.0 m

A IB I A 2.0 m
I I
10.0 m 4.0 m 10.0 m
wind direction e = 0°
Plan
Figure 1.19

In Table 10 interpolation is required between+ 15° and+ 30°

pitch Zone for e = 0°

angle
A B c E F G
21.8° - 1.21 -0.65 -0.25 -0.92 -0.67 -0.45
+0.47 + 0.34 +0.29
Extract from Table 10 BS 6399:Part 2 1995

Both +ve and -ve values are given for zones A, B and C, the most onerous value should
be selected when considering combinations with internal pressure coefficients and other load
types.

Figure 1.20
 Structural Steelwork 27

The zones A, B, E and Fare normally used when designing for local effects where high
local suction can occur. When calculating the load on entire structural elements such as
roofs and walls as a whole, then the values for C and G should be adopted as shown in
Figure 1.21

Figure 1.21

Consider the wind blowing on the gable of the building

A
5.0 m
r

f-- c D
wind 5.0 m 8
~

~-~ c
direction 5.0 m
D
8 = 90° 5.0 m A

2.0 m 8.0 m 14.0 m Figure 1.22

As before, using interpolation in Table 10

pitch angle Zone for 8 = oo

A B c D
21.8° -1.42 -1.32 -0.6 -0.25
Extract from Table 10 BS 6399:Part 2 1995

1.32 1.32 1.42 0.6 0.6 0.25 0.25

~
Figure 1.23

As before use zones A and B for local effects and zone C which is more onerous than D
for entire structural elements.

Internal Pressure Coefficients: Clause 2. 6 Table 16 Table 17

The internal pressure coefficients are given in Clause 2. 6 relating to enclosed buildings and
buildings with dominant openings. A dominant opening is defined as one in which its area is
equal to, or greater than, twice the sum of the openings in other faces which contribute
28 Design ofStructural Steelwork

porosity to the internal volume containing the opening. In cases when dominant openings
occur they will control the internal pressure coefficients and should be determined using
Table 17; in other cases Table 16, Clauses 2. 6.1.1 and 2. 6.1. 2 should be used.

In many cases for external walls Cpi should be taken as either -0.3 or +0.2, whichever
gives the larger net pressure coefficient across the walls.
I.e.

0 .3 0 .2
+-- +--

Internal suction Internal pressure

Figure 1.24

A summary of the combined external and internal pressure coefficients is shown in

Figure 1.25(a) and (b) and Figure 1.26.

rn rn
1.3 0.8 1.3 0.8
t t t t
0.73 0.23 0.73 0.23
c::::> --+ --+ q --+ --+
wind direction wind direction
wind angle e = 0° ~ ~ wind angle e = 0° ~ ~

1.3 0.8 1.3 0.8

Figure 1.25(a)

0.45

0 .73 0 .45
--+ +-- 0 .2 --+ --+

Case II

Figure 1.25(b)
 Structural Steelwork 29

rn-+
0.2 0.2
t t
0.21+-- 0.4 0.21+-- rn--+ 0.4
0.8 +-- --+ 0.3 +- --+ 0.8 --+
0.8 +-- +- 0.2 --+ 0.8
1.3 +-- t --+ 1.3 1.3 +-- ~ --+ 1.3
t t
0.71 0.71
wind direction l'f' wind direction l'f'
wind angle 8 = 90° U wind angle 8 = 90° U

~I --+
~
0.3 -... lo~ ~I +--- 0.2
+ +-- lo~
Caselli Case IV

Figure 1.26

Clause 2.1.3.4 Figure 4 Figure 5

The size effect factor (C.) is dependent on the diagonal dimension 'a' as defined in Figure 5
for external pressures and in Clause 2. 6 for internal pressures.

Diagonal dimension for external pressures

Figure 5 considering the longitudinal walls a= -J62 + 24 2 ~ 25
considering the gables a= -J6 2 + 20 2 ~ 21
considering the roof a = -J 4 + 10
2 2 + 24 2 ~ 36

Diagonal dimension for internal pressures

Clause 2. 6.1.1 a= 10 x \!internal volume of storey

a= 10 x V(20x24x6)+(0.5x20x4x24) ~ 157

Size factors (C.)

Figure 4 Site in country closest distance to sea= 8.0 km
Use line A in graph to determine c.
30 Design ofStructural Steelwork
Considering external pressures

Size factor for longitudinal walls c. ~ 0.9

gables c ~ 0.91
roof c ~ 0.88

Considering internal pressures

Size factor for all surfaces c. ~ 0.79

Consider Case I
Clause 2.1.3.1 and 2.1.3.3

windward wall Pe = qsCpeCa 1.07 X 0.73 X 0.9 0.7 kN/m2

Pi qsCpiC 1.07 X - 0.3 X 0.79 - 0.25 kN/m2
net surface pressure P (pe- Pi) (0.7 + 0.25) = 0.95 kN/m 2 ---+

windward roof slope Pe = qsCpeCa 1.07 X 0.29 X 0.88 = 0.27 kN/m2

Pi = qsCpiCa = 1.07 X - 0.3 X 0.79 - 0.25 kN/m2
net surface pressure p (pe- Pi) (0.27 + 0.25) = 0.52 kN/m2 " - . .

leeward wall Pe = qsCpeCa 1.07 X - 0.23 X 0.9 = - 0.22 kN/m2

Pi qsCpiCa 1.07 X - 0.3 X 0.79 = -0.25 kN/m2
net surface pressure p = (pe- Pi) (- 22 + 0.25) = 0.03 kN/m2
~

leeward roof slope Pe = qsCpeCa 1.07 X - 0.45 X 0.88 = - 0.42 kN/m2

Pi qsCpiCa = 1.07 X - 0.3 X 0.79 = - 0.25 kN/m2
net surface pressure p = (pe- Pi) = (- 0.42 + 0.25) = 0.17 kN/m2 /

Gables zone A Pe = qsCpeCa = 1.07 X - 1.3 X 0.91 = -1.27 kN/m2

Pi = qsCpiC 1.07 X- 0.3 X 0.79 = -0.25 kN/m2
net surface pressure p = (pe- Pi) = (- 1.27 + 0.25) = 1.02 kN/m2
t
Gables zone B Pe = qsCpeCa = 1.07 X - 0.8 X 0.91 = -0.78 kN/m2
Pi = qsCpiCa = 1.07 X- 0.3 X 0.79 = -0.25 kN/m2
net surface pressure p (pe- Pi) = (- 0.78 + 0.25) = 0.53 kN/m2
l
 Structural Steelwork 31

1.02 kN/m2 0.53 kN/m2

t t
0.95 kN/m2 0.03 kN/m2

I I
-r
0.95 kN/m2 0.03 kN/m2
wind==::::::::>-
1
direction '-·: - - : - - - - - l
wind angle e = 0° J,. J,.
1.02 kN/m2 0.5 3kN/m2
zone A zone B

Figure 1.27
Clause 2.1.3.5
The net load on an area of building is given by P = pA
A typical internal frame supports surface areas as shown in Figure 1.29

Figure 1.28

Area of wall supported/frame A = 4.0 x 6.0 24.0 m2

Area of roof supported/frame A 4.0 x 10.77 = 43.1 m2

Surface loads (as shown in Figure 1.30)

windward wall p 0.95 X 24.0 = 22.8 kN
windward roof slope p = 0.52 X 43.1 = 22.41 kN
leeward wall p 0.03 X 24.0 = 0.72 kN
leeward roof slope p = 0.17 X 43.1 = 7.33 kN

Only Case I is considered here; when designing such a frame all cases must be
considered in combination with dead and imposed loads and appropriate partial load factors
as given in Table 2 ofBS 5950:Part 2, to determine the critical design load case.
32 Design ofStructural Steelwork

22.8 kN

Figure 1.29

1.12 Example 1.8 Radar reflector

Radar equipment sited on the perimeter of an airfield comprises a revolving reflector

mounted on a tripod trestle as shown in Figure 1.30. Using the data provided determine the
force exerted by the wind on the reflector.

Data:
Location near Aberdeen
Closest distance to sea 5km
Altitude above mean sea level 15m
r------1 0.0 m ----+

--·-·r--·.-·- ·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-.~:?"<:~..-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·- Jf m

Figure 1.30
Solution:
Clause 2.1.3.3 (b)
When considering free standing canopies and building elements, the net surface pressure is
given by

where CP is the net pressure coefficient for a canopy surface or element and is defined in
Clauses 2.5.9 and 2. 7. In this problem the radar equipment can be treated as indicated in
Clause 2. 7. 6; the wind force on the members of the trestle will be neglected.
:. Cp = 1.8
Clause 2.1.3.4 Figure 4
Size effect factor (C.) He= 8.0 m, Site in country, Distance to sea = 5 km
 Structural Steelwork 33
Use line A in graph assuming the diagonal dimension 'a' to be 5. 0 m
c.~ 0.99

Clause 2.2.1 Figure 5

Location Aberdeen Basic wind speed vb = 24m/sec

Clause 2. 2. 2. 2. 2
Altitude factor Sa = 1 + (0.001 X 15)
= 1.015
Clause 2. 2. 2
Site wind speed v. = vb X s. X sd X s. X Sp
Assume Sd = s. = SP = 1.0
V. = 24.0 x 1.015 = 24.36 m/sec
Clause 2.2.3.3 Table 4
The values for Sb in Table 4 can be found by interpolation.
In this example He= 8.0 m and closest distance to sea is 5 km :. Sb = 1.68

Clause 2.2.3.1
Effective wind speed Ve = 24.36 X 1.68 = 40.9 m/sec
Clause 2.1. 2.1
Dynamic wind pressure q. (0.613 x 40.9 2)/10 3 = 1.03 kN/m2
Net surface pressure p = 1.03 X 1.8 X 0.99 = 1.84 kN/m2

Clause 2.1.3.5
Net load on the reflector p = 1.84 X (10.0 X 4.0) = 73.6 kN

This force should be considered to be acting at the mid-height of the reflector and within the
middle half as shown in Figure 1.31.

2.5 m 5.0 m 2.5 m

Figure 1.31
2. Flexural Members

2.1 Introduction

The most frequently used, and possibly the earliest used, structural element is the beam. The
primary function of a beam is to transfer vertical loading to adjacent structural elements
such that the load can continue its path through the structure to the foundations. Loading
can be imposed on a beam from one or several of a number of sources, e.g. other secondary
beams, columns, walls, floor systems or directly from installed plant and/or equipment. In
most cases static loading will be considered the most appropriate for design purposes, but
dynamic and fatigue loading may be more critical in certain circumstances.
The structural action of a beam is predominantly bending, with other effects such as
shear, bearing and buckling also being present. In addition to ensuring that beams have
sufficient strength capacities to resist these effects, it is important that the stiffuess
properties are adequate to avoid excessive deflection or local buckling of the cross-section
(see Section Classification 2.2). A large variety of cross-sections are available when
selecting a beam for use in any one of a wide range of applications. The most common types
of beam with an indication of the span range for which they may be appropriate are given in
Table 2.1. For lightly loaded and small spans such as roofpurlins and side sheeting rails the
use of hot-rolled angle sections or channel sections is appropriate (see Figure 4.11). Cold-
formed sections pressed from thin sheet and galvanised and provided by proprietary
suppliers are frequently used. In small to medium spans hot-rolled joists, universal beams
(UBs ), hollow sections and UBs with additional welded flange plates (compound beams) are
often used. If the span and/or magnitude of loading dictates that larger and deeper sections
are required, castellated beams formed by welding together profiled cut UB sections, plate
girders or box girders in which the webs and flanges are individual plates welded together
can be fabricated. Plate girder design is discussed in more detail in Chapter 6. While careful
detailing can minimize torsional effects, when they are considered significant hollow tube
sections are more efficient than open sections such as UBs, universal columns (UCs), angles
and channels.
The section properties of all hot-rolled sections and cold-formed sections are published
by their manufacturers; those for fabricated sections must be calculated by the designer
(Ref.: 11)
The span of a beam is defined in Clause 4.2.1.1 of BS 5950:Part 1 as the distance
between points of effective support. In general, unless the supports are wide columns or
piers then the span can be considered as the centre-to-centre of the actual supports or
columns.
The most widely adopted section to be found in building frames is the Universal Beam.
The design of beams to satisfy the requirements of BS 5950:Part 1 includes the
consideration of:

+ section classification,
+ shear capacity,
34
 Flexural Members 35

+ moment capacity (including lateral torsional buckling),

+ deflection,
+ web buckling
+ web bearing,
+ torsional capacity (not required for the design of most beams)

All of these criteria are explained and considered separately and illustrated in Examples 2.1
to 2. 10. Examples 2.11 and 2.12 illustrate the design of beams using all criteria (except
torsional capacity).
Table 2.1

Span (m) Beam Types

1 - 20
L[ID
Angle Channel Joist Tube Universal beam Compound beam

1-40

UB RHS Composite beams Castellated beams

15 - 200
K}{8}0( I \: :::::», 7
Castellated beams Welded plate girders Welded box girders

Section Classification (Clause 3. 5)

In Clause 3. 5 of BS 5950, the cross-sections of structural members are classified into four
categories:
36 Design of Structural Steelwork

• Class I Plastic Sections

• Class 3 Semi-compact
Class 2 Compact Sections
• Class 4 Slender SectionsSections
•
This classification is based on two criteria:

(i) the aspect ratio of the elements of a cross-section such as the UB indicated in Figure
2.1, which influences their behaviour when subject to either pure compression,
compression caused by bending or a combination of both.
b
I· --1_1
T Element Aspect ratio

D -j~ outstand of
compressiOn
flange
biT

web d/t

I B I

Figure 2.1

Reference should be made to Figure 3 in BS 5950:Part 1 for other cross-sections

(ii) the moment-rotation characteristics of such a cross-section are as indicated in Figure

2.2.
Moment

Class 1

Class 2
Class 3

Rotation

Figure 2.2
where:
M=p plastic moment of resistance
Me= limiting elastic moment of resistance
M = elastic moment of resistance

These criteria detennine whether or not a fully plastic moment as shown in Figure 2.3 can
develop within a beam and possess sufficient rotational capacity to permit redistribution of
the moments in a structure.
In a beam subject to an increasing bending moment, the bending stress diagram changes
from a iinearly elastic condition with extreme fibre stresses less than the design strength,
 Flexural Members 37

(py), to one in which all of the fibres can be considered to have reached the design strength
as shown in Figure 2.3.

Compression cr <py (j = py cr = py

~--~----------L---~

Tension (j <py cr = py (j = py
Elastic Limiting Fully Plastic
Moment Elastic Moment Moment

M= cr x Zxx Me= pyX Zxx Mp =pyX Sxx

Class 4 Class 3 Classes 2 and 1

Slender Semi-compact Compact and Plastic

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.3
where:
Zxx elastic section modulus
Sxx = plastic section modulus
cr elastic stress
py design strength

Note: The Shape Factor of a section is defined as:

plastic modulus
v= Sxx The value of v for most I-sections ~ l. 15
elastic modulus Zxx

2.1.1 Plastic Sections

The failure of a structure such that plastic collapse occurs is dependent on a sufficient
number of plastic hinges developing within the cross-sections of the members (i.e. value of
internal bending moment reaching Mp), to produce a mechanism. For full collapse this
requires one more than the number of redundancies in the structure, as illustrated in Figure
2.4.
38 Design ofStructural Steelwork

p w p

/ Ama:l ~

Rigid-Jointed Collapse Mechanism Collapse Bending

Rectangular Portal Moment Diagram
No. of redundancies = 1 Number of hinges= 2

Figure 2.4

The required number of hinges will only develop if there is sufficient rotational capacity
in the cross-section to permit the necessary redistribution of the moments within the
structure. When this occurs, the stress diagram at the location of the hinge is as shown in
Figure 2.3(c), and the aspect ratio of the elements of the cross-section are low enough to
prevent local buckling from occurring. Such cross-sections are defined as plastic sections
and classified as Class 1. Full plastic analysis and design can only be carried out using
Class 1 sections.

2.1.2 Compact Sections

When cross-sections can still develop the full plastic moment as in Figure 2.3(c), but are
prevented by the possibility of local buckling from undergoing enough rotation to permit re-
distribution of the moments, the section is considered to be compact and is classified as
Class 2. Compact sections can be used without restricting their capacity, except at plastic
hinge positions.

2.1.3 Semi-compact Sections

Semi-compact sections may be prevented from reaching their full plastic moment by local
buckling of one or more of the elements of the cross-section. The aspect ratios may be such
that only the extreme fibre stress can attain the design strength before local buckling occurs.
Such sections are classified as Class 3 and their capacity is therefore based on the
limiting elastic moment as indicated in Figure 2.3(b).

2.1.4 Slender Sections

When the aspect ratio is relatively high, then local buckling may prevent any part of the
cross-section from reaching the design strength. Such sections are called slender sections
and are class~fied as Class 4 sections; their capacity is based on a reduced design
strength as spec~fied in Clause 3. 6 of BS 5950: Part 1.
 Flexural Members 39

The limiting aspect ratios for elements of the most commonly used cross-sections subject
to pure bending, pure axial load or combined bending and axial loads are given in Table 7

( r.
of BS 5950:Part 1. The values given in Table 7 must be modified to allow for the design
strength py. This is done by multiplying each limiting ratio by E which equals

~: The usc of Clause 3. 5 and Table 7 is illustrated in the examples in this chapter.

2.2 Shear Capacity (Clause 4.2.3)

Generally in the design of beams for buildings, the effects of shear are negligible and will
not significantly reduce the value of the moment capacity. It is evident from the elastic shear
stress distribution in an 1-beam, as shown in Figure 2.5 that the web of a cross-section is the
primary element which carries the shear force.

!
Applied shear force Maximum shear stress

Shear f1ow Shear area (Av) Elastic shear stress

distribution
Figure 2.5

In situations such as at internal supports of continuous beams where there is likely to be

high coincident shear and moment effects which may induce significant principal stresses,
(see Figure 2.6), it is necessary to consider the reduction in moment capacity caused by the
effects of the shear.

I\._
Applied loading ,

--, 6;-------------------------{6;-r--- - - - - -

I
/r
\~Q--
I
c,,, '
\
:' ',/ /Q--',
1 7 r
I
'
\
'--- : l · I ,___1 j-of
I Ir / I '
I \
'1 I
\
',lT-_\ ~ }'-u-/
r /

Applied 20 stress system to elertJent

Figure 2.6
40 Design ofStructural Steelwork

The shear capacity of a beam is defined in the code as:

where:
0. 6 py is approximately equal to the yield stress of steel in shear
Av is the shear area as defined in Clause 4. 2. 3
When the applied ultimate shear force (Fv) is equal to or greater than 60% of Pv (i.e. Fv
~ 0.36 pyAv) the moment capacity of a beam should be reduced as specified in Clause 4.2.6.
When the aspect ratio of a web is greater than 63s the possibility of shear buckling
should be considered. This is illustrated in the design of plate girders in Chapter 6. In the
design of webs of variable thickness and/or which contain large holes (e.g. castellated
beams) the code requires that shear stresses be calculated from first principles assuming
elastic behaviour and a maximum shear stress not exceeding 0.7py; the design of such webs
is not considered in this text.

2.3 Example 2.1 Shear check of a simply supported beam

A simply supported 406 x 178 x 74 UB is required to span 4.5 m and carry an ultimate
design load of 40 kN/m. Check the suitability of the section with respect to shear (section
properties are given in Ref: 11).

Solution:
Section properties: t = 9.5 mm, D = 412.8 mm, d = 360.4 mm
Design shear force at the end of the beam Fv = 40 x 4 .5 = 90 kN
2
Clause 4.2.3 Pv = 0.6 pyAv
For a rolled UB section Av = tD
Shear area Av = (9.5 x 412.8) = 3.922 x 103 mm2
Clause 3.1.1 Web thickness t = 9.5 mm
Table 6 gives py= 275 N/mm2
Clause 3.5 Since the beam is subject to pure bending the neutral axis will be at mid-
depth.

Section Classification:
d
Table 7 Note: s = 1.0- = 37.9 < 79s
t
Web is plastic
.
Sl1ear capactty p 0.6 X 275 X 3.922 X 103
v= 3 = 64 7 kN
10
>> Fv (90 kN)
This value indicates the excessive reserve of shear strength in the web.
 Flexural Members 41
2.4 Moment Capacity (Clause 4.2.5)

The moment capacity of a beam is determined by a number of factors such as :

(i) design strength (Table 6)

(ii) section classification (Table 7)
(iii) elastic section modulus (Z)
(iv) plastic section modulus (S)
(v) co-existent shear Clauses (4.2.5 and 4.2.6) and
(vi) lateral restraint to the compression flange (Clause 4. 3)

The criteria (i) to (v) are relatively straightforward to evaluate, however criterion (vi) is
related to the lateral torsional buckling of beams and is much more complex. The design of
beams in this text are considered in two categories:

(a) beams in which the compression flange is fully restrained and lateral torsional
buckling cmmot occur, and
(b) beams in which either no lateral restraint or only intermittent lateral restraint is
provided to the compression flange.

2.4.1 Compression Flange Restraint

As indicated in Figure 2.3 a beam subject to bending is partly in tension and partly in
compression. The tendency of an unrestrained compression flange in these circumstances is
to deform sideways and twist about the longitudinal axis as shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7

This type of failure is called lateral torsional buckling and will normally occur at a value
of applied moment less than the moment capacity (Me) of the section as given in Clauses
4. 2. 5and 4. 2. 6and is known as the buckling resistance moment Mb, defined in Clause
4.3. 7. 3 . as :

where:
Sxx. is the plastic modulus
Pb is the bending strength
42 Design ofStructural Steelwork
The tendency for the compression flange to deform is influenced by:

(i) lateral restraint,

(ii) torsional restraint,
(iii) flange thickness and
(iv) effective buckling length.

2. 4.1.1 Lateral restraint (Clause 4.3.2)

Full lateral restraint

It is always desirable where possible to provide full lateral restraint to the compression
flange of a beam. The existence of either a cast-in-situ or precast concrete slab which is
supported directly on the top flange or cast around it is normally considered to provide
adequate restraint. A steel plate floor that is tack-welded or bolted to the flange also
provides adequate restraint; steel floors which are fixed in a manner such that removal for
access is required are not normally considered adequate for restraint. Timber floors and
beams are frequently supported by steel beams. Generally, unless they are fixed to the beam
by cleats, bolts or some other similar method and are securely held at their remote end or
along their length they are not considered to provide adequate restraint.

Full lateral restraint is defined in Clause 4.2. 2. as being present '... if the frictional or
positive connection of a floor or other construction to the compression flange of the
member is capable of resisting a lateral force of not less than 2.5% of the maximum
factored force in the compression flange of the member under factored loading. This load
should be considered as distributed uniformly along the flange ... '. This is illustrated in
Figure 2.8.

Lateral friction force between underside of slab and top flange

Figure 2.8
 Flexural Members 43

2.5% of Applied Moment

Minimum friction force required
Lever Arm x span

Friction force required = 0.025 x M kN /m

L(D-T)

Friction force provided f.t XR

where:
M maximum moment due to applied factored loads
L span of the beam
f.1 coefficient of friction between the concrete beam and the steel flange
R maximum factored verticalload/m applied to the beam
D and T are as before

As discussed above, there is no need to carry out this calculation in the case of concrete
floor slabs.

Intermittent lateral restraint

Most beams in buildings which do not have full lateral restraint are provided with
intennittent restraint in the form of secondary beams, ties or bracing members as shown in
Figure 2.9.

Effective length of
compression nange

Effective length of Secondary beam

compression nange providing lateral and
torsional restraint

Secondary beam
providing lateral and
torsional restraint

Secondary beam
providing lateral and
torsional restraint

Figure 2.9

It is important to ensure that the elements providing restraint are an integral part of a
braced structural system and are capable of transmitting the lateral force of 2.5% described
previously, divided between the intermediate lateral restraints in proportion to their spacing
(see Clause 4. 3.2.1). If three or more intermediate lateral restraints are present, each
individual restraint must be capable of resisting at least I% of the flange force.
44 Design ofStructural Steelwork
2.4.1.2 Torsional restraint (Clause 4.3.3)

A beam is assumed to have torsional restraint about its longitudinal axis at any location
where both flanges are held in their relative positions by external members during bending;
as illustrated in Figure 2.10.

Depth of plate <!: 0.60

Beam with torsional restraint

Figure 2.10

This type of restraint may be provided by load bearing stiffeners as described in Clause
4. 5. 8 or by the provision of adequate end connection details as discussed in Chapter 5.

Beam without torsional restraint

In situations where a beam is supported by a wall as in Figure 2.11 , no torsional restraint is
provided to the flanges and buckling is more likely to occur.

Figure 2.11

2.4.2 Effective Length Le (Clauses 4.3. 5 and 4.3. 6)

The provision of lateral and torsional restraints to a beam introduces the concept of
effective length. The effective length of a compression flange is the equivalent length
between restraints over which a pin-ended beam would fail by lateral torsional buckling.
The values to be used in assessing this are given in Tables 9 and 10 for beams and
cantilevers respectively. The values adopted depend on three factors relating to the degree of
lateral and torsional restraint at the position of the intermittent restraints, they are:
 l'lexura/A1e1nbers 45

(a) the existence of torsional restraints

(b) the degree of lateral restraint of the compression flange
(c) the type ofloading.

In the case of beams factors (a) and (b) give rise to five possible conditions.

(a) When full torsional restraint exists:

(i) both the compression and tension flanges are fully restrained against
rotation on plan,
(ii) both flanges are partially restrained against rotation on plan, or
(iii) both flanges are free to rotate on plan.

(b) When both flanges are free to rotate on plan and the compression flange is
unrestrained:
(i) torsional restraint is provided soley by connection of the tension flange
to the supports,
(ii) torsional restraint is provided soley by dead bearing of the tension flange
on supports.

Similar conditions exist in Table 10 for cantilevers.

(c) Type of loading:

A beam load is considered normal unless both the beam and the load are free to
deflect laterally and so induce lateral torsional buckling by virtue of the combined
freedom; in which case the load is a destabilising load. In an efficiently designed
braced structural system, destabilising loads should not normally arise. In some
instances the existence of such a load is unavoidable e.g. the sidesway induced in
crane-gantry girders by the horizontal surge loads (see Figure 2.12).

Crab
~V•rtl~l Lood ~

Crane Gantry

Gl'd"
=-I'
CJ
Figure 2.12
46 Design ofStructural Steelwork

In Table 10 it can be seen that destabilising loads are a particular problem for
cantilevers since it may be difficult to achieve torsional rigidity at either the free or fixed
end. In addition the bottom flange, which is in compression, may not be as readily restrained
as the top flange.

2.4.3 Moment Capaci~v (Me) of Beams with Full Lateral Restraint

The moment capacity (Me) of beams with the compression flange fully restrained is
detem1ined using the following equations which are given in Clauses 4. 2. 5 and 4. 2. 6 for low
coincident shear and high coincident shear respectively.

Plastic and compact sections

Clause 4. 2. 5 Low Shear (Fv S 0.6Pv)
Me== pyS
. s 1.2pyZ
When the shape factor of a section is greater than 1.2 then py S > 1.2py Z and the elastic
limitation will govern the design. Generally this will only affect hollow sections and a few
Universal Column sections. This limitation is to ensure that plasticity does not occur at
working loads. There is provision in this clause for enhancing the elastic. limitation by
replacing the 1.2 factor by the average load factor which equals:

factored loads thi . .

------ , s IS approXImate1y 1 5.
unfactored loads

The design of hollow sections, (which tend to have a high shear capacity and high
torsional stiffness and do not generally fail by lateral torsional buckling), will be inefficient
and uneconomic if this enhancement is not allowed for.

Clause 4. 2. 6 High Shear (Fv ~ 0.6Pv)

Me== py (S- SvPI)
s 1.2pyZ
where:

Sv is either
(i) the plastic modulus of the shear area for sections with equal flanges or
(ii) plastic modulus of the gross cross-sections minus the plastic modulus of that part
of the section remaining after deduction of the shear area.

The shear areas in (i) and (ii) are illustrated in Figure 2.12.
 i'lexuralA1e~nbers 47

0 d d

Figure 2.12

Se1ni-co~npact sections
Low Shear and High Shear
Clauses 4. 2. 5 and 4. 2. 6
The same value is used for both situations i.e.:

Slender sections
Low Shear and High Shear
Clauses 4. 2. 5 and 4. 2. 6
The same value is used for both situations i.e.:

where Pr is multiplied by a factor from Table 8 to allow for the slenderness of the cross-
section.
The design of beams with fully restrained flanges is normally determined from the
bending criterion with subsequent checks carried out to ensure that other criteria are
satisfied. A beam can be selected such that the applied ultimate moment does not exceed the
moment capacity of the section, e.g. for a plastic or compact section assuming that the
shape factor is less than 1.2:

An appropriate section can be selected from published section property tables.

2.5 Example 2.2 Bending in fully restrained beam

A single span beam is simply supported between two columns and carries a reinforced
concrete slab in addition to the column and loading shown in Figure 2.13. Using the
working loads indicated, select a suitable section considering section classification, shear
and bending only. Assume that dead loads are inclusive of self-weights.
48 Design of Structural Steelwork

Dead load = 10 kN
Imposed load= 30 kN !I
-
Dead load = 8 kN/m
lmpoj ed load = 10 kN/m
i I~

I[ I
i IT
.L: I
2.0m
I 4.0m
i

- I
6.0m
.I
,..,....

Figure 2.13

Solution to Example 2.2 (see Section 2.21)

2.6 Moment Capacity (Mb) of Beams without Full Lateral Restraint (Clause 4.3. 7)

As discussed in Section 2. 5 .1the moment capacity of a beam in which the compression

flange is not fully restrained is known as the buckling resistance moment (Mb) and is
defined in Clause 4. 3.7. 3 as

The bending strength Pb is dependent on the design strength py the equivalent slenderness
Ar-T (equal to nuvA.which is defined in Example 2.3) ofthe section and the type of member,
i.e. rolled or fabricated by welding. Values of Pb are given in Tables 11, 12 and 19 of the
code. Those in Tables 11 and 12 are for rolled and welded sections respectively and those in
Table 19 are used when using a simplified design procedure which is known as the
Conservative Method. A more rigorous and economic design process is illustrated first in
this Section. The conservative method and the use of safe load tables are illustrated at the
end of the chapter.

2.6.1 Rigorous Method (Clause 4.3. 7.1)

The condition to be satisfied when considering lateral torsional buckling is:

where:
M is the equivalent uniform moment on any portion of a member between adjacent
lateral restraints and is defined in Clause 4. 3.7. 2 as mMA in which:
 JllexuralAfe111bers 49

111 is an equivalent uniform moment factor determined from Clause 4. 3. 7. 6

AlA is the maximum moment on the portion of a member being considered.

2. 7 Example 2.3 Beam with intermittent lateral restraint

A single span beam of 8. 0 m span supporting two factored point loads is shown in Figure
2.14. Assuming lateral and torsional restraint to the compression flange at the ends and
points of application ofthe loads only, check the suitability of a 406 x 140 x 39 UB with
respect to bending. Neglect self-weight, i.e. the beam is not loaded between adjacent lateral
restraints.

45 kN
30 kN

A 2.0 m B 4.0m c 2.0 m 0

406x 140x39UB

~ Bending Moment Diagram

Figure 2.14

On portion AB A1 = 111 x 67.5 kNm

On portion BC A1 = 111 x 82.5 kNm
On portion CD A1 = 111 x 82.5 kNm

The value of '111' may be different for each section.

The evaluation of 'AlA' is dependent on the structural analysis for the applied load
system and resulting bending moment diagram.

The evaluation of '111' is determined by reference to Clause 4. 3. 7. 6, Table 13 and Table

18 if necessary.

Clause 4.3. 7.6: This clause indicates two situations for which to determine '111'

(i) members of uniform cross-section in which case Table 13 is used to determine

'111' and 'n'.
50 Design ofStructural Steelwork

(ii) members of non-uniform cross-section in which reference should be made to

Appendix B: beams in this category are not considered in this text.

Table 13: 'm' is given the value of 1.0 for any member subject to destabalising loads,
any member which is loaded between adjacent restraints and any section
with unequal flanges.
In the case of members with equal flanges not loaded between adjacent
lateral restraints and not subjected to destabalising loads the value of 'm' is
determined from Table 18.
The values of 'm' and 'n' as determined by Table 13 requirements are
to allow for the effects of a moment gradient along the length of the
member. It should be noted from Table 13 that the two adjustments, 'm' to
the applied bending moment and 'n' to the slenderness of the compression
flange do not occur simultaneously.

Table 18: the magnitude and sense of the bending moment diagram on the portion of
beam being considered defines the value of a factor 'p which is
subsequently used to determine 'm' where:

fJ = smaller end moment

1arg er end moment

67.5 kNm

82.5 kNm

Figure 2.15

PortionA-B Portion B-C Portion C-D

0 0
fJ= - = 0 fJ= 675 = 0.82 {J=-=0
67.5 82.5 82.5

Table 18 values are as follows:

m = 0.57 m = 0.91 m = 0.57

M = 0.57 X 67.5 M = 0.91 X 82.5 M = 0.57 X 82.5
= 38.5 kNm = 75.1 kNm =47.0kNm
 Flexural Members 51

Table 18 gives values of f3in increments ofO.l, the value of 'm' for intermediate values
can be found from the following equation but should not be taken as less than 0.43

m = 0.57 + 0.33/3+ O.l/3 2 ~ 1.0

Clearly, in the above case portion B-C of the beam is critical and a section should be
designed such that:
Mb ;::: 75.1 kNm

Equivalent Slenderness Ratio: (Clause 4.3. 7.5)

ALT = nuvA,
where:
n is a slenderness correction factor and is equal to either 1.0, or for members with equal
flanges, loaded between adjacent restraints and not subjected to destabilising loads, can
be determined from Tables 15 and Table 16 (see Table 13 as form) or for standard load
conditions, from Table 20.
u is a buckling parameter which for rolled UB, UC or channel section can be taken as 0.9,
is more accurately evaluated using Appendix B, or is given in published section property
tables.
v is a slenderness factor which for uniform, flanged members with at least one axis of
symmetry can be determined from Table 14.

Evaluation of 'n'
In most cases, the value of 'n' can be estimated by modifying, when required, the values
given in Table 20. Tables 15 and 16 are used for more complex cases, as illustrated in
Example 2.4. The value depends on the bending moment diagram of the portion of a beam
being considered. Consider the portions of beam ABCD as before and using Table 20.

PortionA-B

n = 0.77
67.5 kNm

675k~= n = 1.0 n =0.77

82.5 kNm

Portion B-C
(1.0 + 0.77)
Use average value :. n = = 0.89
2
52 Design of Structural Steelwork

Portion C-D

82.5kNm V n = 0.77

The critical value of n relates to portion C-B

n = 0.89
Evaluation of 'u'
From section property tables for a 406 x 140 x 39 UB
u = 0.858
Evaluation of 'v'
The values of 'v' given in Table 14 are dependent on three factors N, A, and X.

N this factor equals 0.5 for members with equal flanges or in the case of other sections
/cf
equals --=--
fer+ ltJ:

where fer and ltr are the second moments of area of the compression and tension flanges
respectively about the y-y axis of the section.

A is the minor axis slenderness and is defined as A = Le

rYY
where:
Le is the effective length as discussed in Section 2.4.2 and ryy is the radius of gyration about
the minor axis of the member; normally from the section properties tables.

X is the torsional index and may be determined from Appendix B, section property tables
or taken as DIT for rolled sections, provided that U is taken as 0. 9 or 1. 0 for other
sections.

Clause 4.3. 7.5

UB section is being considered N = 0.5
Full restraint to the compression flange is not provided
Table 9 effective length LE = 1.0 x 4.0 = 4.0 m
radius of gyration ryy = 28.7
Le = 4000
slenderness = 139.4
rYY 28.7
A= 139.4
torsional index X = 47.5
A 139.4
= -- = 2.95
X 47.5
 Flexural Members 53
A,
Table 14 N= 0.5 and = 2.95 v = 0.91
X

equivalent slenderness ALT = nuvA,

ALT = 0.89 X 0.858 X 0.91 X 139.4 = 96.7
Au= 96.7
Table 6 T<16.0mm py = 275 N/mm2

Clause 4. 3. 7. 4 Table 11 ALT = 56.7 Pb = 131 N/mm2

Mb = Sx:xPb = (724 x 103 x 131) I 106 = 94.8 kNm

M < Mb
Section is adequate in bending

2.8 Example 2.4 Beam with intermittent lateral restraint

A 406 x 178 x 54 UB is simply supported and carries factored loading as shown in Figure
2.6. Assuming lateral restraints to the compression flange at A, B, C and D as in Example
2.3, check the suitability of the section with respect to bending.

45 kN

81 .75
27.75

X 20.25
.I
65.25
89.25
A B c D E

Figure 2.17

27.75
Distance to point of zero shear from B = 2.31 m
x =
12
Position of maximum bending moment is 4.31 m from the left-hand end. ·
54 Design ofStructural Steelwork

(81.75 + 57.75)2
Bending moment at B = 139.5 kNm
2

( 65.25 + 89 .25)2
Bending moment at C 154.5 kNm
2

(81.75 + 57.75)2 (2.31 X 27.75)

Max. bending moment at 2.3 m = + = 171.6 kNm
2 2

Portion BC is the critical section M = m x 171.6 kNm

Clause 4. 3. 7. 6 Table 13 m = 1.0
M = 171.6 kNm
The value of 'n' is determined from Tables 15 and 16

Table 15 applies to members in which the applied loading is substantially concentrated

within the middle fifth of the unrestrained length; Table 16 applies to all other load cases.
In this example for portion BC Table 16 is appropriate and the value of 'n' is dependent
on two variables

(i) y=MIMo

where:
M is the greater end moment on the portion of beam being considered,
Mo is the mid-span moment on a simply supported span equal to the unrestrained length.
The signs and values to be adopted forM and Mo are illustrated in Table 17.

smaller end moment

(ii) fJ = · as b e1ore
c
1arg er end moment '
Consider portion BC
12 X 4.0 2
Mo = = 24kNm
8
M 1545
r = +- - - - 6.43
MD 24
1395
fJ = +-- 0.9
1545

Table 16 Slenderness correction factor 'n'

n = 0.99
From section property tables for a 406 x 178 x 54 UB u = 0.871
 Flexural Members 55

Table 9 effective length LE = 1.0 X 4.0 = 4.0m

radius of gyration ryy = 38.5
~= 4000 104 'A= 104
rYY 38.5

torsional index X 38.3

A 104
= 2.72
X 38.3

A
Table 14 N=0.5 and - = 2.72 v = 0.92
X

Equivalent slenderness ALT = nuvA

ALT 0.99 X 0.871 X 0.92 X 104 = 82.5

ALT = 82.5
Table 6 T <16.0mm 275 N/mm2

Clause 4. 3. 7. 4 Table 11 82.5 Ph= 159.5 N/mm2

Mb = Sxx.Pb = (1055 x 103 x 159.5) I 106 = 168 kNm

Mb < M
Section is inadequate

Clearly, this section has insufficient bending capacity to support the load and either a
larger section or a higher grade of steel should be used.
Assume grade 50 steel

Table 6 T < 16.0mm 275 N/mm2

Clause 4. 3. 7. 4 Table 11 82.5 Ph = 182.5 N/mm2

Mb = Sxx.Pb = (1055 x 103 x182.5) I 106 = 192.5 kNm

Mb> M
Section is adequate using grade 50 steel

Note: In Clause 4.3 ofBS 5950:Part 1, it is stated that:

'All beams should satisfo the requirementsof 4.2.1 and 4.2.3 to 4.2.6 inclusive.
This implies that although Pb is always :s; Pv the value of the buckling moment of resistance
Mb may be greater than 1.2pyZxx, as given in Clauses 4.2.5 and 4.2.6, and should be
checked; the smaller value indicates the design strength. This will only affect a few of the
very heavy UC sections or situations in which bending occurs about the y-y axis.
56 Design ofStructural Steelwork
2.9 Example 2.5 Rectangular hollow section as a beam

A single span beam supports the 'service' loads indicated in Figure 2.18 and is restrained at
points ABCD as in Examples 2.3 and 2.4. Check the suitability of a 300 x 200 x 8 RHS
section with respect to bending.

Design load at B and C = {1.4 x 12) + 1.6 x 12) = 30.4 kN

Design distributed load (1.4 x 4) + (1.6 x 8) = 18.4 kN/m
Total factored load = 30.4 + 30.4 + {18.4 x 8) = 208 kN
Total unfactored load = 20 + 20 + {12 x 8) = 136 kN
Average load factor = 208 = 1.53
136
The average load factor will be used to modify the 1.2pyZ value in Clause 4. 2. 5, since this
is the governing equation for rolled hollow sections, i.e.

Bending moment at B = (104 x 2)- {18.4 x 2)(1) = 171.2 kNm

Bending moment at C = 171.2 kNm

Bending moment at mid-span= (30.4 X 2) +e 8·48x 82 ) = 208 kNm

~~ Bending moment diagram

Figure 2.19

Clause 4. 3. 7. 6 Table 13 m = 1.0 M=208kNm

Appendix B Clause B. 2. 6 Buckling moment resistance of box sections

This clause states 'Box sections of uniform wall thickness need not be checked for lateral
torsional buckling effects provided that A, = (L/ry) is not greater than the limiting values
given in table 38 '; i.e. when
 JflexuralA1e1nbers 57

DIB A,

1 00

350 X 275
2 Py
225 X 275
3 Py
170 X 275
4 Py

From section property tables

Table 6 T< 16mm Py 275 N/mm2

Table 9 effective length Le 1.0 x 4.0 = 4.0 m
radius of gyration ryy 82.3 mm
~ 4000
slenderness 'A :::: :::: ::::48.6
rYY 82.3
300
DIB :::: 1.5
200

The limiting value of A, for DIB = 2.0 is given by 350 x 275 = 350
Py
The critical span above which this section must be checked is given by:

350 x ryy = 350 x 82.3 = 28805 mm i.e. 28.8 m

Lateral torsional buckling is clearly not critical and the moment capacity is governed by
Clause 4.2.5 (Note: low shear occurs in this case).

Afc 1.53pyZxx
(1.53 X 275 X 653 X 103)/106 ::::274.7 kNm

A1c > 208 kNm

Section is adequate

2.10 Example 2.6 Cantilever beam

Consider a beam with a cantilever overhang and supporting the factored loads shown in
Figure 2.20.
58 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Factored design load= 125 kN/m

A .
, ----- 8 · C

(Jo!·< kN 3.0 m 520.8 kNC 2 .0 m

350 X 171 X 51 UB 350 X 171 X 51 UB

Restraint condition at end of cantilever

Figure 2.20

A maximum bending moment and a maximum shear force always occur at the same
cross-section in a cantilever. It is essential in these circumstances to ensure that a check is
carried out on the effect of the shear force on the moment capacity i.e. either Low Shear
with Fv < 0.6Pv in which case Clause 4.2.5 governs, or High Shear with Fv > 0.6Pv, in
which case Clause 4. 2. 6 is used.
Check the suitability of a 356 x 171 x 51 UB with respect to combined shear and
bending.
250 kN

104.2 kN

A c

43.24 kNm
Figure 2.21

At position B
Design shear force = 270.8 kN
Design bending moment = 240kNm
Section properties:
D = 355 mm B 171.5 mm T = 11.5 mm
ryy = 39.11 mm Sxx = 1010 X 103 mm3 = 7.4 mm
X = 28.8 Zxx 896 x 103 mm3 u = 0.882
 Flexural Members 59

Shear check: Clause 4.2.3

Pv = 0.6pyA.v (0.6 X 275 X 7.4 X 355)/10 3 433.5 kN
270.8
0.62 > 0.6 :. High shear
433.5

Bending check Clause 4. 2. 6

Since Fv > 0.6Pv Me = py (S- SvPI)
:::; 1.2 pyZ
where:
PI = 2 .5~ - 1.5
pv
tD 2
is the plastic modulus of the shear area. For a UB section S = -
v 4
2.5270.8 _ 1.5 = 0.0 6
X S = 7.4 X 355 2
p 233.15 x 103 mm 3
433.5 v 4
py (S- Svpl) = 275 X [1010- (233.15 X 0.06))10 3/10 6 = 273.9 kNm
1.2pyZ = (1.2 X 275 X 896 X 103)/106 = 295.7 kNm
Me = 273.9 kNm > Mx
Me is adequate

Lateral torsional buckling check: Clause 4. 3. 7

Clause 4. 3. 7.1 M :::; Mb
Clau.s·e 4.3. 7.2 M = mA
Table 13 m = 1.0 M 250 kNm
Clause 4.3. 7.3 M SxxPb
Clause 4. 3. 7. 5 /lu nuv/1,
Clause 4.3.6.2 and Table 10
TI1e bottom flange is the compression flange in the cantilever. Assuming the cantilever to be
continuous with torsional restraint only at the end, then:
effective length LE = 2.4L = 2.4 x 2000 = 4800 mm
4800
slenderness - - - = 122.8
39.1
Table 16 j3 = 0

M =250kNm M 0 = ( 125 x 1.0 x ±) = 62.5 kNm r = M = 250 = 4

M0 62.5
n = 0.87
Table 14 N = 0.5 2 = 122.8 = 4 _26
X 28.8
v = 0.85
60 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Au = 0.87 x 0.882 x 0.85 x 122.8

Au= 80.1
Table 11 275 N/mm2 80.1
Ph =180.8 N/mm2

Mb = (1010 x 103 x 180.8)/106 = 182.6 kNm

Mb<< M
Section is inadequate in bending

This UB section does not satisfy the lateral torsional buckling criterion. A larger section,
higher grade of steel, additional restraint to the compression flange or a combination of
these modifications can be used to solve this problem.
The very high value of loading in this problem demonstrates the reason for most beams
being designed for bending with coincident low shear. The design cases in which checks for
high shear are necessary are:

(i) at the supports of cantilevers,

(ii) at the location of heavy point loads on a span,
(iii) where very high distributed loads are applied to short spans.

2.11 Web Buckling and Web Bearing

In addition to shear failure of a web as discussed in section 2.3, there are two other modes
of failure which may occur, they are:

(i) web buckling and

(iii) web bearing.

At locations of heavy concentrated loads such as support reactions or where columns are
supported on a beam flange, additional stress concentrations occur in the web. This
introduces the possibility of the web failing in a buckling mode similar to a vertical strut, or
by localised bearing failure at the top of the root fillet, as shown in Figure 2.22.

Critical section
Critical section for
for web buckling
web bearing L
~Applied concentrated load - --

Figure 2.22
 Flexural Members 61

The code specifies two local capacities relating to these modes of failure. When either of
these is less than the applied concentrated force it will be necessary to provide additional
strength to the web. In most cases this requires the design of load bearing stiffeners; the
detailed design of such stiffeners is given in Chapter 6. There may be other reasons for
utilizing stiffeners, such as enhancing torsional stiffness at supports and points of lateral
restraint, as discussed previously.

2.11.1 Web Buckling (Clause 4.5.2)

In the buckling check the web is considered to be a fixed-end strut between the flanges. It is
assumed that the flange through which the concentrated load is applied is restrained against
rotation relative to the web and lateral movement relative to the other flange.
The load carrying capacity of a strut is dependent on its compressive strength 'pc' and
cross-sectional area and is given by:

is the stiff bearing length,

is the length obtained by dispersion at 45° through half the depth of the flange,
is the web thickness and
is the compressive strength from Table 27(c) as shown in Figure 2.23

Figure 2.23

The slenderness of the strut is given by:

62 Design ofStructural Steelwork

LE = 0.7d r
YY
= ~ Area
1 (b1 +n1 )t 3
12(b1 +n1 )t = fu= t
2.f3
A = 0.7d r:::;
2.5d

(2~)
t

When a flange is not restrained against rotation and lateral movement, the value of A
should be modified by using an effective length based on the values given in Table 24.

2.11.2 Web Bearing (Clause 4.5.3)

The bearing check is similar to the buckling check, in that an effective bearing area over
which the design strength of the web is assumed to act is determined using:

where:
b, is as before
nz is the length obtained by dispersion through the flange to the top of the root fillet
assuming a slope 1:2.5 to the plane of the flange and
pyw is the design strength ofthe web

as shown in Figure 2.24.

Figure 2.24
 Flexural Members 63

In both cases at the design stage it is usually necessary to make assumptions regarding
the provision of bearing plates at supports or cap plates/base plates on columns to provide
stiff bearing. In the code, Clause 4.5 .1.3 defines the stiff bearing length b 1 as 'that length
which cannot deform appreciably in bending'. The value ofb 1 is determined by assuming a
dispersion ofload through a bearing plate at 45° and is illustrated in Figure 8 of the code.

2.12 Example 2.7 Web bearing and web buckling at support

Consider the beam in Example 2.2 in which the left-hand end reaction is 122.9 kN, and
check the suitability of the web with respect to buckling and bearing.

approx 0. 59r

90 X 90 X 10
Angle section u
T'
Figure 2.25 Web buckling

slope = 1:2.5

Figure 2.26 Web bearing

where:
is the end clearance,
~ (T '-c) +0.59r + T' = (2T' + 0.59r- c),
_,_D_---<-d)
__(
2.5 X = 1.25(D -d),
2
n1 D/2
Assuming c = 5 mm
b1 = (2 X 10+(0.59 X 11)-5) =21.5mm
64 Design ofStructural Steelwork
306.6
== 153 mm
2
== 1.25 X (306.6- 265.2) ==52 mm

Web buckling:
Pw == (bi + n1)tpc
Assuming the bottom flange is laterally and torsionally restrained,
A 2.5d/t == (2.5x 265 .2) == 99
6.7
Table 6 < 16 mm py == 275 N/mm2 A == 99
Pc == 127 N/mm2

Pw == [(21.5 + 153) X 6.7 X 127]/103== 148.5 kN

Pw > 122.9 kN
Web buckling strength is adequate

Web bearing:
Pcrip== (b1 + n2)tpyw
Pcrip== [(21.5 +52) X 6.7 X 275]/103 == 135 kN
Pcrip> 122.9 kN
Web bearing strength is adequate

No web stiffeners are required.

A similar calculation can be carried out at the location of the column on the top flange.

62 kN

/ Section for bearing check

~-----------=~ }
.____ Section for buckling check

Figure 2.27

Since the load is normally less and the distribution in the web is considerably greater,
this will generally be less critical than the location at the end reaction. In the case of square
and rectangular hollow sections when the flange is not welded to a bearing plate, additional
effects of moments induced in the web due to eccentricity of loading as shown in Figure
2.28 must be allowed for.
 Flexural Members 65

Bending is induced
in the webs

Welded flange plate Non-welded flange plate

Figure 2.28

Reference should be made to the Structural Design Guide ... (Ref: 11, 12) which contains
detailed information relating to the relevant bearing factors in such cases.

2.13 Deflection of Beams (Clause 2.5.1)

In Table 1 of the code, one of the seniiceability limit states to be considered is deflection.
Recommendations for limiting values of deflection under various circumstances are given in
Table 5.
Limitations on the deflections of beams are necessary to avoid consequences such as:

• damage to finishes, e.g. to brittle plaster, ceiling tiles,

• unnecessary alarm to occupants of a building,
• misalignment of door frames causing difficulty in opening,
• misalignment of crane rails resulting in derailment of crane-gantries.

There are large variations in what are considered by practising engineers to be acceptible
deflections for different circumstances. If situations arise in which a designer considers the
recommendations given in Table 5 to be too lenient or too severe (e.g. conflicting with the
specification of suppliers or manufacturers) then individual engineering judgement must be
used.
The values in Table 5 relating to beams give a span 1 ratio calculated using the
coefficient
service loads only. The coefficient varies from 180 for cantilevers, to 360 for the deflection
of beams supporting brittle finishes. In most circumstances, the dead load deflection will
have occurred prior to finishes being fixed and the building being in use and will not
therefore cause any additional problem while the building is in service. Unfactored loads are
used since it is under service conditions that deflection may be a problem.

1A ratio is used instead of a fixed value since this limits the curvature of the beam which depends
on the span.
66 Design ofStructural Steelwork
Additional values are given for portal frames and crane-gantry girders; they are not
considered here.
In <1; simply supported beam, the maximum deflection induced by the applied loading
always approximates to the mid-span value if it is not equal to it. A number of standard,
frequently used load cases for which the elastic deformation is required are given in Table
2.1 of this text. In the case indicated with '*' the actual maximum deflection will be
approximately equal to the value given (i.e. within 2.5%).
In many cases beams support complex load arrangements which do not lend themselves
to either an individual load case or to a combination of the load cases given in Table 2.1.
Since the values in Table 5 are recommendations for maximum values, approximations in
calculating deflection are normally acceptable. Provided that deflection is not the governing
design criterion, a calculation which gives an approximate answer is usually adequate. The
Steel Designers' Manual (Ref: 17) provides a range of coefficients which can be used either
to calculate deflections or to determine the minimum I value (second moment of area), to
. fy . span
sat1s any part1cu1ar . ratio.
coefficient

An equivalent uniformly distributed load technique which can be used for estimating
actual deflections or required I values for simply supported spans is given in this text.

2.13.1 Equivalent UDL Technique

(a) Estimating deflection

Consider a single-span, simply supported beam carrying a non-uniform loading which
induces a maximum bending moment ofBMax, as shown in Figure 2.29.

Non-uniform loading

Bending Moment Diagram

Figure 2.29

The equivalent UDL (We) which would induce the same magnitude of maximum bending
moment (note that the position may be different) on a simply supported span carrying a
un~form loading can be determined from:

Maximum bending moment= B.Max =

WL2
-·-
8
 l'lexura/A1e111bers 67

8 B.Max.
We=

where We is the equivalent uniform distributed load.

Table 2.1

Maximum Maximum
Load Case Deflection Load Case Deflection

~
~Total
5WL3
--
384EJ

WL3
t:=T4 fp
--
WL3
384EI

~
ta· bL c
:I --a
384EI 1
~
~ L/2
I
L/2
t;;
V,
PL3
--
192EI

JU2
L
PL 3

t~ L/2 - -
l L ·1 48EJ ip b>a

1: r
~ ~
% 2 Pa 2 b 3
~ a J
b
b>a 3 EifJ
* L

~ b PL3

:1
c:S. .I
~--a
a • 48EI 2
L
Wa 2 b
---
24EI

r:§?b •I
I a L ..
Wa 3
--a
8EJ 3
t. a ~
t5'~
Ib
Wb4 Wab 3
-+--
8FJ 6FJ

1:
a
L J, :1 Pa 3
-a
3EI 4
L a .Lb
p.l Wb3
-+--
3FJ
Wab2
3FJ

a 1 = (L 3 + 2L 2a + 4La2 - 8a3) a,= [3; -t)'] a3 = ( 1+ ~~) a4 = ( 1+ ~~)

fJ = (3L - 2a) 2
68 Design of Structural Steelwork

The maximum deflection of the beam carrying the uniform loading will oecur at the mid-

span and be equal to o = 5w;,L4

384EI
Using this expression, the maximum deflection of the beam carrying the non-uniform
loading can be estimated by substituting for the We term, i.e.

5WL4
5 x (8B~~ax) L4 0.104 B.MaxL2 ·
0 ~ _e_
=
384EI 384EI EI

(b) Estimating the required second moment of area (/) value

Assuming a building in which brittle finishes are to be used, from Table 5 in the code:

s: span 0.104B.MaxL2 L
u actual < --
- 360 00 <-
EI - 360

where B.Max is the maximum bending moment due to unfactored imposed loads only .

. I> 37.4B.MaxL
00 - E
Note: care must be taken to ensure that a consistent system of units is used. A similar
calculation can be carried out for any other span ratio.
coefficient

2.14 Example 2.8 Deflection of simply supported beam

In Example 2.2 a 305 x 165 x 46 UB was found to be suitable for shear bending web
buckling and web bearing. Check the suitability with respect to deflection, assuming brittle
finishes to the underside of the beam.

Imposed load= 30 kN
~ Dead load = 60 kN
..L~ - ~ ~ ~

50 kN 2.0 m 1 4.0 m 40 kN
~--------~------------------~
6.0 m

50 kN

40 kN
Figure 2.30
 Flexural Members 69

(50+30)2
Maximum bending moment due to unfactored imposed loads
2
80kNm

0.104B.MaxL 2 span
.•• 8actual ~ -----:::::
EI 360

Clause 3.1. 2 Modulus of Elasticity E = 205 N/mm2

section property tables lxx. = 9899 x 104 mm4

0.104 X 80 X 106 X 6000 2

••• <:5'actual :::::::: 14.6 mm
205 X 10 3 X 9899 X 10 4

Table 5
span = 6000 _
16.7 mm > 5actual
360 360
Section is adequate with respect to deflection

This check could have been carried out more accurately using the values given in Table
2 .1 of the text.

~ 30 kN
~
~+t
Figure 2.31

<5
actual
_ 5WL
-
3
PL 3a 4 a
384EJ + 48EJ L- L
3[ ( )3]

5x60x6000 3 30x6000 3 [3x2 4 (2) 3 ]

384 X 205 X 9899 X 10 4 + 48 X 205 X 9899 X 10 4 -6-- 6

= 8.3 + 5.7= 14 mm

In this case the approximate technique overestimates the deflection by less than 5%.
Provided that the estimated deflection is no more than 95% of the deflection limit, from
Table 5 the approximate answer should be adequate for design purposes and a more
accurate calculation is not required.
70 Design ofStructural Steelwork

2.15 Conservative Method for Lateral Torsional Buckling Moment Capacity

(Clause 4.3. 7. 7)

2.15.1.1 A less rigorous alternative to evaluating the lateral torsional buckling moment
capacity than that given in Clause 4. 3. 7. 3 is given in Clause 4. 3. 7. 7. The method applies
to equal flanged rolled sections such as universal beams, universal columns and channel
sections.

In this method the buckling resistance moment Mb between lateral restraints is given by:
Mb =pbSx
where:
Ph is determined from Table 19 for the appropriate py value, A and X
A is the slenderness of the section taken as LF!r
LE is the effective length from Clauses 4.3.5 or 4.3.6 as before,
r is the radius of gyration about the member minor axis, i.e. ryy
X is the torsional index as before, i.e. from published section property tables or D/T

The slenderness value can be modified to allow for the shape of the bending moment
diagram between restraint points by using the correction factor 'n' from Table 20, or more
accurately using Clause 4. 3. 7. 6, as in the rigorous method demonstrated in section 2.4.4.1
of this text.

2.16 Example 2.9 Simply supported beam 1- conservative method

In Example 2.3 the buckling moment (Mh) was determined using the rigorous method to be
94.8 kNm. The conservative method in determiningMb is as follows:

30 kN 45 kN

A 2.0 m B 4.0 m C 2.0 m D

406 X 140 X 39 UB

~ Figure 2.32

From section property tables:

Sxx = 724 x 103 mm3 ryy = 28.7 mm X=47.5
 Flexural Members 71

In this case the bending moment diagram between the restraints at B and C IS a
combination of two cases given in Table 20.

Figure 2.33

Table 20 n = 1.0 n = 0.77

.
An approxlffiate va1ue of' n ' can b e used = - -0.77
1.0 + - 0.89
2
effective length LE = 0.89 x 4000 = 3560mm

Slenderness A, = ~ = 3560 = 124

rYY 28.7

Table 6 py = 275 N/mm2 X 47.5 124

Table 19(a) Ph = 119 N/mm2

Mb = (119 x 724 x 103)/106 = 86.16 kNm

Mb > 82.5 kNm
Section is adequate

It is evident from this method that the value of Mb is underestimated. In situations where
a section is proved to be inadequate by a small margin then use of the rigorous method may
prove worthwhile in identifying an acceptable economic section.

Example 2.10 Simply supported beam 2- conservative method

In Example 2.4 the Mb value using the Rigorous Method and grade 50 steel was found to be
197.8 kNm.

A 8 c D

Figure 2.34
72 Design ofStructural Steelwork
From section property tables:
Sxx = 1055 x 103 mm3 ryy = 38.5 mm X= 38.3

In this case the bending moment diagram between the restraints at B and C 1s a
combination of two cases given in Table 20.

c__J +

Figure 2.35

Table 20 n = 1.0 n = 0.94

1.0+0.94
Average value of n ~ 0.97
2

effective length LE = 0.97 X 4000 3880 mm

slenderness A, = ~ = 3880 = 101

rYY 38.5
Table 6 py = 355 N/mm 2 X= 38.3 A-= 101
Table 19(a) Pb = 177 N/mm2

Mb = (177 x 1055 x 103)/106 = 187 kNm

Mb > 171.6 kNm
Section is adequate

The other checks such as shear, web buckling, web bearing and deflection are all the
same as before. The Conservative Method is only applicable to the evaluation of the lateral
torsional buckling moment Mb.

2.18 Safe Load Tables

The Steel Construction Institute publishes member capacity tables to enable a rapid,
efficient check on a member subjected to axial load, bending moment or combined axial and
bending forces (Ref.: 11). The use of such tables to check shear, bending, web buckling and
web bearing is illustrated in the following example.
 Flexural Members 73

Example 2.11 Beam with intermittent lateral restraint- Use of safe load tables

It is proposed to use a 533 x 210 x 109 UB as a main roof beam spanning 12.0 m and
supporting three secondary beams at the mid-span and quarter span points, as shown in
Figure 2.36.

(a) Using the design data and safe load tables given, check the suitability of the
section with respect to:

(i) shear,
(ii) bending,
(iii) web buckling and
(iv) web bearing.

(b) Check the suitability of the beam with respect to deflection assuming brittle
finishes.

Design data:

Characteristic dead load 5.0kN/m

Characteristic imposed load 6.0kN/m
Characteristic dead load reaction from each secondary beam 10.0 kN
Characteristic imposed load reaction from each secondary beam 20.0 kN

Assume:

(i) the stiff bearing length for web buckling and web bearing= 25 mm
(ii) lateral and torsional restraint to the compression flange is provided at the end
supports and positions of the secondary beams only.

533 X 210 X 109 UB

3.0 m 3.0 m 3.0m 3.0m

Figure 2.36

Solution:
Design distributed load (1.4 X 5.0) + (1.6 X 6.0) = 16.6 kN/m
Design beam end reactions (1.4 X 10.0) + (1.6 X 20.0) =46kN
74 Design ofStructural Steelwork
~46kN
46kN 46kN 16.6kN/m

~.-3. 0m - ·

168.6kN 118.8kN

~·f'"~ Figure 2.37

Design shear force = 168.6 kN

Design bending moment in portion B-C = 574.8 kNm
Coincident shear at position of maximum bending moment = 23.0 kN

Safe Load Table Extracts:

Table 2 2
BEARING BUCKLING Shear
End bearing Continous End bearing Continous
Bearin Bearin Pv
Cl C2 C3 Cl C2 C3 Cl C2 C3 CI C2 C3
) 284 3.37 8.41 568 3.37 16.8 459 1.69 1.69 918 1.69 3.38 1100
240 3.07 7.69 480 3.07 15.4 371 1.38 1.38 742 1.38 2.76 995
214 2.86 7.16 428 2.86 14.3 313 1.16 1.16 626 1.16 2.32 922
"-./ ~
~

Shear (Pv), Web buckling (Pw) and Web bearing (Pcrip)

Extract from Steelwork design guide to BS 5950: Part I; Volume I (The Steel Construction Institute)

Table 2 3

Buckling Resistance Moment Mb(kNm) For Effective Length (L.) in Metres

With Variable Slenderness Correction Factors (n)

n 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 ~

533 X 210 X 109 0.4 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 ~
Mcx= 750 0.6 750 750 750 750 750 735 705 677 )
Plastic 0.8 750 750 750 739 696 655 614 574
1.0 750 750 736 681 625 571 520 473
~
.._, ~

Buckling resistance moment (Mb), Section classification, Moment capacity (Me)

 Flexural Members 75

2.19.1 Shear

The safe loads in Table 2.2 give the value of Pv as determined from Clause 4.2.3

Pv = 995 kN >> 168.6 kN

Section is adequate in shear

2.19. 2 Bending

The moment capacity Me, the section classification and the buckling moment of resistance
Mb for a range of effective lengths with various 'n ' values are given in Table 2. 3. The
values of Mb are calculated on the basis of Au= nuv.-1 as defined in Clause 4.3. 7.5 and in
section 2.4.4.1 of this chapter.

Section tables ryy = 46.0 mm effective length= 3000 mm N=0.5

Slenderness .-1 = 4_ = 3000 = 65.2

rYY 46.0
431.1
Table 18 f3 - - = 0.75
574.8
Table 17 M0 = (574.8- 431.1) = 143.7 kNm
Table 16 r = M = 431.1 =3.0 n = 0.98 say 1.0
M0 143.7
From Extracts of safe load tables i.e. Table2.3 withn =1.0 andLE=3.0m
Section is plastic 750 kNm
= 625 kNm > Mapplied
Section is adequate in bending

2.19.3 Web Buckling

The capacity for web buckling is given by:

Pw= C1+(blxC2)+(tpxC3)
where:
C 1 is the contribution from the beam,
C2 is the contribution from the stiff bearing length (excluding any additional flange
plates),
C3 is the contribution from any continuously welded flange plate if present,
b1 stiff bearing length,
tP thickness of additional flange plate
In this problem there are no additional flange plates present, therefore;
Pw= C1+(b1xC2)
76 Design ofStructural Steelwork
From Extracts Table 2.2 = 371 kN and C2 = 1.38 kN/mm
= 371 + (1.38 X 25) = 405.5 kN
>> 168.6 kN
Section is adequate in web buckling

2.19.4 Web Bearing

Similarly for web bearing

From Extracts Table 2.2 Cl = 240 kN and C2 = 3.07 kN/mm
Pcrip = 240 + (3.07 X 25) = 316.6 kN
Pcrip >> 168.6 kN
Section is adequate in web bearing

Note: At the design stage the stiff bearing length required for web buckling and web
bearing is often not known, a conservative value of Pw and Pcrip can be evaluated
assuming this to be zero.
In locations such as the column positions at mid-span, the web buckling and
web bearing capacities should be calculated on the basis of the load being
distributed in two directions as shown in Figure 2.27, and the continuous
buckling/bearing values in Table 2.2 used. In this example the support is the more
critical location.

2.19. 5 Deflection

The deflection is checked for the unfactored imposed load only as shown in Figure 2.38

20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 6.0 kN/m

66kN~66kN 12.0m

Figure 2.38

Maximum bending moment = (66 x 6)- (20 x 3) x (6 x 6 x 3) = 228 kNm

Using the approximate method illustrated in Section 2.6 to estimate the deflection
Clause 3.1.2 E = 205 kN/mm2 From section tables lxx = 66820 x 104 mm4

OJ 04 X 228 X 106 X 120002

Oactual ~ ---------- 24.5 mm
205 X 103 X 66820 X 104
Table 5 Limiting 15 = span = 12000 33 .3 mm
360 360
Section is adequate in deflection
 Flexural Members 77
A more accurate calculation can be carried out by adding the contribution for each load
case, 1.e.
5WI} PL3
o= 384EI 48EI
1
(UDL) + (2 x -span loads) + (mid-span load)
4
In this case this calculation is not necessary.

2.20 Example 2.12 Pedestrian walkway

Two pedestrian walkways are required for maintenance purposes in the machinery hall of a
petro-chemical plant. It is intended to support the walkways using a series of universal
beams at 4 .5 m centres as shown in Figure 2.39 The proposed surface of the walkways
comprises an open grid flooring system which is attached to the top flange of the beams by
proprietary brackets. Using the data given, design a suitable universal beam section
considering;
(i) shear,
(ii) bending,
(iii) web buckling,
(iv) web bearing and
(v) deflection.
Design data:
Self-weight of open grid flooring (including hand-rails) 0.1 kN/m
Maximum imposed service load allowed on walkway 3.1 kN/m

Elevation

Part plan

Figure 2.39

Solution to Example 2.12 (see Section 2.22)

78 Design of Structural Steelwork

2.21 Solution to Example 2.2

Contract: Flexural Members Job Ref. No.: Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Example 2.2 Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : I of 4 Date:

References Calculations Output

BS 5950:Part I Stroctural use of steelwork in building: Part 1: 1990

(a) Design a suitable Universal Beam Section

Dead load = 10 kN
Imposed load = 30 kN Dead load = 8 kN/m
Imposed load= 10 kN/m

A 2.0m B 4.0m
c
6.0m

Designpointload =(1.4 x 10)+(1.6 x 30) 62kN

Design UDL = (1.4 x 8) + (1.6 x 10) 27.2 kN/m

62 kN

27.2 kN/m

2.0 m 4.0m
VA ~------~------------------~ Vc
By proportion:
Vertical reaction at A= VA=

(27.2 x 3)+( 626x 4 ) = 122.9 kN

Vertical reaction at C = Vc =

(27.2 x 3)+( 62 6x 2 ) =102.3 kN

122.9 kN

102.3 kN
Shear Force Diagram Design shear force
122.9 kN
 JllexuralAfe~nbers 79

Contract: Flexural Members Job Ref. No.: Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Example 2.2 Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No.: 2 of 4 Date:

References Calculations Output

. . of zero shear x = -65- = 0.24 m

Pos1tlon
27.2
Maximum bending moment occurs at position of zero shear

B.Max =shaded area=

Mx = (122.9+68.5)+( 0·242x 65 ) = 192.2 kNm Design bending

moment 192.2 kNm

Compression flange is fully restrained and assuming
low shear
Clause 4.2.5 Maximum bending moment Mx ::; Me
::; pySxx
Note: It is unlikely that 1.2 pyZ will govern
.. Sxx;:: Mx
Py
Table 6 Assume the flange thickness< 16 mm :. py = 275 N/mm2

· S > 192.2xl06 698.9xl0 3 mm3

• • XX - 275
A trial beam size can be selected from published section
tables Try a 305 x 165 x 46 UB

Section Tables D = 306.6 mm d = 265.2 mm B = 165.7mm

T=11.8mm t =6.7mm biT = 7.02
d/t = 39.6 mm Sxx = 720 x 103 mm3 Zxx = 646 x 10 3 mm3

Table 7 (i) Section Classification

Flange: Outstand element of compression flange rolled section

b/Tactual = 7.02 < 7.58 Flange is plastic
Web: Bending only with neutral axis at mid-depth
d/tactual = 39.6 < 798 Web is plastic
Section is plastic

(ii) Shear
Clause 4.2.3 Fv= 122.9 kN Pv = 0.6pyAv = 0.6pytD

Pv = (0.6 X 275 X 6.7 X 306.6)/10 3 = 338.9 kN Section is adequate

Pv>Fv in shear
80 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract: Flexural Members Job Ref. No.: Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Example 2.2 Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 3 of 4 Date:

References Calculations Output

(iii) Bending
Clause 4.2.5 60% Pv = 0.6 X 338.9 = 203.3 kN > 68.5 kN Low shear
720
Shape factor= v = 646 = 1.11 < 1.2 :. py Sxx. governs

Sxx provided > Sxx required Section is adequate

in bending
(b) Design a suitable Rectangular Hollow Section
Try a 300 x 200 x 8 RHS

Section Tables A=7710 mm2 D=300mm B=200mm

Zxx = 653 X 103 mm3 Sxx = 785 X 103 mm3
~=~.5 ~=n.o

Table 6 t < 16.0 mm py = 275 N/mm2 Note: c= 1.0

I

Table 7 . Sectlon
(1) . C1assttcatwn
'fi . & Pr
= (275) 2 = 1.0

Flange: Internal element of compression flange

rolled section
bftactruJJ = 22 < 26& Flange is plastic
Web: Bending only with neutral axis at mid-depth
dftactual = 34.5 < 79s Web is plastic
Section is plastic
(ii) Shear

Clause 4.2.3 Fv= 122.9 kN Pv = 0.6pyAv = 0.6py (_!!_)A

D+B

Pv = (o.6 X 275 X ( 300+200

300 ) nw)/10 3 =763.3 kN
Section is adequate
in shear
(iii) Bending
Clause 4.2.5 60% Pv = 0.6 x 763.3 = 458 kN > 68.5 kN >(coincident shear) Low shear
785
Shape factor = v = - = 1.2 The 1.2 factor may be
653
replaced by the average load factor
working load
average load factor "" -----"---
factored load
factored loads = 62 + (6 x 27.2) = 225.2 kN
working loads = 40 + (6 x 18) = 148.0 kN
 Flexural Members 81

Contract: Flexural Members Job Ref. No.: Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Example 2.2 Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 4 of 4 Date:

References Calculations Output

. 2252
average load factor "'" - - = 1.52
148.0
Me = py Sxx S 1.52py Zxx
pySxx = (275 x 785 x 103 ) I 10 6 = 215.9 kNm
1.52py Zxx = (1.52 x 275 x 653 x 103) I 106 = 273 kNm
Me= 215.9 kNm > Mx Section is adequate
in bending
82 Design ofStructural Steelwork

2.22 Solution to Example 2.12

Contract: Flexural Members Job Ref. No.: Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure: Example 2.12 Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 1 of 4 Date:

References Calculations Output

BS 5950:Part 1 Structural use of steelwork in building: Part 1: 1990

Design load due to each walkway =

= ((1.4 X 0.1) + (1.6 X 3.1)]4.5
= 23 kN
Assume the self-weight ofthe beam equal to 1.4 kNim
Design load due to self-weight= 1.4 x 1.4 ""2.0 kNim

23.0 kN 23.0 kN

t=t
28.1 kN 33.9 kN

28.1 kN

8 .9 kN

31 .9
X
33.9 kN

7
Design shear force = 33.9 kN
Design bending moment = 52.5 kNm
Coincident shear force = 24.1 kN
Note: The coincident shear force used is adjacent to the
position of maximum bending moment

Try a 457 x 152 x 52 UB, this is selected on the basis of

experience or the use of sate load tables.
Section Property
Tables D=449.8mm d =407.6 mm lxx = 21370 cm4
B = 152.4 mm biT= 6.99 Zxx = 950 cm3
t =7.6mm dlt = 53.6 Sxx = 1096 cm3
T= 10.9 mm ryy = 3.11 em u = 0.859 X= 43.9

Table 6 T < 16 py = 275 Nlmm2

Table 7 Outstand of compression flange biT= 6.99 < 8.5£ Flange is plastic
Web with neatral axis at mid-depth dlt = 53.6 < 79£ Web is plastic
Section is plastic
 Flexural Members 83

Contract : Flexural Members Job Ref. No. : Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure: Example 2.12 Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 2 of 4 Date:

~eferences Calculations Output

Clause 4.2.3 Design shear force Fv = 33.9 kN

Shear capacity Pv = [0.6 x 275 x (7.6 x 449.8)]/10 3
= 564 kN
Pv >> Fv Adequate in shear

Clause 4.2.5 Coincident shear = 24.1 kN << 0.6 Pv

sxx - 1096
Shape f:actor v -- - --- = 1.15 <1.2
Zxx 950
.. Me= pySxx = (275 X 1096 X 10 3)/10 6 = 301.4 kNm

Clause 4. 3. 7.1 M::;Mb where

The compression flange is restrained at the ends only
Clause 4.3.7.6 m = 1.0 M=52.5kNm
Table 13
Clause 4.3. 7.3 Mb = SxxPb
Clause 4.3. 74 ALT = nuvA
M
Clause 4.3. 7.5 r = -Mo M=O :. r= o
Tables 13,16 p = 0 n = 0.94
Section Tables u = 0.859
8000 = 257 A 257
Table 14 N= 0.5A = -=-=5.9 v = 0.77
31.1 X 43.9
ALT = (0.94 X 0.859 X 0.77 X 257) = 160 ALT = 160

Table 11 ALT = 160, py = 275 N/mm2 Pb = 60N/mm2

Mb = (1096 x 10 3 x 60 )/10 6 = 65.8 kNm

Adequate in bending

Clause 4.5.2 Web buckling

Assume b1 = 0 nl - D = 449.8 = 224.9

2 2
t=7.6mm A = 2.5 !!.._ = 2.5 X 53.6 = 134.0
t
Table 27(c) Pc = 82 N/mm2
Pw = (224.9 X 7.6 X 82)/103 = 140 kN Adequate in web
Pw > 33.9 kN buckling
84 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract: Flexural Members Job Ref. No.: Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Example 2.12 Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 3 of 4 Date:

References Calculations Output

Clause 4.5.3 Web bearing

b= 25 x(D~d) = 2.5 x (449.8;407.6) =2 1.1

2

3
Pcrip = (21 .1 X 7.6 X 275)/10 = 44.1 kN
Pcrip > 33.9 kN Adequate in web
bearing
Clause 2.5 Assuming no brittle finishes 0 :::;; span = 8000 = 40 mm
200 200

Oactual
, ____
0.104B.MaxL_ 2

EI
Unfactored imposed load due to each walkway
= 3.} X 4.5 = 14.0 kN

14.0 kN 14.0 kN

12.25 kN rf -z=-.-=-o-m~t----5=-.o-m---tl--1,.·-0:-m-.t 15.75 kN

1.75 kN

15.75 kN

Maximum bending moment= (12.25 x 2.0) = 24.5 kNm

O"" 0.104 X 24.5 X 106 8000 2 = 3.7 mm

X

205 X 10 3 X 21370 X 104

Oactual << 0 limited Adequate in

deflection
Alternatively, a more accurate calculationfor deflection
can be determined from:

Oactual = flL[3a _4(!!...)

48E/ L L
3
] + flL[ 4(.: .)
48E/ L
3a _
L
3
]

due to left hand load due to right-hand load

 Flexural Members 85

Contract: Flexural Members Job Ref. No. : Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Example 2-12 Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 4 of 4 Date:

References Calculations Output

3
b'actual
14x83 x108 [3x2 4 (2) ] +
48 X 205 X 103 X 21370 8 8

1 8 [
14 X 8· X 10
48 X 205 X 103 X 21370 8
()3]
3 X 1 _ 4 l_
8
= 3 6 II1ffi
.
3 Axially Loaded Members

Introduction

The design of axially loaded members considers any member where the applied loading
induces either axial tension or axial compression. Members subject to axial forces most
frequently occur in bracing systems, pin-jointed trusses, lattice girders or suspension
systems, as shown in Figure 3 .1

Wind bracing
members

Transmission tower Industrial frame- Bracing elements

Suspension cables

Cable-stayed bridge

Figure 3.1

Frequently, in structural frames, sections are subjected to combined axial and bending
effects which may be caused by eccentric connections, wind loading or rigid-frame action.
In most cases in which UB and UC sections are used as columns in buildings, they are
subjected to combined axial and bending effects. The design of such members is discussed
and illustrated in Chapter 4.
The types of section used for axially loaded members range from rolled uniform beams,
columns and hollow sections to threaded bars, flat plates and wire ropes.
The following discussion relates primarily to pin-jointed structures which comprise the
majority of structures with members subject to axial loads only.

86
 Axially Loaded Members 87
3.2 Pin-jointed Frames

The use of beams and plate girders as discussed in Chapters 2 and 6 does not always
provide the most economic or suitable structural solution when spanning large openings. In
buildings which have lightly loaded long span roofs, when large voids are required within
the depth of roof structures for services, when plate girders are impractical, or for
aesthetic/architectural reasons, the use of roof trusses or lattice girders may be more
appropriate.
Trusses are frequently used as secondary structural elements to distribute wind loading
to the foundations, as temporary bracing during construction and for torsional and lateral
stability.
Roof trusses and lattice girders are open-web flexural members which transmit the
effects of loads applied within their spans to support points by means of bending and shear.
In the case of beams, the bending and shear is transmitted by inducing bending moments
and shear forces in the cross-sections of structural members. Trusses and lattice girders,
however, generally transfer their loads by inducing axial tensile or compressive forces in the
individual members. The form of a truss is most economic when the arrangement is such
that most members are in tension.
The magnitude and sense of these forces can be determined using standard methods of
analysis such as the method of sections, joint resolution, tension coefficients, graphical
techniques or the use of computer software.
The arrangement of the internal framing of a roof truss depends upon its span. Rafters
are norn1ally divided into equal panel lengths and ideally the loads are applied at the node
points by roof purlins. Purlin spacing is dependent on the form of roof cladding that is used
and is usually based on manufacturers' data sheets. In instances where the purlins do not
coincide with the node points, the main members (i.e. the rafters, or the top and bottom
booms of lattice girders) are also subjected to local bending which must be allowed for in
the design.
The internal structure of trusses should be such that, where possible, the long members
are ties (in tension), while the short members are struts (in compression). In long span
trusses the main ties are usually cambered to offset the visual sagging effects of the
deflection.
In very long span trusses, e.g. 60 metres, it is not usually possible to maintain a constant
slope in the rafter owing to problems such as additional heating requirements caused by the
very high ridge height. This problem can be overcome by changing the slope to provide a
mansard-type truss in which the slope near the end of the truss is very steep," while it is
shallower over the rest ofthe span.
A few examples of typical pitched roof trusses are illustrated in Figure 3.2. Lattice
girders are generally trusses with parallel top and bottom chords (known as booms) with
internal web bracing members. In long span construction they are very useful since their
relatively small span/depth ratio (typically 1110 to 1/14) gives them an advantage over
pitched rooftrusses.
88 Design ofStructural Steelwork

The two most common types are the Pratt-Truss (N-Girder) and the·Warren Truss, both
of which are shown in Figure 3.3. The top chord often has a camber to assist drainage from
the roof.

Short span (8 m) Medium span (18m)

Large span (30 m)

Figure 3.2

tiJJ~Llz00j
~ Pratt or N -type truss ~

Pratt or N-type truss with secondary bracing

Warren girder with local bending

Figure 3.3

As with roof trusses, the framing should be triangulated, considering the span and the
spacings ofthe applied loads. If purlins do not coincide with the panel points then secondary
 Axially Loaded Members 89
bracing as shown in Figure 3.3 can be adopted as an alternative to designing for combined
axial and local bending effects (see Example 3.6).

Generally, the four main assumptions made when analysing trusses are:

~ Truss members are connected together at their ends only.

In practice, the top and bottom chords are normally continuous and span several joints
rather than being a series of discontinuous, short members. Since truss members are usually
long and slender and do not support significant bending moments this assumption in the
analysis is acceptable.
The design of such members is carried out on the basis of combined axial and
approximate bending moment effects, as illustrated in Chapter 4, Example 4.4 and given in
Clause 4.8 ofBS 5950:Part 1.

~ Truss members are connected together by frictionless pins

In real trusses the members are connected at the joints using bolted or welded gusset
plates or end plates as shown in Figure 3 .4, rather than frictionless pins.

Welded joint Bolted joint

Figure 3.4

Provided that the setting-out lines of the bolts or the centroidal axes of the members
intersect at the assumed joint locations, experience has shown that this idealisation is
acceptable.

~ The truss structure is loaded only at the joints.

Often the exact location of purlins relative to the joints on the top of the compression
chord/rafters is unknown at the design stage of a truss. In these circumstances, assuming
that the purlins do not coincide with the position of the joints, a local bending moment in
addition to the axial load is assumed in the truss members.

A nmnber of empirical design rules are given in Clause 4.10 for this situation. In
addition, Clause 4.10 indicates that secondary stresses induced by the inherent stiffuess of
the assumed pin-joints between the members, may be ignored provided that:
90 Design ofStructural Steelwork

(i) the slenderness of the chord members in the plane of the truss is g.ceater than 50 and
(ii) the slenderness of most of the web members is greater than 100.

+ The self-weight of the members may be neglected or assumed to act at the adjacent
nodes.

Frequently, in the analysis of small trusses, it is reasonable to neglect the self-weight of

the members. This may not be acceptable for large trusses, particularly those used in bridge
construction. Common practice is to assume that half of the weight of each member acts at
each of the two joints that it connects.

3.3 Resume of Analysis Techniques

The following resume gives a brief summary of the mc.st common manual techniques
adopted to determine the forces induced in the members of statically determinate pin-jointed
frames. There are numerous structural analysis books available which give comprehensive
detailed explanations of these techniques.

3.3.1 Method of Sections

The method of sections involves the application of the three equations of static equilibrium
to two-dimensional plane frames, i.e.

+vet "i..Fy =0 the sum of the vertical forces equals zero equation (i)
+ve~ "LFx =0 the sum of the horizontal forces equals zero equation (ii)
+vel "i.M =0 the sum of the moments of the forces taken
about anywhere in the plane of the frame
equals zero equation (iii)

The sign convention indicated in equations (i) (ii) and (iii) for positive directions has
been adopted in this text. The sign convention adopted to indicate ties and struts in frames is

....
as shown in Figure 3.5

.....
I I
Joint Strut - compression member Joint

• .... •
Tie - tension member

Figure 3.5
 Axially Loaded Members 91
The method involves considering an imaginary section line which cuts the frame under
consideration into two parts A and B, as shown in Figure 3.8.
Since only three independent equations are available any section taken through a frame
must not include more than three members for which the internal force is unknown.
Consideration of the equilibrium of the resulting force system enables the magnitude and
sense of the forces in the cut members to be determined.

3.4 Example 3.1 Pin-jointed truss

A pin-jointed truss simply supported by a pinned support at A and a roller support at J

carries three loads at nodes C, D and E as shown in Figure 3.6. Determine the magnitude
and sense of the forces induced in members X, Y and Z as indicated.

80 kN 80 kN 80 kN

Step 1: evaluate the support reactions. It is not necessary to know any information
regarding the frame members at this stage other than dimensions as shown in Figure 3. 7
since only externally applied loads and reactions are involved.

80 kN 80 kN 80 kN

STRUCTURE

~~ 80m
16.0 m

Figure 3.7

Apply equations (i), (ii) and (iii) to the force system

+vet "LFv = 0 VA + VI = 240 kN

+ve __, 'LFx = 0 HA = 0
92 Design ofStructural Steelwork

+ve / LMA == 0 (80 x 8) + (80 x 12) + (80 x 16)- (Vj x 32) == 0

VI = 90 kN
hence VA = 150 kN

The moment equation can be considered about any point in the plane of the frame. Point
"A " is used since the line of action of both HA and VA passes through this point and
consequently these unknowns do not appear in the resulting equation.

Step 2: select a section through which the frame can be considered to be cut and using
the same three equations of equilibrium determine the magnitude and sense of the unknown
forces (i.e. the internal forces in the cut members).

I
80 kN 80 kN 80 kN

j j
,/section line
zero E ; F

~~~~?-l~~~~I~?l~~~~~j
150 kN N / M 90 kN
:'
section line
Part A Part B
Figure 3.8

It is convenient to assume all unknown forces to be tensile and hence at the cut section
their direction and lines of action are considered to be pointing away from the joint (refer to
Figure 3.8). If the answer results in a negative force, this means that the assumption of a tie
was incorrect and the member is actually in compression, i.e. a strut.
The application of the equations of equilibrium to either part of the cut frame will enable
the forces X, Y and Z to be evaluated.
Note: the section considered must not cut through more than three members with unknown
internal forces.
Consider Part A
80 kN 80 kN 80 kN

~
Part A
50 kN

I. 8.0 m .I 4.0 m .1. 40m .1

Figure 3.9
 Axially Loaded Members 93

. 3 4
Note: sm {)= - = 0.6, cos {)= - = 0.8
5 5
+vet 'LFy = 0 150- (80 + 80 + 80) + FNFsinB = 0
FNF __.22_ = 90 = +150 kN
sin{) 0.6
Member NF is a TIE

+ve / 'iMN =0 (150 x 16)- (80 x 8)- (80 x 4) + (FEF x 3) = 0

FEF =- 480 kN
Member EF is a STRUT

hence FNM - FEF- FNFcosB = - (- 480)- (150 x 0.8) = +360 kN

Member NM is a TIE

These answers can be confirmed by considering Part B of the structure and applying the
equations as above.

3.4.1 Joint Resolution

Considering the same frame using joint resolution highlights the advantage of the method of
sections when only a few member forces are required.
In this teclmique, (which can be considered as a special case of the method of sections),
sections are taken which isolate each individual joint in tum in the frame, e.g.

80 kN 80 kN 80 kN

150 kN M L K 90 kN
Figure 3.10

In Figure 3.10 eight sections are shown, each of which isolates a joint in the structure as
indicated in Figures 3 .11 (a) and (b).

FLG F

FLM ....,..___t~~-- F~:

JOINT J JOINT K JOINT H JOINT L
Figure 3.1l(a)
94 Design ofStructural Steelwork

.
JOINT G JOINT M JOINT F JOINT E
Figure 3.11 (b)

Since in each case the forces are coincident, the moment equation is of no value; hence
only two independent equations are available. It is necessary when considering the
equilibrium of each joint to do so in a sequence which ensures that there are no more than
two unknown member forces in the joint under consideration. This can be carried out until
all member forces in the structure have been determined.

Consider Joint A:
+vet I.Fy = 0 +90- Fw...cosfJ 0
FJH~
90
Fw... = +- +150 kN
FJK 90 kN 0.6
+ve ~ "i.Fx = 0 - Frn- Fw...sjnfJ = 0
cosfJ = 0.6 Frn =- (150 x 0.8) -120 kN
sinfJ = 0.8 Member JK is a TIE and member JH is a STRUT

Consider Joint K:
+vet I.Fy = 0 +FKH + 150sinB = 0
FKH =- (150 X 0.6) -90kN
+ve ~ "i.Fx = 0 - FKL + 150cosB = 0

cosfJ= 0.8 FKL =- (150 X 0.8) = +120 kN

sin/3 = 0.6 Member KH is a STRUT and member KL is a TIE

Consider Joint H:
+ve t I.Fy = 0 +90 - FHLcosfJ = 0
FHG ~-~fJ"'tr-•~- 120 kN 90
FHL = +- = +150 kN
FHL 90 kN 0.6
+ve ~ "i.Fx = 0
-120- FHG- FHLsinfJ = 0
cosfJ= 0.6 = - (150 X 0.8)
FHG = - 20 kN
sinfJ = 0.8 Member HL is a TIE and member HG is a STRUT

Consider Joint L:
150 kN
+vet I.Fy =0 +Fw + 150sinB = 0
FLG
= -90kN

-
Fw =-(~50 X 0.6)
k{ +ve ~ "LFx =0 - FLM + 150cosB+ 120 =0
FLM 120kN
FLM =- (150 X 0.8) + 120 = +240 kN
 Axially Loaded Members 95

sinO= 0.6
cosO= 0.8 Member LG is a STRUT and member LM is a TIE

Consider Joint G:
+vet L.Fy = 0 +90 - FGMcosfJ = 0
FGF -/1-fJ~,---- 240 kN 90
FGM = + - = +150 kN
FGM 0.6
90 kN
+ve-) L.Fx = 0 - FGF- 240- FGMSinfJ = 0
cosfJ = 0.6 FGF =- (150 X 0.8)- 240 =- 360 kN
sin/3 = 0.8 Member GM is a TIE and member GF is a STRUT

Consider Joint M:
FMF 150 kN +vet L.Fy = O +FMF- 150sin0 = 0
FMF =- (150 X 0.6) =- 90 kN

FMN - u 2 4 0 kN +ve -) L.Fx = 0 - FMN + 240- 150cos0 =0

FMN = 240 + (150 X 0.8) = + 360 kN
sinO = 0.6
cosO = 0.8 Member MF is a STRUT and member MN is a TIE

Consider Joint F:
FFE 360 kN
+vet L.Fy = 0 + 90- FFNcosfJ = 0
90
FFN = +- = +150 kN
0.6
;;;t:kN
FFN I +ve-) L.Fx = 0 - FFE- FFNsinfJ- 360 = 0
FFE =- (150 X 0.8)- 360 = -480 kN
cos/3 = 0.6
sin/3 = 0.8 Member FN is a TIE and member FE is a STRUT

Consider Joint E:
80 kN +vet L.Fv = 0 -FEN- 80 =0
l = -80kN

-r.
FEN
FED 480 kN +ve -) L.Fx = 0 -FED- 480 =0
FED = -480 kN
Member EN is a TIE and member ED is a STRUT

Graphical techniques have largely been superseded by the use of computer software for
all but the most basic trusses. In addition, tables of coefficients are available which enable
the rapid evaluation of member forces for a variety of structural forms, e.g. Timber
Designers 'Manual [Ref:20].
96 Design of Structural Steelwork

3.4.2 Tension Coefficients

The method of tension coefficients is a tabular technique of carrying out joint resolution in
either two or three dimensions. It is ideally suited to the analysis of pin-jointed spaceframes.
Consider an individual member from a pin-jointed plane-frame, e.g. member AB shown
in Figure 3 .12 with reference to a particular X-Y co-ordinate system.
If AB is a member of length LAB having a tensile force in it ofTAB, then the components
of this force in the X andY directions are TAB CosO and TAB SinO respectively.
If the co-ordinates of A and B are (XA, YA) and (XB, YB), then the component of TAB in
the x-direction is given by:

Ys 8

Ys

--r---------~----------~------~- X
0 XA Xs

Figure 3.12

T,
where tAB = and is known as the tension coefficient of the bar. Similarly, the
___1&.
LAB
component of TAB in the y-direction is given by :
( Y, - y )
y-component= TAB B
A = tAB(YB- YA)
LAB
If at the joint A in the frame there are a number of bars, i.e. AB, AC ... AN, and external
loads XA and YA acting in the X and Y directions, then since the joint is in equilibrium the
sum of the components of the external and internal forces must equal zero in each of those
directions.
Expressing these conditions in terms of the components of each of the forces then gives:
 Axially Loaded Members 97

A similar pair of equations can be developed for each joint in the frame giving (2 x No.
of joints) equations in total. In a triangulated frame the number of unknown forces (i.e.
members) is equal to [(2 x No. of joints) -3], hence there are three additional equations
which can be used to determine the reactions or check the values of the tension coefficients.

Once a tension coefficient (e.g. tAB) has been determined, the unknown member force is
given by the product

Note: A member which has a-ve tension coefficient is in compression and is therefore a
strut.

3.5 Example 3.2 Two dimensional plane-truss

Consider the pin-jointed, plane-frame ABC loaded as shown in Figure 3.13.

10 kN

B 20kN
k-----<- - - - - - , - -

3.0m

Ax

4.0m
Ay Cy

Figure 3.13

Construct a table in terms of tension coefficients and an XN co-ordinate system as

shown in Table 3.1.

The equilibrium equations are solved in terms of the 't' values and hence the member
forces and support reactions are evahmted and entered in the table as shown in Table 3 .1.
98 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Table 3.1

Joint Equilibrium Equations Member Length

t Force
(m) (kN)
A X 4tAB + 7tAc +Ax= 0 AB 1.43 5 +7.15
y 3tAB +Ay= 0 AC ? 7 ?
BC -4.76 3--J2 -20.19
B X -4tAB + 3tBc + 20 = 0 Support Reactions
y -3tAB- 3tBc- 10 = 0 Support Component Reaction
c X -7tAc- 3tBc = 0 A Ax ?
y +3tBc + Cy = 0 Av ?
c Cv ?

Consider joint B:
There are only two unknowns and two equations, hence:
Adding both equations
- 4tAB + 3fBc + 20 0
- 3tAB- 3tBc- 10 = 0
-7fAB + 10 0 tAB 1.43

substitute for tAB in the first equation fBc -4.76

Force in member AB tAB X LAB (1.43 X 5.0) = + 7.15 kN TIE

Force in member BC fBc x LBc = {- 4.76 x 3.J2) =- 20.19 kN STRUT

Joints A and C can be considered in a similar manner until all unknown values, including
reactions, have been determined. The reader should complete this solution.
In the case of a space frame, each joint has three co-ordinates and the forces have
components in the three orthogonal X, Y and Z directions. This leads to (3 x No. of joints)
equations which can be solved as above to determine the 't' values and subsequently the
member forces and support reactions.

3.6 Example 3.3 Three dimensional space truss

The space frame shown in Figure 3 .14 has three pinned supports at A, B and C, all of
which lie on the same level as indicated. Member DE is horizontal and at a height of 10 m
above the plane of the supports. Determine the forces in the members when the frame
carries loads of 80 kN and 40 kN acting in a horizontal plane at joints E and D respectively
(see Table 3.2)
 Axially Loaded Members 99

,----5 m-~-_ 5
m,
I ------5 m
I ---J

~~~ BOkN

10m

Figure 3.14

3.7 Design of Tension Members (Clause 4.6)

As indicated in Section 3 .1, the types of element used in the design of tension members is
numerous and varied; open and closed single-rolled sections being adopted for light trusses
and lattice girders, compound sections comprising either multiple-rolled sections or welded
plates for heavy trusses with ropes and cables being used in suspension structures such as
bridges and roofs.
There are a number of potential problems that may arise from using light, slender
sections such as bars, flats, rolled angle and channel sections, e.g.

+ excessive sag under self-weight,

+ vibration during dynamic loading and
+ damage during transportation to site.

The introduction of sag rods as indicated in Figure 3.2 and the use of intermediate
packing in double angle or channel members will assist in minimizing the first two of these
problems.
In general, if the leg length of an angle tie is at least equal to member length , the member
60
will have sufficient stiffuess to prevent damage during transport.

The tension capacity Pt of a member should be determined from

where:
py is defined in Table 6 and
Ae is the effective area of the section as defined in Clauses 3. 3.3 or 4. 6. 2 to 4. 6. 4
100 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Table 3.2

Joint Equilibrium Equations Member t Length Force

(m) (kN)
A X +lOtAE + lOtAD +Ax = 0 AE 0 20.6 0
y -15tAE- 5tAD + Ay =0 AD 0 15 0

z + 1OtAE + lOtAD +Az =0 DC 0 15 0

B X DE + 4.0 10 + 40.0
y EC -4.0 15 -60.0
z EB + 4.0 15 + 60.0
c X Support Reactions
y Support Component Reaction
z A Ax 0

D X Ay 0
y Az 0

z B Bx -40.0

E X By -20.0
y Bz -40.0

z c Cx -40.0

Readers should complete and solve the Cy -20.0

equilibrium equations and hence Cz + 40.0
confirm the member forces and support
reactions indicated in the right-hand
column

Tip: Identify a joint with no more than

three unknowns to begin solving the
equations.
 Axially Loaded Members 101

Clause 3.3.3
Experimental testing has indicated that the effective capacity of a member in tension is not
reduced by the presence of holes provided that the ratio:
net cross- sectional area yield strength b . bl .
> y a smta e margm.
gross cross- sectional area ultimate strength
This margin is reflected in the differing K., values adopted for different grades of steel, as
indicated in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3

Grade of steel 40' 43 50' WR50 55 All others

0.75 us ::; 1.2

Ke 1.2 1.1 1.0 Ys

where:
Us is the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength
Ys is the specified minimum yield strength

The effective area Ae = Ke x net area

where the net area is defined in Clause 3.3.2 as the gross-area less deductions for fastener
holes as given in Clause 3. 4.

Clause 3.4: Deductions for holes

Clause 3.4.1:
When deducting the area of a fastener hole from a cross-section, allowance should be made
for the clearance dimensions, e.g. a 20 mm diameter bolt requires a 22 mm diameter hole
(see Chapter 5, section 5.2).

Clause 3.4.2: Holes not staggered

If holes are not staggered across the width of a member, then the area to be deducted is the
maximum sum of the sectional areas of the holes in any cross-section perpendicular to the
direction of the applied stress in the member.
For example, consider the flat plate tie member shown in Figure 3.15.
I
I 30mm
-$----------
50mm tZZI ! vzza ! 17/1 ~-10mm

30mm ~~ 80 mm .I
Flat plate tie member Cross -section

Figure 3.15
102 Design ofStructural Steelworlf

hole diameter 20 +2 = 22mm

Area to be deducted (22 X 10)2 440mm2

Clause 3.4.3 Staggered holes

If holes are staggered across the width of a member then it is necessary to consider all
possible failure paths extending progressively across the member. The area to be deducted
is equal to the sum of the sectional areas of all holes in the path less an allowance equal to
s 2t
_P_ for each gauge space in the path as shown in Figures 3.16 and 3.17.
4g

Ft- g[ ·---4----1----4----+----4--
i I i I i
------+----4+----1-----+++------1----
- Ft w~.....~4~+~~~~§ ~ t
j y j y j
Cross -section
i
I.Sp .I.Sp . I. Sp .I. Sp .I
Figure 3.16
where:
sp is the staggered pitch
g is the gauge
t is the thickness
For example, consider the flat plate tie member shown in Figure 3.17.

30mm
---~--~---~---~-­

---- -- -' ---+---$---+--

i I i I 50 mm
t/21 : VZZd : t/Z7ll : FA ~ 10
' i ' J 160 mm J mm
---t----
50mm

30mm Cross-section

50 50 50
20 mm diameter
black bolts

Path 1 Path 2 Path 3

Figure 3.17

Path 1 Area to be deducted = (22 X 10)2

Path 2 Area to be deducted (22 X 10)2- (502 X 10)

4 x50
= 440- 125
 Axially Loaded Members 103

Path 3 Area to be deducted = (22 X 10)3- ( 502 X 10) 2

4 X 50
660-250

Path 1 is the most severe with the highest area to be deducted and therefore:

Net area Anet = (160 x 10)- 440

Assuming grade 43 steel is being used
Ae = Ke x Anet (s gross area)
Effective area Ae = 1.2 X 1160

Clause 4.6.2 Effects of eccentric connections

Although theoretically, tension members are inherently stable and the most economic
structural elements, the introduction of secondary effects such bending due to eccentricities
at com1ections reduces their efficiency. With the exception of angles, channels and T-
sections, the secondary effects should be allowed for in the design by considering members
subject to combined axial and bending load effects (see Chapter 4).

Clause 4. 6. 3.1 Single angles, Channels and T-Sections

For asymmetric com1ections where secondary effects will occur, the effective area should be
calculated as indicated in Figure 3.18.

L
Single-angle Single-channel T-section

Effective Area . Ae = a 1 + ( 3a 1
3a1 +a2
)a 2

Figure3.18
where:
a1 is the net sectional area of the com1ected leg
az is the sectional area of the uncom1ected leg

Note: the area of a leg of an angle is defined in Clause 4. 6. 3. 2 as ' ... the product of the
thickness by the length from the outer corner minus half the thickness, and the area of the
leg of a T-section is the product of the thickness by the depth minus the thickness of the
flange ', as shown in Figure 3.19.
104 Design ofStructural Steelwork

(d- t)
Angle leg area
J
= (A - 0.5t)t
T -section leg area = (d- t)t

Figure 3.19

Clause 4.6.3.2 Double angles

For double angles connected back-to-hack and to the same side of a gusset plate or section
as shown in Figure 3 .20, a similar calculation is made to determine the effective area.
X
ft

r// ////1

Double angle same side

of gusset plate or section

Effective Area

Figure 3.20
where a1 and az are as before.

In double angle ties where x > aggregate thickness of the legs connected with solid
packing pieces or the slenderness of an individual angle > 180, each angle should be
regarded as a single angle and the effective area calculated as in Clause 4. 6. 3.1.

Clause 4.6.3.3
In symmetrical connections such as two angles back-to back or members connected using
lug angles as shown in Figure 3 .21, the effective area should be calculated as for flat plates
using Clauses 3.3.2 to 3.4.
 Axially Loaded Members 105

Double angles Channel section T- section

Figure 3.21

3.8 Example 3.4 Lattice girder

Consider the lattice girder in Example 3.1 and Figure 3.6, and check the suitability of the
sections shown in Table 3.4 for members NM and JK. The applied loading is assumed to be
the factored design loading and 16 mm diameter black bolts are to be used throughout.

Table 3.4

Member Axial Load Section

2/ 75 x 50 x 8 Angles, long legs

Bottom chord member NM + 360 kN back-to-back connected with gusset
plate between the angles
11 75 x 50 x 8 Angle, long leg
Diagonal tie member JK + 150 kN connected to gusset plate

Member NM: 2/ 75 x 50 x 8 Double angles

Clause 4. 6.1
Table 6

Clause 4.6.3.3(b) and Clause 3.3.2

Ae Anet = (Agross- area of holes)

Sectionpropertytab les Agross = 18.9 x 102 mm2

Area of hole= (18 x 8)2 = 288 mm2
Ae (1890- 288) 1602 mm2
Pt (1602 X 275)/10 3 = 441 kN > 360 kN
Section is adequate
 106 Design ofStructural Steelwork

The two angles should be held apart by bolted packing pieces in at least two places
along their length, as shown in Figure 3 .22, using the same bolt size as the end connection.

Clause 4. 6.3.3
The outermost packing piece should be approximately (9 x smallest leg length) from the end
connection, i.e. (9 x 50) = 450 mm.
Although Clause 4. 6. 3. 2 specifically states that in double angles connected back to back
to one side of a gusset or section, the slenderness of the individual components should not
exceed 80; this is usually also applied to double angles connected to both sides of a gusset
or section, therefore:

slenderness A. = spacing ofpacking pieces s 80

rvv
spacing of packing pieces s 80 x 10.7= 856 mm

t i t t t f ij
)

~
I !
450 775 775 775 775 450
.. I .. • I • .. I..

:I
• I .. 1 •

1: 4000 mm
Figure 3.22

Member JK: 11 75 x 50 x 8Angle

Clause 4.6.3.1 Effective Area _ a1 + (

A.- 3a1 ) a2
3a1 +a 2
(75 -4)8-(18 X 8) 424mm2
(50- 4)8 368 mm2
424 + ( 3 X 424 ) 368 =
3 x424 +368
(709 X 275)/1 03 = 195 kN > 150 kN
Section is adequate

3.9 Design of Compression Members (Clause 4. 7)

The design of compression members is more complex than that of tension members and
encompasses the design of structural elements referred to as columns, stanchions or struts.
The term strut is usually used when referring to members in lattice/truss frameworks, while
the other two generally refer to vertical or inclined members supporting floors and/or roofs
in structural frames.
 Axially Loaded Members 107
As with tension members, in many cases such members are subjected to both axial and
bending effects. This chapter deals primarily with those members on lattice/truss frame-
works in which it is assumed that all members are subjected to concentric axial loading.
Column/stanchion design in which combined axial compression and bending are present is
discussed in Chapter 4.

The dominant mode of failure to be considered when designing struts is axial buckling.
Buckling failure is caused by secondary bending effects induced by factors such as:

+ the inherent eccentricity of applied loads due to asymmetric connection details,

+ imperfections present in the cross-section and/or profile of a member throughout its
length,
+ non-uniformity of material properties throughout a member.

The first two of these factors are the most significant and their effect is to introduce initial
curvature, secondary bending and consequently premature failure by buckling before the
stress in the material reaches the yield value. The stress at which failure will occur, known
as the compressive strength (pc), is influenced by several variables, e.g.

+ the cross-sectional shape of the member,

+ the slenderness of the member,
+ the yield strength of the material,
+ the pattern of residual stresses induced by differential cooling of the member after the
rolling process.

The effects of these variables are reflected in Tables 25, 26 and 27(a), (b), (c) and (d) in the
code, which ar2e used to determine the appropriate value of Pc for a particular
circumstance.
A practical and realistic assessment of the critical slenderness of a strut is the most
important criterion in determining the compressive strength.

3.9.1 Slenderness (Clause 4. 7.3)

Slenderness is evaluated using:

A = Le
r
where:
A is the slenderness ratio,
Le is the effective length with respect to the axis of buckling being considered,
r is the radius of gyration with respect to the axis of buckling being considered.
108 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Limiting values 'of slenderness are given in the code to reduce .the possibility of
premature failure in long struts, and to ensure an acceptable degree of robustness in a
member. These limits, which are given in Clause 4. 7.3.2 are shown in Table 3.5 of this
chapter.
Table 3.5

Type of member Amaxunum

Members resisting dead and/or imposed load 180
Members resisting wind loads only in addition to self-weight 250
Members which normally act as ties but are subject to compression
due to stress reversal 350

In addition to the values in Table 3.5, members in which the slenderness is greater than
180 should be checked for self-weight deflection. In cases where this deflection is greater
than (0.001 x length), then the secondary bending effects should be considered in the design.

Effective Lengths (Clause 4. 7.2)

The effective length is considered to be the actual length of the member between points of
restraint multiplied by a coefficient to allow for effects such as stiffening due to end
connections of the frame of which the member is a part. Appropriate values for the
coefficients are given in Table 24 of the code and illustrated in Figure 3.23(a) and (b).
In the case of angles, channels and T -sections, secondary bending effects induced by end
connections can be ignored and pure axial loading assumed, provided that the slenderness
values are determined using Clauses 4. 7.1 0. 2 to 4. 7.1 0. 5 or Table 28 in the code. The use
of these Clauses and Table 28 is illustrated in Examples 3.5 and 3.6.
In the case of other cross-sections the slenderness should be evaluated using effective
lengths as indicated in Figures 3.23(a) and (b). In addition, Appendix D ofthe code gives
the appropriate coefficients to be used when assessing the effective lengths for columns in
single-storey buildings using simple construction; this is dealt with in Chapter 4.

Fully Partially Pinned Pinned

restrained restrained

Le = 0.7L Le= 0.85L Le =L

Fully Partially Fully Pinned

restrained restrained restrained

Figure 23(a)
 Axially Loaded Members 109
Sway Sway Sway and rotation

L[T 4=12L 4=15L T

~
Fully Partially Fully
restrained restrained restrained

Figure 3.23(b)

The coefficients given for determining effective lengths are generally greater than those
predicted by mathematical theory; this is to allow for effects such as the inability in practice
to obtain full fixity.

3.9.2 Compressive Resistance (Clause 4. 7.4)

In Clause 4. 7. 4, the compressive resistance Pc of a member is given by:

for slender sections and

for all other sections
where:
Ag is the gross cross-sectional area as defined in Clause 3. 3.1
Pes is the compressive strength for slender sections as defined in Clause 3. 6 and 4. 7.5
Pc is the compressive strength as defined in Clause 4. 7.5

3.9.2.1 Gross Cross-sectional Area (Clause 3.3.1)

The gross cross-sectional area of a member is determined using the member profile and size
ignoring any holes required for fasteners, but allowing for any additional holes. When
considering the design of laced, battened struts or splices, the cross-section of the laces,
battens and splices should be ignored.

3.9.2.2 Slender Sections (Clause 3.6.4)

Where an element has been defined as slender using the criteria from Table 7, and it is
subject to compression, the design strength py should be modified by a factor which is given
in Table 8 of the code for various cross-sections. This reduced value of py is then used when
extracting values of Pc (compressive strength) from Tables 27(a) to (d).
110 Design ofStructural Steelwork
3.9.2.3 Compressive Strength (Clause 4. 7.5)

When determining the value of Pc for a section, reference is first made to Table 25. If
additional flange plates have been welded to rolled I or H-sections, or if welded plate I or H-
sections are used then further reference is made to Table 26. This is necessary since the
residual stresses induced by welding differ in both magnitude and distribution from those
caused during the rolling/cooling processes and effectively further reduce the stress at which
buckling may occur. Table 25 indicates the relevant Table 27 (a), (b), (c) or (d) to use in
determining the appropriate Pc value and relates to the type of cross-section, thickness of
elements and axis of buckling being considered.
Table 27 requires the py value and slenderness of the section to determine the tabulated
Pc value. When using Table 27 to determine the Pc value for sections fabricated by welded
plates, the py value should be reduced by 20 N/mm2 •
Compound struts comprising two components back-to-hack and connected symmetric-
ally to both sides of a gusset are less stable about an axis through the plane of the
connection of the components than an equivalent solid section. The slenderness is therefore
checked using an additional ratio At, as given in Clauses 4. 7. 9 and 4. 7.13.

where:
An. is the ratio of the effective length to. the radius of gyration of a whole member about
the axis perpendicular to the plane of the connection,
A., is the ratio of the effective length of a main component to its minimum radius of
gyration.
Note: The main components should be connected at intervals such that the member is
divided into a minimum ofthree bays of approximately equal length.

+~ · 11·
9==1 =~~lr ~l! ~~~,=='
\; ·1: J'~ ~. ~~:=======Pi
~~
P = = = !
\; I 1
1

a)l >-----: -"v -'------'-'t;r-:- ' -"v ~:1

Figure 3.24

3.9.2.4 Example 3.5 Pin-Jointed Truss

Consider the lattice girder in Example 3 .1 and Figure 3. 6 and check the suitability of the
sections shown in Table 3.5 for members FM and EF. The applied loading is assumed to be
factored design loading and 16 mm diameter black-bolts are to be used.
 Axially Loaded Members 111

Table 3.5

Member Axial Load Section

1/1 00x75 x 10 angle with

Vertical strut member FM long leg connected to
-90kN 12 mm thick gusset plates

J and double bolted at the

ends.

2/150x75x 15 angles with

Top chord member EF long legs back-to-hack,
-480 kN double-bolted to 12 mm
thick gusset plates and
with packing pieces
single-bolted at the
~ quarter length positions

Member FM: 1/100x75x10 angle long leg double-bolted to gusset plate.

Table 6 thickness < l61mn :. py = 275 N/mm2

Table 7 b=75mm d=lOOmm T=lOmm

b 75
t:= 1.0 - 7.5 < 8.5&
T 10
d 100
10.0 < 9.5&
t 10
b+d 175
--- 17.5 < 23&
T 10
Section is semi-compact

Clause 4. 7.2 To determine effective length and slenderness use either Table 24 or Clause
4. 7.1 0. In structures such as the one considered here, it is normal to refer to Clause 4. 7.10
for discontinuous strut members and in the case of continuous members i.e. the compression
boom of a lattice girder, as an alternative to refer to Table 24.

Clause 4. 7.10.2.(a) and Table 28.

For single-angle struts double-bolted by one leg to a gusset plate or other member
112 Design of Structural Steelwork

lJVV slenderness ~

~
0.85Lwlrw
0.7Lwlrw + 15
b -·---~-·- b
~ l.OL.Jraa
~ 0.7Laalraa+ 30
/ !
~ 0.85Lw1rbb
'..// !
!
v a ~ 0.7LbJrbb + 30

where:
L ••, Lbb and Lw are taken as the length 'L' between the intersections of the centroidal axes or
the setting-out lines of the bolts.

Note: Clauses 4. 7.10.3 to 4. 7.10.4 give similar criteria for double-angles struts, single
channel struts and single T -section struts respectively.

Clause 4. 7. 3 Limiting Slenderness

Assuming that the loading is combined dead and imposed A, :s; 180
L .. =Lbb=Lw = 3000mm raa=21.6 rbb=31.2mm rw= 15.9mm

0.85Lwlrw = {0.85x3000)/15.9 = 160

0.7Lwlrw + 15 {0.7x3000)/15.9 + 15 = 147
l.OL.Jraa = (l.Ox3000)/21.6 = 139
0.7L.Jr•• + 30 (0.7x3000)/21.6+ 30 = 127
0.85LbJrbb (0.85x3000)/31.2 81.7
0.7LbJrbb + 30 = (0.7x3000)/31.2 + 30 = 97.3

The critical slenderness is 160 < 180 :. acceptable

Clause 4. 7. 4 (a) Pc = A,pc

Clause 3. 3.1 Gross area Ag = 1660 mm2
Table 25 Buckling about any axis use Table 27(c)

~ 265 275 305

155 64 65 66
160 61 61 63
165 58 58 60
- ~
Extract from Table 27(c) BS 5950:Part 1

From the extract of Table 27(c) Pc = 61 N/mm2

Pc = {1660x61)/10 3 = 101 kN > 90 kN
Section is adequate
 Axially Loaded Members 113

Member EF: 2/150x75x 15 double angles, long leg connected to gusset plate.
Table 6 thickness < 16 mm :. Pv = 275 N/mm2
Table 7 b = 75 mm d = 150 mm T = 15 mm

b 75
&= 1.0 5.5 < 8.5&
T 15
d 150
= 10.0 < 9.5&
t 15
b+d 225
--- - 15 < 23&
T 15
Section is semi-compact

Clause 4. 7.1 0. 2. (c) and Table 28

slenderness 2: 0.85Lxxlrxx
2: 0.7Lxx.lrxx + 30
I

2: [(4vl'vyf +A: Y
2: 1.4A.,
where:
Lxx and Lyy are taken as the length 'L' between the intersections of the centroidal axes
or the setting out lines of the bolts.
Ac = 4v -<50 and
rvv
Lvv is the distance between intermediate packing pieces
rvv is the radius of gyration for a single angle about the v-v axis
Lxx = Lyy = 4000 mm rxx = 47.5 ryy = 31.0 mm rvv= 15.8 mm

For a 150x75xl5 double angle since A., ..s; 50 Lvv ..s; 50 x 15.8 790 mm
4000
Assume the member is divided into 6 bays :. Lvv = 667 mm
6

A
c
= 667
15.8
= 42.19

A 2: 0.85Lxx.lrxx (0.85 X 4000)/47.5 = 71.6

2: 0.7Lxx.lrxx + 30 (0.7 X 4000)/47.5 + 30 = 88.9
I

r
I

2: [(4v I 'vv + A: J~ [(4000/31.0) 2

+42.19 2 )2 135.8

2: 1.4A., = 1.4 X 42.19 59.1

The critical slenderness is 135.8 < 180 :. acceptable

114 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Clause 4. 7. 4 (a) Pc = Agpc

Clause 3.3.1 Gross area Ag = 6330 mm2
Table 25 Buckling about any axis use Table 27(c)

265 275 305

~
(

130 85 86 89
135 80 81 84
140 76 76 79 v
Extract from Table 27(c) BS 5950:Part 1

From the extract of Table 27(c) Pc = 80.2 N/mm2

Pc = (6330 X 80.2)/10 3 = 508 kN > 480 kN
Section is adequate

3.10 Example 3.6 Secondary bracing in lattice girder

A rugby club requires a new stand and, while full uninterrupted views would be desirable,
the cost of a cantilever roof is prohibitive. An alternative solution is where a series of
castellated beams are simply supported on a series of rectangular hollow sections at the rear
and four Pratt trusses at the front, as shown in Figures 3.25 (a), (b) and (c). Using the
.design data given, check the suitability of the proposed section size for the members of the
trusses.

Note: neglect wind loading

Design Data:
Characteristic dead load due to self weight of roof decking etc. 1.0 kN/m2
Characteristic imposed load 0.6 kN/m2
Top and bottom chords and diagonals 200xl20x8.0 RHS

As mentioned in Section 3 .2, when loads are applied to the chords of lattice girders
between the node points, a system of secondary bracing can be used to transfer the forces to
the node points and main girder members.
In this example each of the four main Pratt trusses supports a series of beams some of
which are located at the mid-span points between the nodes in the top chord. The loads
applied to the chord by these beams can be transmitted through a secondary bracing system
using additional members, as shown in Figure 3.26. It is convenient when analysing this
structural arrangement to consider the truss as the superposition of two systems as shown.
 Axially Loaded Members 115
Castellated beams

Pratt truss

r"'--.:::--;"" II II
II
l.Tr'"'-...J II
rr 11
fl
11
II
II
[,;:] C,~J
}{ \\ II\\It
II
ll \\
II 11

u" \\
~ ::: \~ If \\
u ~ lj ~
16.0 m

Figure 3.25 (a) Typical internal frame

II II II II II
II II II II II

~~;;J ~~;;J ~~;;J ~~;;J ~~;;J

II II\\ {I II\\ II II 1\ II II II II II II
II II II II II \1 II II II II II II II II II
II II \1 II II II II II \1 II II \1 II II \1
II II I\ II II II II II II II II II II II II
u u u u II u u II u u u u 11 u u

Figure 3.25 (b) Front elevation of Grandstand

Castellated roof beams at 2.5 m centres

I I
J l l
~ 1)\)\ 1)\)\ lJ\ )\)\ f..)\ f..V\ lJ\f.. lJ\ 1)\IX X
.J JJ J J J
X IX X X IX Xi)\ f..)\ lJ\)\
XI- -
- 1- 1- -I- !- -1- 1-- --1-
XI- -- r-- -- -~-x
-- -- 4 No. Pratt trusses 1-- - - -1-~
- - - - ,......P
-Ft t t- rt_tllitl ft 1--f.-t;;., :-1-{!-

~ -
-- - -
ttl! I IT! I- tt r-r- - - 1-1- X
20.0 m 20.0 m 20.0 m 20.0 m

f - - - - - - - - - - - 80 .0 m - -- - - -- - -1

Figure 3.25 (c) Roof plan

116 Design ofStructural Steelwork
When determining the member forces for design purposes, the 'mkl-span' loads are
distributed to adjacent nodes using simple statics, resulting in a Primary load system as
shown in Figure 3.26. A standard pin-jointed, plane-frame analysis is carried out to
determine the magnitude and sense of the Primary loads.
The secondary bracing elements in combination with some of the main elements transfer
the loads induced in the assumed static distribution, as shown in Figure 3.26. The
magnitude and sense of the secondary forces can be determined as before.

F/2 F F F F F F F F/2

~Sl$?=b±1
( 4 bays at 5.0 m each {
Actual loads system

F 2F 2F 2F F

ts::l~~'~l;?=l;?=l E
Primary load system

A ~Fe oFAcs

IFABS~
Secondary load system

Figure 3.26

The total force in any member is determined from the sum of the Primary and the
Secondary forces, for example;

Force in member AB Fabp + Fabs

Force in member AC = Facp + Facs
Force in member CB Fcbs

Note: there is no Primary component for member CB.

Solution:
Area supported by each castellated beam ~ 2.5 x (5 + 16 + 3.5) 61.25m2
Design load/m 2 (1.4 x 1.0) + (1.6 x 0.6) 2.36 kN/m2
Total design load /beam 2.36 x 61.25 144.55 kN
Each castellated beam is simply supported with a 5. 0 m cantilever overhang
 Axially Loaded Members 117

Figure 3.27

The support reaction F1 for the beam equals the magnitude of the point load applied to
the Pratt truss.

L:Moments about RH end (F1 X 19.5)- (144.5 X 12.25) = 0

F1 = 90.81 kN
2F1 = 181.6 kN

181.6 kN 181.6 kN 181.6 kN

272 kN A 908 kN D 908 kN 272 kN

734 kN 273 kN 242 kN 182 kN 242 kN 273 kN 734 kN

r
0 683 kN E 683 kN 0

Primary axial loads

A D

Secondary axial loads

Equivalent Load System

Figure 3.28

Force in member AC - (908 + 114) - 1022 kN strut

Force in member AB + (242 + 123) = + 365 kN tie
Force in member BD + (0 + 123) + 123 kN tie
Force in member BC = -(273+91) -364 kN strut

Similarly for all other member forces.

Top chord member AB: 200x120x8.0 RHS

Applied axial load 1002 kN compression
Table 6 t = 6.3 mm < 16.0 mm py = 275 N/mm2
118 Design of Structural Steelwork

Table 7 s = 1. 0 Section Classification

Figure 3 b = B- 3t (120- 3 X 8.0) 96mm
d = D- 3t = (200- 3 X 8.0) = 176mm
bit= 96/8.0 12 < 26s Flanges are plastic
d/t = 176/8.0 22 < 39s Web is plastic

Section Tables ~oss = 4830 mm2

Clause 4. 7. 4 Pc = Agpc
Table 24 Le = 0.85 x 5000 = 4250 mm

4250
Clause 4. 7.3.2 87.5 s 180
rYY 48.6

Table 25 Use Table 27(a) Pc ~ 186 N/mm2

Table 27(a) Pc = (4830 X 186)/103 = 898 kN < 1002 kN

Section is inadequate and must be increased in size such that Pc > 1002 kN

Bottom chord and diagonal members have maximum forces of 683 kN and 734 kN in
tension respectively.

Clause 4. 6.1 Pt = A,py

Assuming welded connections, then Ae = Agross

Pt = (4830 X 275)/10 3 = 1328 kN > 734kN

Section is adequate

A smaller section can be used, but for aesthetics and ease of detailing connections the
breadth 'b' of all members should be the same.
The reader should redesign the top chord member and design the secondary bracing
members CB and BD in a similar manner.

3.11 Example 3.7 Concentrically loaded single storey column

A single storey column supports a symmetrical arrangement of beams as shown in Figure
3.29. Using the data provided check the suitability of a 203x203x60 UC section.

Design Loads:
F 1 = characteristic dead load Gk = 75 kN
F 1 = characteristic imposed load Qk =175 kN
F 2 = characteristic dead load Gk = 20 kN
F 2 = characteristic imposed load Qk = 75 kN
 Axially Loaded Members 119

5.0 m
203x20 3x60 UC -

Simple base plate

I I

Figure 3.29
Solution:
Assuming the column to be effectively held in position at both ends, but not restrained in
direction at either end, Table 42 indicates an effective length equal to L.

Section Properties:
D = 209.6mm B = 205.8mm T 14.2 mm A = 7640 mm2
ryy = 52.0 mm rxx = 89.6 mm 9.4 mm dlt = 17.1 biT = 7.25

Table 6 T < 16mm :. py = 275 N/mm2

Table 7 bit < 26& Flanges are plastic
dlt < 39& Web is plastic

Table 42 Effective length = 5000mm

L 5000
Clause 4. 7. 3. 2 /cyy= - - - 96 < 180
rYY 52.0
L 5000
~= = - - - 56 < 180
rxx 89.6

Table 25 For a rolled H-section x-x axis use Table 27(b)

y-y axis use Table 27(c)

Table 27(b) 56 py = 275 N/mm2 :. Pc = 275 N/mm2

Table 27(c) 96 py = 275 N/mm2 :. Pc = 132 N/mm2
. . critical value= 132 N/mm2

Clause 4. 7. 4 Pc = A!!lJc (7640 X 132}/103 = 1008 kN

Design load = 2 x (F1 +Fz)

2 X ((1.4 X 75) + (1,6 X 175) + (1.4 X 20) + (1.6 X 50}]
= 986 kN < 1008 kN
Section is suitable
120 Design ofStructural Steelwork

3.12 Column Baseplates

Columns which are assumed to be nominally pinned at their bases are provided with a slab
base comprising a single plate fillet welded to the end of the column and bolted to the
foundation with four holding down (H.D.) bolts. The base plate, welds and bolts must be of
adequate size, stiffuess and strength to transfer the axial compressive force and shear at the
support without exceeding the bearing strength of the bedding material and concrete base,
as shown in Figure 3.30.

r-~~=t~~~:;;; Bedding
+B-
I
'
I'
..,... ---
+I '

._,...'
I
material

.· 1. Location cone ·I .
I " /
Anchor plates I
Figure 3.30

Clause 4.13. 2. 2 of BS 5950:Part 1 gives the following empirical formula for determin-
ing the minimum thickness of a rectangular base plate supporting a concentrically loaded
column:

where:
a is the greater projection of the plate beyond the column as shown in Figure 3.31
b is the lesser projection of the plate beyond the column as shown in Figure 3.31
w is the pressure on the underside of the plate assuming a uniform distribution
pyp is the design strength of the plate from Clause 3.1.1 or Table 6, but not greater
than 270 N/mm2
Note: the value of 270 N/mm2 is a conversion of the value adopted in the previous
permissible stress design code for steelwork BS 449:Part 2: 1969 'The Use of
Structural Steel In Building'.

-4-B-
I
•

I
I
I

-4-
0

I I
-r-' --· -r-' =r a
I
Uniform pressure a>b ~b~

Figure 3.31

In addition t ~ the flange thickness 'T' of the column being supported.

 Axially Loaded Members 121

The code indicates that this formula may be used for I, H, channel, box or RHS sections.
The use of the equation, which assumes full two-way bending of the plate, can produce
plate thicknesses less than would be obtained at critical sections assuming simple cantilever
actions. An alternative approach considering a series of simple cantilever projections, which
is more appropriate for sections with a large depth/width ratio, e.g. Universal Beams, is the
Effective Area Method. This teclmique is comprehensively explained in Reference 14.
The dimensions of the plate must be sufficient to distribute the axial compressive load to
the foundations and to accommodate the holding down bolts.
The purpose of the welds is to transfer the shear force at the base and securely attach the
plate to the column. In most cases either 6 mm or 8 mm fillet welds run along the flanges
and for a short distance on either side of the web will be adequate.
The holding down bolts are generally cast within location cones in a concrete base and
fitted with an anchor plate to prevent pull-out. The purpose of the location cone is to allow
for movement before final grouting and hence permit site adjustment during construction.
The diameter at the top of the location cones is usually at least 100 mm or 3 x bolt dia-
meter. The recommended size ofH.D. bolts is M20 for light construction, M24 for bases up
to 50 mm thick increasing to M36 for heavier plates. Clearance holes in the base plates
should be 6 nun larger than the bolt diameter. The bolts are imbedded in the concrete base
to a length equal to approximately 16 to 18 x bolt diameter with a threaded length at least
equal to the bolt diameter plus 100 mm.
Bedding material can be either mortar, fine concrete or a proprietary, non-shrink grout.
In lightly loaded bases a gap of 25 mm to 50 mm is normally provided; this allows access
for grouting the H.D. bolt pockets and ensuring that the gap under the base plate is
completely filled. It is normal for the strength of the bedding material to be at least equal to
that of the concrete base. In BS 5950: Part 1 Clause 4.13.1, the bearing strength for
concrete foundations is given as 0 .4/~u, where .f~u is the characteristic concrete cube strength
at 28 days.

3.13 Example 3. 7 Slab base

Design a suitable base plate for the axially loaded colunm in Example 3.6 in which the
design axial load :
F 986 kN Assume .feu = 40 N/mm2

D 209.6 mm B = 205.8 mm T = 14.2 mm

Solution:
The minimum size of base plate such that the concrete bearing strength is not exceeded is
given by:
A > 986 X 103
mm - 0.4 X 40
Assuming a square base Length of base = 248 mm
122 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Try a base 300 nun x 300 nun

F 986 X 103
Actual bearing pressure w ----- = = 10.96 N/nun2
Area provided 300 x 300

greater projection beyond column = (300- 205.8)/2 = 47.1 nun

lesser projection beyond column = (300- 209.6)/2 = 45.2 nun

Pyp = 270 N/nun2

25 X
10 ·96 (47.f- OJ X 45.2 2 ) = 12.8 nun
270
Also ;;::: Flange thickness= 14.2 nun Assume 15 nun

H.D. Bolts
Assume M20's threaded length ~ 20 + 100 = 120nun
imbedded length ~ 16 x 20 320nun
thickness of bedding material 25nun
Total length of bolt = 120 + 15 + 25 + 320 480nun

Adopt base plate: 300 nun x 300 nun x 15 nun thick

6 nun fillet welds to flanges and web
M20 nun H.D. bolts 480 nun long with 120 nun threaded length
4. Members Subject to Combined Axial and
Flexural Loads

4.1 Introduction

While many structural members have a single dominant effect, such as axial loading or
bending, there are numerous elements which are subjected to both types of loading at the
same time. The behaviour of such elements is dependent on the interaction characteristics of
the individual components of load. Generally, members resisting combined tension and
bending are less complex to design than those resisting combined compression and bending,
since the latter are more susceptible to associated buckling effects. The combined effects
can occur for several reasons such as eccentric loading or rigid frame action, as illustrated
in Figures 4.l(a) and (b) respectively.
..
,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,.,

!
/
Beam end reaction lrl
'--1i I~
I I __\,
I
TF F

.J_
I
I F.e Rigid frame
i
I
8 ~Axial load
~- Shear force
Bending moment

At
Force system

Le ~Eccentricity t Bending Moment

Diagram
on column AB

(a) (b)
Figure 4.1

4.1.1 Combined Tension and Bending

Consider a structural member subjected to concentric axial loading as shown in Figure 4.2.
The limiting value of applied axial load F can be determined by using the equation:
F
F = A.py :. - - = 1.0
A.Py
Similarly, if the applied load is eccentric to the X-X axis as shown in Figure 4.2(b):
= 1.0

In the case of eccentricity about theY -Y axis, as shown in Figure 4.2(c):

123
124 Design ofStructural Steelwork

F
F.ey

1,1
Ill
II
1,1
111
II

-+-!
t t ~

ffi-
I I

tH~
~ ~
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.2

If these limits are plotted on three-dimensional orthogonal axes, then they represent the
members' capacity under each form ofloading acting singly. Figure 4.3(a) is a linear inter-
action diagram. Any point located within the boundaries of the axes and the interaction
surface represents a combination of applied loading F, Mx and My for which

(1)

and which can be safely carried by the section.

F F
A.Py A.Py
1.0 1.0

Interaction surface

1.0
My
Mcy

(a) (b)
Figure 4.3
 Members Subject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 125
Equation ( 1) which represents a linear approximation of member behaviour is used in
BS 5950 in Clause 4.8.2. A more rigorous analysis allowing for plastic behaviour of plastic
and compact sections results in an interaction surface as shown in Figure 4.3(b). The
precise shape of the surface is dependent on the cross-section for which the diagram is
constructed. This non-linear surface is represented by:

(2)

where:
Mrx the reduced moment capacity about the major axis due to axial loading
Mry the reduced moment capacity about the minor axis due to axial loading
(see Section 4.1.2 regarding reduced moment capacity)
z1 = 2.0 for I and H, solid and hollow circular sections
= 1.67 for solid and rectangular hollow sections
= 1. 0 for all other cases
z2 = 2.0 for solid and hollow circular sections
= 1.67 for solid and rectangular sections
= 1. 0 for all other cases

The values of Mrx and Mry are available from published Section Properties Tables. The
BS gives equation (2) as a more economic alternative to using equation (1) when designing
members subject to both axial tension and bending

Note: It is also necessary to check the resistance of such members to lateral torsional
buckling in accordance with Clause 4. 3 as shown in Chapter 2, Section 2.4.4, assuming the
value ofthe axial load to be zero.

4.1.2 Reduced Moment Capaci~v

In Chapter 2, Section 2.2 and Figure 2.3 the plastic stress distribution is shown for a cross-
section subject to pure bending. When an axial load is applied at the same time, this stress
diagram should be amended. Consider an !-section subjected to an eccentric compressive

:ti_ {I!F ~c:r

load as shown in Figure 4.4.

! F.e( F.e~
~ F I

Applied Equivalent load

system system

Figure 4.4
126 Design ofStructural Steelwork
The equivalent load on the cross-section comprises two components~ an axial load 'F
and a bending moment (F x e). The stress diagram can be considered to be the superposition
of two components as shown in Figure 4.5.
When the axial load is relatively low then sufficient material is contained within the web
to resist the pure axial effects as shown in Figure 4.5(a). There is a small reduction in the
material available to resist bending and hence the reduced bending stress diagram is as
shown in Figure 4.5(b). The stress diagram relating to combined axial and bending effects is
shown in Figure 4.5(c) indicating the displaced plastic neutral axis.

Plastic neutral
Compression
axis
zone

Low axial Axial Bending Combined

load component component stress diagram
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.5

When the axial load is relatively high then in addition to the web material, some of the
flange material is required to resist the axial load as shown in Figure 4.6(a), and hence a
larger reduction in the bending moment capacity occurs as shown in Figure 4.6(b). As
before the plastic neutral axis is displaced as shown in Figure 4.6 (c).

Tension
t t ~;:;:;;;;~;;;;;;:;1--zone
Plastic neutral
axis
Compression
zone

High axial Axial Bending Combined

load component component stress diagram
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.6

The published Section Property Tables provide a 'change formula' for each section to
enable a reduced plastic section modulus to be evaluated depending on the amount of
material required to resist the axial component of the applied loading.
 Members Subject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 127
4.1.3 Combined Compression and Bending

The behaviour of members subjected to combined compression and bending is much more
complex than those with combined tension and bending. A comprehensive explanation of
this is beyond the scope ofthis text and can be found elsewhere (Refs:l2, 17). Essentially,
there are three possible modes of failure to consider:

(i) a combination of column buckling and simple uniaxial bending;

(ii) a combination of column buckling and lateral torsional beam buckling;
(iii) a combination of column buckling and biaxial beam bending.

As with combined tension and bending, an interaction diagram can be constructed to

illustrate the behaviour of sections subjected to an axial load F, and bending moments Mx
and My about the major and minor axes respectively; this is shown in Figure 4. 7.

1.0
Family of curves for
different values of A, and A,LT
Interaction
surfaces

Figure 4.7

Although similar, this interaction diagram differs from that shown in Figure 4.3 in that it
relates to slender members. The precise intercept on the F and Mx axes will depend on the
slenderness of the member. Clearly, short, stocky members will intercept the __!__ axis at
Agpy
a value of 1.0; as the slenderness A, increases, the intercept decreases. Similarly, in sections
which are fully restrained against lateral torsional buckling the intercept on the Mx ax1s
Mpx

will equal 1. 0, decreasing as the equivalent slenderness A,LT increases.

The minor axis strength is not affected by overall buckling of the member and the
intercept is always equal to 1.0.
Members with combined compression and bending should be checked for local capacity
using the simplified approach as given in Clause 4.8. 3.2:
128 Design of Structural Steelwork

(3)

which differs slightly from the equation given in Clause 4.8.2 for combined tension and
bending, or alternatively using the more exact method:

(4)

as before.
In addition an overall buckling check should be carried out in accordance with Clause
4.8.3.3.
A simplified, conservative approach to the design of members with combined axial
compression and biaxial bending is given in Clause 4. 8. 3. 3. 2 when considering overall
buckling. The following relationship should be satisfied:

(5)

In Clause 4.8.3.3.2 a more rigorous analysis is used to produce an alternative equation

which will generally produce a more economic design. The following relationship must be
satisfied:

(6)

where:
Max is the maximum buckling moment about the x-x axis in the presence of axial load and
equals the lesser of:

M
(1-£_)
~X or
ex ( 0.5F)
1+--
pcx

May is the maximum buckling moment about the y-y axis in the presence of axial load and
equals:
 Members Subject to Combine,d Axial and Flexural Loads 129

[1-£_)
Mcy [ pcy
1+ 0.5F
l
~y
where Pcx and P cy are the compression resistances about the maJor and mmor axes
respectively.

4.2 Eccentricity of Loading

The application of loading on members is rarely concentric resulting in pure axial.effects. In

most cases moments are introduced either due to the eccentricity of loadings caused by
eccentric connections, or due to continuity moments in rigid-frame construction.
In the case of angles, channels and T -sections designed as ties, the secondary moment
effect induced by the eccentricity of the connection to a gusset plate or other member is
allowed for by modifying the effective cross-sectional area, as shown in Chapter 3, Section
3.4 and indicated in Clauses 4. 6. 3 and 4. 6. 4 of BS 5950: Part 1. When designed as struts
the effects of secondary moments can be neglected, provided that the members are designed
in accordance with Clause 4. 7.10 ofthe BS.
In general, moments due to eccentricity of connections should be determined and allowed
for in the design of members, as discussed in Section 4.1.2; however, in the case of simple
construction, e.g. braced frames, Clause 4. 7. 6 of BS: 5950 provides guidelines for three
separate conditions.

Condition 1:
When a beam is supported on a cap plate, as shown in Figure 4.8, the load should be
considered to be acting at the face of the column, or edge of packing if used, towards the
edge of the beam.
e e
h

Figure 4.8

Condition 2:
When a roof truss is supported using simple connections (see Figure 4.9), which cannot
develop significant moments, the eccentricity may be neglected and a concentric axial load
may be assumed at this point.
130 Design ofStru,ctural Steelwork

Bolted truss
support

Figure 4.9
Condition 3:
In all other cases, such as the beam connections shown in Figure 4.1 0, the eccentricity of
loading should be taken as 100 mm from the face of the column or at the centre of the length
of stiff bearing, whichever gives the greater eccentricity.
Note: The stiff length of bearing of a supporting element is defined in Clause 4. 5.1. 3 and
Figure 8. 0 of the BS. In most cases the designer does not know the precise details of say, a
seating angle, when designing a colunm and the assumption of 100 mm eccentricity will be
adopted.

_F ______ _ (t/2 + 1 00)

Lr --tJ-..:;~~*"-F ·- ~___.._
LD (0/2 + 1oo)
I

[_ Stiff bearing length

Figure 4.10

4.3 Section Classification

When a cross-section is subject to combined axial and bending moments the classification
of the web should be checked for the web generally (see Table 7). For simplicity, the
classification may initially be conducted assuming pure axial load; if the result is either
plastic or compact, there is no advantage to be gained by carrying out a more complex,
accurate calculation. If the section is non-compact, then a more precise calculation should
be carried out (refer to Ref:l7).

4.4 Example 4.1 Industrial unit

An industrial unit comprises a series of braced rectangular frames as shown in Figure 4 .11 .
A travelling crane is supported on a runner beam attached to the underside, at the mid-span
point of the rafters. Using the design data provided, check the suitability of a 203 x 133 x
25 UB for the colunms of a typical internal frame, using:
 Members Subject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 131

(i) the simplified approach and

(ii) the more exact method.

Design Data:
Characteristic dead load due to the sheeting, purlins and services 0.5 kN/m2
Characteristic imposed load 0.75 kN/m2
Characteristic dead load due to side sheeting 0.3 kN/m2
Characteristic dead load due to crane 5.0kN
Characteristic imposed load 25.0 kN
Ignore wind loading

Typical
frame

\eating 1 . ~~atin.g/ ! l
cleat Crane load cleat I 5.0 m

r Pinned base Pinned base " i l

16.0 m . ' S~eeting L:~ 16.0 m ,L.,....,...
i---J,____J
'-.... ; -> ra1ls
"-..! \.,-- 5.0 m
Figure 4.11

Solution:
Area of roof supported by typical internal frame = (5.0 x 16.0) = 80m2
Design dead load due to roof sheeting etc. = 1.4 X (0.5 X 80) = 56 kN
Design imposed load on roof = 1.6 X (0.75 X 80) = 96 kN
Total distributed design load on rafter = (80 + 96) = 176 kN
Design load on rafter due to crane = (1.4 X 5.0) + (1.6 X 25) = 47 kN
Area of side sheeting supported by one column (5.0 x 5.0) = 25m2

Design dead load due to side sheeting (1.4 x 25) = 10.5 kN

Design loads applied to typical internal frame are shown in Figure 4.12

176 kN

10.5 kN ~ 47 kN ! 10.5kN

Figure 4.12
132 Design of Structural Steelwork

Load imposed on column from end of rafter 0.5 X (176 + ~7) 111.5 kN
Total axial load on column (111.5 + 10.5) 122kN

Section Properties: 203 x 133 x 25 UB

D = 203.2 mm B = 133.2 mm T 7.8 mm Zxx = 230 cm2 dlt = 30.2
A = 3200 mm2 d = 172.4 mm t = 5.7 mm Sxx = 258 cm2 biT 8.54
ryy = 31.0 mm rxx = 85.6 mm u = 0.877 X = 25.6

Clause 4 7 6.(a).(3) An eccentricity equal to (DI2 + 100) should be assumed to evaluate the
bending moment since the precise details of the seating angles are not known at this stage.

Eccentricity e = eo;.2 + 100) = 201.6 mm

Design bending moment = (111.5 x 0.2016) = 22.5 kNm

Table 6 T< 16mm py = 275 Nlmm2

Table 7 8.58 < biT < 9.58 Flanges are compact

In this case the web should be checked for "web generally" since both bending and axial
loads are present, if the section is plastic or compact when considering web to be in
compression throughout no precise calculation is required.

Table 7
d 798
-< Web is plastic
t 84

Clause 4. 8. 3.1 Local Capacity Check

Simplified approach

Since there is no moment about the y-y axis

Clause 4. 2. 5 Mcx pySxx = (275 X 258)/10 3 = 70.95 kNm

Agpy (3200 X 275)/10 3 880kN

122 22.5
-+-- = 0.46 < 1.0
880 70.59
 Members Su~ject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 133

More Exact Method

An extract from member capacity tables published by the Steel Construction Institute is
given in Table 4.1 in which values are given for Mrx and Mry. In this case since Mry is equal
to zero the second term is not required.

Table 4.1 Extract from Member Capacity Tables

Designation and FIPz Moment Capacity M,, M,. (kNm) and Reduced (
Axial Load Semi- Moment Capacity Mrx, Mry (kNm) For Ratio of Axial
Capacity Compact Load to Axial Load Capacity FIP z
(Compact)
FIPz 0.0 0.1 0.2
- - - - - -
Mcx 70.9 70.9 70.9
203xl33x25 Mcy 15.2 15.2 15.2
Pz= Agpy= 879 (1.00) Mrx 70.9 69.6 65.9
Mrv 15.2 15.2 15.2

--------- - - v---- --------~ - v-------

Extract from Steelwork design guide to BS 5950: Part 1: Volume I (The Steel Construction Institute)

FIPz = 122/880 = 0.14

Using interpolation between the values for 0.1 and 0.2
Mrx = 68 kNm
Clause 4.8.2 Z1 = 2.0

0.11 << 1.0

Clause 4. 8. 3. 3. 2 Overall Buckling Check

Simplified Approach :::; 1.0

Table 18 fJ = 0.0 .. m = 0.57

Table 25 For !-section use Table 27(a) for x-x axis slenderness
use Table 27(b) for y-y axis slenderness

Clause 4. 7.3.1 Ax.x = 5000 = 58.4 < 180

85.6
134 Design of Structural Steelwork

Clause 4. 7.3.2 Ayy = 5000 = 161.3 < 180

31.0
Table 27(a) Pc ::; 241 N/mm2
Table 27(b) Pc ::; 65 N/mm2
Pc = 65 N/mm2

Clause 4. 3. 7.1 Mb= Sxx.Pb

Clause 4. 3. 7. 7 A = 161.3, X = 25.6
Table 19(b) Ph ~ 108 N/mm 2 (approximate value)
Mb= (258 x 108)/103 = 27.9 kNm
Table 18 f3 = 0.0 m = 0.57
As before My = 0.0
122 + 0.57 X 10.5 = 0 _801 ::; l.O Section is adequate
208 27.9

mM_
_ _ mMY
x+ -- ::; 1.0
More Exact Method
Max M.y
mMX
sinceMy = zero ::; 1.0
Mx

(1-_£_)
~X
Mcx (1 + 0.5F)
Max
::;
~y
Mcx = 70.95 kNm, Mb 27.9kNm
Pcy 208 kN Pcx (3200x241)/10 3 = 771 kN

( 1 122)
::; 70.95 771 = 55.34 kNm
( 1 + 0.5 X 122)
771

::; 27.9 (1- 122 ) 11.54 kNm

208

Max = 11.54 kNm

0.57x10.5
= 0.52 < 1.0
11.54
Section is adequate
 Members Subject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 135

Note: In cases where either Mx or My approaches zero the more exact approach may be
more conservative (i.e. give a higher value) than the simplified approach. In such cases the
values satisfying the simplified approach may be used.

4.5 Columns in Simple Multi-Storey Construction (Clause 4. 7. 7)

A simplified, conservative approach to the design of multi-storey columns in simple

construction is given in Clause 4. 7. 7 of BS 5950 Part 1. Cost penalties are normally
incurred when purchasing and/or transporting sections longer than approximately 18.0 m.
Many multi-storey columns are spliced during erection to avoid this or to produce a more
economic design by reducing the section sizes used in upper levels. It is normal to consider
such columns to be effectively continuous at their splice locations.
In simple construction the beams supported by a column are considered to be simply
supported with their end reactions assumed at an eccentricity as indicated in Clause 4. 7. 6 of
the code and as illustrated in Section 4.2. The net nominal moments induced at any one level
by the eccentricities of the beams should be divided between the column lengths above and
below that level in proportion to the stiffness, IlL, of each length. When the ratio of the
stiffuesses of each length is less than or equal to 1.5 then the net moment may be divided
equally. The effects of the nominal moments can be assumed to be limited to the level at
which they are applied and do not affect any other level.
When considering loading it may be assumed that all beams supported by a column at
any one level are fully loaded. This alleviates the need to consider various load combin-
ations to determine the most critical axial load and moment effects. The following
relationship should be satisfied in such columns:

where:
Fe the compressive force due to axial load
Pc the compressive strength
Ag the gross cross-sectional area
Mx the nominal moment about the major axis
My the nominal moment about the minor axis
Mbs the buckling resistance moment for simple columns determined as described for Mb in
Clause 4. 3. 7. 3 and 4. 3. 7. 4 but using an equivalent slenderness ratio Au of the
column given by Au= 5(Liryy).
py the design strength
136 Design ofStructural Steelwork

4.6 Example 4.2 Multi-storey column in simple construction

The floor plan and longitudinal cross-section of a two-storey, two-bay braced st~elwork
frame is shown in Figures 4.13 (a) and (b). Beams B9 and BlOat the roof and first floor
level are small tie members, while all others are substantial members that are fixed to the
column flanges by web and seating cleats.
Check the suitability of a 203 x 203 x 52 UC for the column CB2 at section x-x
indicated.

Design Data:
Characteristic dead load at roof level 4.0 kN/m2
Characteristic imposed load at roof level 1.5 kN/m2
Characteristic dead load at first floor level 6.0 kN/m2
Characteristic imposed load at first floor level 4.0 kN/m2

A 8 c
! 81
! 83
!
1 ------

89 I. 85 +86
I 6.0m

82 C82 84
2 ------

81 0 [ 87 +88
---14.5m
3 ------ 81 83 _j
12.0 m 6.0 m I
~---~------

Figure 4.13(a)

A Main beam 8 Main beam C

Roof level t

I
Main beam Main beam
3.0 m
1st floor level I

203 x 203 x sz uc-

I
L Section x-x
I

l 5.0 m

c:::J
--------- Pinned bases

-----------c:::J
Pinned base ~
c:::J
J
I 12.0 m I 6.0m I

Figure 4.13(b)
 Members Subject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 137

Solution:
Section properties: 203 x 203 x 52 UC
D 206.2mm biT= 8.17 lxx = 5259 cm4 u = 0.848
B 204.3 mm d/t 20.4 !yy = 1778 cm4 X = 15.8
t 7.9mm 89.1 mm Sxx = 567 cm3 A = 6630mm2
T 12.5 mm 51.8 mm Zyy = 174 cm3 d 160.8 mm

The column CB2 supports four beams at each level. The slabs between grid-lines A and
Bare one-way spanning and supported by beams B1 and B2. The slabs between grid-lines
Band Care two-way spanning and supported by beams B3 to B8. Beams B2, B4 B5 and
B7 impose loads on column CB2 at both the roof and first floor levels. Since the column is
the same section throughout, the critical section for design will be section x-x as indicated in
Figure 4.13 (b). At this location all loading originating from the roof beams is considered to
be axial, while the first floor beams will induce nominal moments due to the eccentricity of
the connections (see Clause 4. 7. 6) in addition to their axial effects.

---i
3.0m

2.25 m
I
I I I I
12.0 m 2.25 m 1.5 m 2.25 m

Figure 4.14

Area of floor supported by beam B2= (6.0 X 5.25)

Area of floor supported by beam B4= ( 6.0 X 3.0) + ( 1.5 X 6.0) 225
2.0 2.0

Area of floor supported by beam B5 = ( 6.0 X 3.0)

2.0

Area of floor supported by beam B7= ( 4 .5 X 2.25)

2.0
Roof level
Table 2 Design load = (1.4 x 4.0) + (1.6 x 1.5) = 8 kN/m2
Load on beam B2 (31.5 x 8) 252 kN End reaction 126 kN
Load on beam B4 (17.4 x 8) 139.5 kN End reaction = 69.8 kN
Load on beam B5 (9.0 x 8) 72 kN End reaction = 36.0 kN
138 Design of Structural Steelwork

Load on beam B7 (5.1 x 8) = 40.4 kN End reaction 20.2 kN

:::3

Axial load transmitted from the roofto column CB2 = (126 + 69.8 + 36 + 20.2)
= 252 kN
First Floor level
Table 2 Design load = (1.4 x 6.0) + (1.6 x 4.0) = 14.8 kN/m2
Load on beam B2 (31.5 x 14.8) = 466.2 kN End reaction 233.1 kN
Load on beam B4 = (17.4 x 14.8) = 258.1 kN End reaction 129.1 kN
Load on beam B5 = (9.0 x 14.8) 133.2 kN End reaction 66.6 kN
Design load beam B7 = (5.1 x 14.8) = 74.9 kN End reaction = 37.5 kN

Axial load transmitted from the first floor to column CB2 =

(233.1 + 129.1 + 66.6 + 37.5)
= 466.3 kN
Self-weight of 3. 0 m length of column (0.52 X 3.0) = 1.6 kN
Total axial load at section x-x = (252 + 466.3 + 1.6) = 720 kN

252 kN axial from above

Figure 4.15

Net nominal moment aboutthe x-x axis= (233.1 - 129.1)(100 + 2062 )

2
= 21.13 kNm

Net nominal moment about the y-y axis= (66.6- 37.5)(100 + 7 ·9 )

2
= 3.13 kNm

Clause 4. 7. 7 Since the column is continuous and the same section above and below
section x-x :
]upper =!_=OJ flower = !_ = 0.2 Jul Lu = 0.33 = 1.65 > 1.5
Lupper 3 Llower 5 JL I 4 0.2
The net nominal moments applied at the first floor level should be divided in proportion
to the stiffuesses of each length of column.
 Members Subject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 139

Lower length at section x-x

21.13x( 0.2 ) 7.97 kNm
0.2 + 0.33

3.03 X ( Q.2 ) 1.14 kNm

0.2 + 0.33

The load system on the cross-section of the column is equal to the superposition of three
components F, Mx and My as shown in Figure 4.16

+-, +-,
[1", II l~i

1
[1", II
F =720 kN Mx =7.97 kN My= 1.14
kf't11,l iiII II
II
I iIIi i Ill i
I II I

ttJ
+ +

t!]
Axial
IJ]
Net moment
about x-x axis
Ill
II
lol
111
II

~
Net moment
about y-y axis
Figure 4.16

Table 6 T= 12.5 < 16mm :. py = 275 N/mm2

Section classification :
Table 7 &=1.0 biT = 8.17 < 8.5& Flanges are plastic
d/t = 20.4
Since the web is subject to combined axial and bending effects use criterion for the web
generally. However, if a check assuming pure axial loading results in a plastic or compact
section then precise calculation is not required.
dlt < 39& Web is plastic

Clause 4. 7. 7

L 0.5 X 5000
Au= 0.5- = 48.3
ry 51.8

Table 11 Au = 48.3, py = 275 N/mm2

Interpolating for Au between 45 and 50

140 Design ofStructural Steelwork
Table 4.2 Extract from Table 11 in BS 5950:Part 1

Table 11 Bending strength, [Jb, (in N/mm2} for rolled sections

)

~ T

-
245
-
265
-
275
-
\
- - - -
40
45
238
227
254
242
262
250
s
50 217 231 238
55 206 219 ??f.. J

= 250- (( 250 - 238) x (48.3- 45)) = 242.1 N/mm2

5.0
= Mxx = (242.1 X 567)/103 = 137.3 kNm

Clause 4. 7.2.(a)
Assuming that all the beams provide directional restraint to the column for buckling about
both axes, the effective lengths are:

Table 24 Ley 0.85 x 5000 4250 mm

4250 47.7 ~ = 4250 = 82
89.1 89.1

Table 25 rolled H sections x-x axis buckling use Table 27(b)

y-y axis buckling use Table 27(c)
Table 27(b) A = 47.4, py = 275 N/mm2, :. Pc ~ 239 N/mm2

Table 27(c) A = 82, py = 275 N/mm , 2 :. Pc = 157 N/mm2

critical value of Pc = 157 N/mm2

Ar]Jc (6630 X 157)/103 = 1041 kN

P·h = (275 X 174)/103 = 47.85 kNm

720 7.97 1.14

-~- +Mx
-+-MY- ::::; 1.0 = --+--+-- = 0.77 ::::; 1.0
AgPc Mbs PyZy 1041 137.3 47.85

Section is adequate
 Members Subject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 141

4. 7 Example 4.3 Lattice girder with secondary bending

Consider the lattice girder in Example 3.6, in which a series of castellated beams are
supported at the mid-span points between the nodes in the top chord, as shown in Figure
4.17.

45.4 90.81 90.81 90.81 90.81 90.81 90.81 90.81 45.4

t=SJ~LZi
~
~
4 bays at 5.0 m each .J
~

(Note: all loads are in kN)

Figure 4.17

An alternative to using secondary bracing is to design the top chord members to resist a
combined axial load and bending moment. In BS 5950: Part 1, Clause 4.10 simplified
empirical design rules are given for such members in lattice frames and trusses. The axial
loads are determined assuming that the connections are pinned (Clause 4.JO(a)), e.g. the
primary axial loads in Example 3.6. The bending moment can be approximated by
assuming a 'fixed end moment value' if the load position between the nodes is known, or
using WL/6 as indicated in Clause 4.JO(c).
The effective length of members can be determined taking into account the fixity of the
connections and the rigidity of adjacent members.
In this example the axial loads in the lattice girder and the bending moment diagram for
the top chord member AD are shown in Figure 4.18.

181.6 kN 181.6 kN 181.6 kN

272 kN A 908 kN D 908 kN 272 kN

734 kN 273 kN 242 kN 182 kN 242 kN 273 kN 734 kN

i Primary axial loads

683 kN E 683 kN

lw
56.8 kNm 56.8 kNm
At'>.
~
C QD 1 WL/4

WL/8 =56.8 kNm

Secondary bending moment

Figure 4.18
Member AD:
Design shear force (0.5 X 90.81) = 45.4 kN
142 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Design axial load = 908 kN

Design bending moment = 113.6 kNm
Check a 300 x 200 x 10 RHS section for the top chord

Section properties :
A = 9550 mm2 dlt = 27.0 biT 17.0 rxx= 11.2cm ryy= 8.14cm
Zxx= 796 cm3 Sxx = 964 cm3 t 10mm

Table 6 t = 10mm < 16.0mm py = 275 Nlmm2

Table 7 c = 1.0 Section Classification
Figure 3 biT 17 < 26& Flanges are plastic
dlt 27 < 39& Web is plastic

Clause 4. 7.2 Lex= 0.85 X 5000 4250mm

Ley= 1.0 X 2500 = 2500mm
4250
Clause 4. 7. 3 Axx = - - - 37.9 < 180,
112
2500
Ayy = - - - 30.7 < 180
814

Table 25 Use Table 27(a) for buckling about either the x-x or y-y axis. In this case, the
critical slenderness is A.xx = 37.9

Clause 4. 8. 3. 2 Local Capacity Check

Simplified approach

Clause 4.2.5
RHS members have two vertical webs and it is unlikely that the applied shear force will
exceed (0.6 x shear capacity) and the moment capacity can normally be taken as :

Me = pySxx s 1.2pyZxx for plastic or compact sections

If Sxx is greater than 1.2Zxx the 1.2 can be replaced by the average load factor.
Sxx = 964 cm3 1.2Zxx = 1.2 x 796 = 955 cm3
.'. Sxx > 1.2Zxx

From Example 3.6 Factored load = 2.36 kNim2

Unfactored load = 1.6 kNim2
2.36
Ratio 1.48
1.6
 Members Subject to Combined Axial and Flexural Loads 143

Mcx = pySxx = (275 965)/10 3

X = 265.4 kNm
S 1.48pyZxx (1.48 X 796)/103 = 324kNm
265.4 kNm

Ag = (9550 X 275)/103 2626 kN

My zero

908 56.8
--+-- 0.56 < 1.0
2626 265.4

Alternatively
Clause 4.8.3.2(b) More Exact Check

My= zero
From published tables with = 908 = 0.35
2626
Clause 4. 8. 2 Z1 = 5/3 Mrx. = 226kNm

Mx)zl =
(Mrx. (113.6)i = 0.32 < 1.0
226

Clause 4.8.3.3 Overall Buckling Check

The simplified approach given in Clause 4. 8. 3. 3.1 assumes that the critical mode of failure
is out-of-plane (y-y axis) lateral torsional buckling. In instances where the in-plane buckling
(x-x) is more critical, such as in this example, the More Exact Method given in Clause
4. 8. 3. 3. 2 should be used, i.e.

__x
mMY S 1.0
mM +--·
Max May

where Max and May are as defined previously in section 4 .1. 3.

Table 27(a) Axx = 37.9, Pc = 262 N/mm2

Pcx = Ag[Jc (9550 X 262)/103 2502 kN
Ayy = 30.7, Pc ~ 266 N/mm2
Pcy = Ag[Jc (9550 X 262)/103 2540 kN
144 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Buckling resistance moment Mb

300
AppendixB = 30.7, DIB = = 1.5
200
Table 38 1.0 < D/B < 2.0
Limiting value of A forDIB = 1.0 = oo
350 X 275
Limiting value of A forD/B = 2.0 = 350
Py
Since A.yy < 350 Lateral torsional buckling need not be checked and Ph py

Mb = Sxx[Jy = 265.4 kNm

My= zero

(1 908)
= 265.4 2502 143.1 kNm
( } + 0.5 X 908)
2502

265.4(1- 908 ) = 170.5kNm

2540

Max 143.1 kNm

Table 18 fJ 1.0 :. m 1.0

1.0 X 113.6
0.79 < 1.0
143.1
Section is suitable
5. Connections

5.1 Introduction

Traditionally, the consulting engineer has been responsible for the design and detailing of
structural frames and individual members, while in many instances the fabricator has been
responsible for the design of connections and consideration of local effects. Codes of
Practice tend to give detailed specific advice relating to members and relatively little
guidance on connection design. This has resulted in a wide variety of acceptable methods of
design and details to transfer shear, axial and bending forces from one structural member to
another.
Current techniques include the use of black bolts, high-strength friction-grip (H.S.F.G.)
bolts, fillet welds, butt welds and, more recently, the use of flow-drill techniques for rolled
hollow sections. In addition there are numerous proprietary types of fastener available.
Since fabrication and erection costs are a significant proportion of the overall cost of a
steel framework, the specification and detailing of connections is also an important element
in the design process.
The basis of the design of connections must reflect the identified load paths throughout a
framework, assuming a realistic distribution of internal forces and must have regard to local
effects on flanges and webs. If necessary, localised stiffening must be provided to assist
load transfer.
All buildings behave as complex three-dimensional systems exhibiting interaction
between principal elements such as beams, columns, roof and wall cladding, floors and
connections. BS 5950:Part 1, Clause 2.1.2 specifies four methods of design which may be
used in the design of steel frames:

(i) Simple Design (Clause 2.1.2.2)

In simple design it is assumed that lateral stability of the framework is provided by separate
identified elements such as shear walls. portal action, or bracing. The beams are designed
assuming them to be pinned at the ends and any moments due to eccentricities of
connections are considered as nominal moments when designing the columns.

(ii) Rigid Design (Clause 2.1.2.4)

In rigid design, full continuity is assumed at connections transferring shear, axial and
moment forces between members. In addition it is assumed that adequate stiffuess exists at
the joints to ensure minimum relative deformation of members and hence maintaining the
integrity of the angles between them.

(iii) Semi-Rigid Design (Clause 2.1.2.4)

In this technique partial continuity is assumed between members. The moment-rotation
characteristics of the connection details are used both in the analysis of the framework and
the design ofthe connections. The complexity and lack of readily available data renders this
method impractical at the present time.

145
146 Design of Structural Steelwork

(iv) Experimental Verification (Clause 2.1.2.5)

Loading tests may be carried out to determine the suitability of a structure with respect to
strength, stability and stiffuess if any of the methods (i) to (iii) are deemed inappropriate.
The use of methods (iii) and (iv) will not be considered in this text. The various
connection types considered in this chapter are indicated in Figure 5 .1.

CONNECTIONS

Simple design

~
HSFY
Black - bolts Fillet welds
~
H.S.F.G. bolts

Angle web cleats

Flexible end plates
Fin plates Moment in plane Moment perpendicular
Gusset plates of to
connection plane of connection

Figure 5.1

The design of connections requires analysis to determine the magnitude and nature of the
forces which are to be transmitted between members. In both bolted and welded connections
this generally requires the evaluation of a resultant shear force and, in the case of moment
connections, may include combined tension and shear forces.

5.1.1 Simple Connections

These are most frequently used in pin-jointed frames and braced structures in which lateral
stability is provided by diagonal bracing or other alternative structural elements. Typical
examples of instances in the use of simple connections such as in single or multi-storey
braced frames, or the flange cover plates in beam splices are shown in Figure 5.2.
In each case, the shear force to be transmitted is shared by the number of bolts or area of
weld used and details such as end/edge distances and fastener spacings are specified to
satisfy the code requirements.
 Connections 147

Cover plate to beam flange in beam splice

Beam to column connection in braced multi-storey frame

Roof truss to column connection in single-storey braced frame

Figure 5.2

5.1.2 Moment Connections

These are used in locations where, in addition to shear and axial forces, moment forces must
be transferred between members to ensure continuity of the structure. Typical examples of
this occur in unbraced single or multi-storey frames , support brackets with the moment
either in the plane of or perpendicular to the plane of the connection and web cover plates in
beam splices, as shown in Figures 5.3 (a) (b) and (c) .
148 Design ofStructural Steelwork

~
Wind
loading
Unbraced pitched roof
Beam web splice portal frame

Figure 5.3{a)

Beam/column
connection

Wind
loading

Bracket connection with the moment

Unbraced multi-storey frame in the plane of the connection

Figure 5.3 (b)

Bracket connections with the moment perpendicular to the plane of the connection

Figure 5.3 (c)

A rigorous approach to the design of moment connections is given in the publication

Joints in Steel Construction-Moment Connections produced by The Steel Construction
Institute (Ref: 14).
A simplified more traditional approach is indicated in this text. The following analysis
techniques are frequently adopted when evaluating the maximum bolt/weld forces in both
types of moment connection.
 Connections 149
5.1. 2.1 Applied moment in the plane of the connection

(i) Bolted cmmection

The bolts with the maximum force induced in them are those most distant from the centre of
rotation of the bolt group and with the greatest resultant shear force when combined with
the vertical shear force, i.e. the bolts in the top and bottom right-hand comers.

e
~P/bracket

Pe x z 1
no. of bolts

2>2
n=l

I
'
0 I 0

--:~·:-
cpP!n P!ncp

cpP!n P!ncp
+
cpP!n P!ncp
Vertical shear due to P Rotational shear
n = number of bolts dueto(Pxe)

Figure 5.4

Total vertical component Fv = p

n
.
T ota1 honzontal
componentrH
l7
Izzl s·m ()
Pe X
2

Resultant maximum shear force = FR = ~,...,.(F,-v-2 -+-R-~.,....)

Similarly for a web splice, e.g. as shown in Figures 5.5(a) and 5.5(b).
150 Design ofStructural Steelwork

-t' P..e
. p

Actual force system Equivalent direct shear

and moment
Figure 5.5(a)

cpP/ n
cp PI
cpP/n
Direct Rotational
shear shear
Individual bolt shear loads

Figure 5.5(b)

(ii) Welded connection

In a welded connection the extreme fibres of the weld most distant from the centre of gravity
of the weld group are subjected to the maximum stress values as indicated in Figure 5.6.

~p
y

I'' I
I
I
I
-,----.)._.. X
I
X
I
'
:
I
+
I' :I

iy
Total weld area =A

Figure 5.6
 Connections 151

P Pe
Total vertical component Fv -----+--CosO
Area ofweld !polar

Total horizontal component FH = -Pe- s·mun

/polar

Resultant maximum shear force

5.1. 2. 2 Applied moment perpendicular to the plane of the connection

(i) Bolted connection

In this type of connection it is often assumed that the bracket will rotate about the bottom
row of bolts. While this assumption is not necessarily true, it is adequate for design
purposes. In this case the bolts will be subjected to combined tension and shear forces as
shown in Figure 5.7.

e p

a
-

- Assumed line
of rotation

jo ~

~~3
jo ~
jo ~
jo ~
n

Shear force Assumed point

of rotation
Figure 5.7

N = the number of vertical columns of bolts

The Moment of Resistance of the bolt group :2: Applied Moment

152 Design ofStructural Steelwork

N (F3 x Y3 +Fz x Yz +F1 x YJ) = P xe

N (F,y, +~ ~:]y, +[F, ~:H = Pe

N(~ [Yi +y~ +yn) = Pe

Pey3
F3= 3

NLY~
m=l

where F 3 is the maximum tensile load in the bohs which must be designed for the combined
the combined effects of the vertical shear and horizontal tension.

(ii) Welded connection

In welded connections the maximum stress in the weld is determined by vectorial summation
ofthe shear and bending stresses, as shown in Figure 5.8

e P

Figure 5.8

The maximum vertical shear stress Fs = p

Area ofweld

The maximum bending stress Fb = p xe

zxx
where Zxx is the elastic section modulus of the weld group

Resultant maximum stress

Each of these methods is illustrated numerically in the examples in this chapter.

 Connections 153
5.2 Bolted Connections

The diinensions and strength characteristics of bolts commonly used in the U.K. are
specified in BS 3692 (precision hexagon bolts), BS 4190 (black hexagon bolts) and BS
4395 (High-Strength-Friction-Grip bolts). Washer details are specified in BS 4320. BS
4190 specifies two strength grades: Grade 4.6 which is mild steel (yield stress = 235
N/mm2) and Grade 8.8, which is high-strength-steel (yield stress= 627 N/mm2).
The most commonly used bolt diameters are: 16, 20, 24 and 30 mm; 22 mm and 27 mm
diameter are also available, but are not preferred.
The usual method of forming site connections is to use bolts in clearance holes which are
2 nun larger than the bolt diameter for bolts less than or equal to 22 mm dia., and 3 nun
larger for bolts of greater diameter. Such bolts are untensioned and normally referred to as
Black bolts. In circumstances where slip is not permissible, such as when full continuity is
assumed (e.g. rigid-design), vibration, impact or fatigue is likely, or connections are subject
to stress reversal (other than that due to wind loading), High Strength Friction Grip bolts
should be used. Precision hexagon bolts in close tolerance holes have been superseded by
H.S.F.G. bolts and are rarely used; they will not be considered further.

5.2.1 Black Bolts

Black bolts transfer shear at the connection by bolt shear at the interface and bearing on the
bolts and plates as shown in Figure 5.9

Figure 5.9

5.2.1.1 Bolt Spacing and Edge Distances (Clause 6.2)

BS 5950 specifies minimum and maximum distances forthe spacing of bolts, in addition to
end and edge distances from the centre-line of the holes to the plate edges as indicated. The
requirement for minimum spacing is to ensure that local crushing in the wake of a bolt does
154 Design ofStructural Steelwork
not affect any adjacent bolts. The maximum spacing requirement is to ensure that the
section of plate between bolts does not buckle when it is in compression.
The requirement for minimum end and edge distances is to ensure that no end or edge
splitting or tearing occurs and that a smooth flow of stresses is possible. Lifting of the edges
between the bolts is prevented by specifying a maximum edge distance.
The values specified in Clause 6.2 and Table 31 are illustrated in Figure 5.10.

5.2.1.2 Bolt Shear Capacity (Clause 6.3.2)

The shear capacity of a black bolt is given by:

P. =P.As
where:
Ps is given in Table 32 as 160 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 bolts and 375 N/mm2 for Grade 8.8
bolts
As is the cross-section resisting shear, normally this is based on the root of the thread
(tensile area At). lfthe shear surface coincides with the full bolt shank then the shank
area based on the nominal bolt diameter can be used.

~2.50
~ 14t
~200+16t

Figure 5.10

5.2.1.3 Bolt Bearing Capacity (Clause 6.3.3.2)

The bearing capacity of a black bolt is given by

where:
t is the thickness of the plate,
d is the nominal bolt diameter, and
Pbb is given in Table 32 as 460 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 bolts and 1035 N/mm2 for Grade
8.8 bolts.
 Connections 155

5.2.1.4 Plate Bearing Capacity (Clause 6.3.3.3)

The bearing capacity of a connected plate is the lesser of:

(i) Pbs = dtpbs

or
(ii) Pbs= 0.5etpbs

where:
d is the nominal diameter of the bolt,
is the thickness of the plate,
e is the end distance,
Pbs is given in Table 33 as 460 N/mm2 for Grade 43 steel.

In the case of Grade 4.6 bolts, equation (i) will always be the lesser value provided that
the end distance 'e' is greater than twice the bolt diameter. When Grade 8.8 bolts are used
equation (ii) will always be the lesser value.

5. 2.1. 5 Bolt Tension Capacity (Clause 6. 3. 6.1)

The tension capacity of a black bolt is given by:

where:
At is the tensile area ofthe bolt (based on the root thread diameter)
p1 is given in Table 32 as 195 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 bolts and 450 N/mm2 for Grade 8.8
bolts

5.2.1. 6 Bolts Subject to Combined Shear and Tension (Clause 6.3. 6.3)

When black bolts are subject to both shear and tension simultaneously then the following
relationship should be satisfied:

F: +F; 14
-$.
P., ~
where:

Fs is the applied shear force,

Ft is the applied tensile force,
Ps and Pt are as before
156 Design ofStructural Steelwork
5.2.2 High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (H.S.F.G.)

H.S.F.G. bolts are manufactured from high strength steel so that they can be tightened to
give a high shank tension. The shear force at the connection is considered to be transmitted
by friction between the end-plate and column flange plate, as shown in Figures 5.11(a) and
(b).

Parallel shank High Strength Friction Grip Bolt

Figure 5.ll{a)

Shank tension

Shear force

Friction at interface j
j
Figure 5.ll{b)

The bolts must be used with hardened steel washers to prevent damage to the connected
parts. The surfaces in contact must be free of mill scale, rust, paint grease etc., since this
would reduce the coefficient of friction (slip factor) between the surfaces.
It is essential to ensure that bolts are tightened up to the required tension, otherwise slip
will occur at service loads and the joint will behave as an ordinary bolted joint. There are
several techniques which are used to achieve the correct shank tension; these are now
described.

5.2.2.1 Torque Wrench

A power or hand-operated tool which is used to induce a specified torque to the nut.

5.2.2.2 Load-indicating Washers and Bolts

These have projections which squash down as the bolt is tightened. A feeler gauge is used to
measure when the gap has reached the required size.
 Connections 157
5.2.2.3 Part-turning

The nut is tightened up and then forced a further half to three-quarters of a turn, depending
on the bolt length and diameter
H.S.F.G. bolts are generally used in clearance holes. The clearances are the same as for
ordinary bolts. The design of H.S.F.G. bolts when used in shear, tension and combined
shear and tension is set out in Clause 6.4 of BS 5950:Part 1 and is illustrated below. The
possibility of bearing failure must also be considered.

5.2.2.4 Shear (Clause 6.4.2.1)

The shear capacity, known as the slip resistance, is given by:

where:
P0 is the minimum shank tension as specified in BS 4604
(this is the proofload given in published section tables)
K8 = I. 0 for bolts in clearance holes
j.l = slip-factor, for general grade bolts and untreated surfaces j.l = 0.45

5.2.2.5 Bearing (Clause 6.4.2.2)

The bearing capacity is given by:

etpbg
P,g =dtpbg :::;; -3-
where:
d = nominal diameter of the bolt,
=thickness of the connected ply,
e = end distance,
pbg =bearing strength from Table 34.0

5.2.2.6 Tension (Clause 6.4.4)

The tension capacity is given by:

where P0 is as before
158 Design of Structural Steelwork
5. 2. 2. 7 Combined Shear and Tension (Clause 6.4.5)

When H.S.F.G. bolts are subjected to an external tensile force, the clamping action, and
hence the friction force available to resist shear, is reduced. Three conditions must be
satisfied:
(i) Fs <PsL
<Pbg
(ii) Ft <Pt
Fs ~
(iii) + 0.8- s 1.0
PsL Pt

5.2.3 Design of Simple Connections

The design of simple bolted connections is illustrated in Example 5.1 and Example 5.2.

5. 2. 3.1 Example 5.1 Single lap joint

A lap joint is shown in Figure 5.12 in which a single Grade 4. 6 16 mm diameter black bolt
is used. There is one shear interface and it is assumed that this passes through the threaded
portion of the bolt.

(a) Check the minimum and maximum edge and end distances.
(b) Determine the shear capacity of the connection with respect to:
(i) bolt shear,
(ii) bolt bearing,
(iii) plate bearing, and
(iv) plate tension capacity.

1 No. 16 mm dia. black bolt

20 kN

* 25mm 25mm

I --+---·~·------'--------13 :::
I'------'-----
* It is desirable to adopt the minimum edge distance +5 mm to
accommodate any enlargement which may be necessary on site.
Figure 5.12

Solution to Example 5.1 (see Section 5.8)

 Connections 159
5. 2. 3. 2 Example 5. 2 Double lap joint

A lap joint similar to Example 5.1 is shown in Figure 5.13; in this case there are two shear
interfaces and four 20 mm diameter black bolts. The outer plates are 8 mm thick, while the
inner plate is 12 mm thick. Determine (a) and (b) as in the previous example.

75 kN Bmm
12 mm
75 kN 8mm

45 mm 50 mm 5

Figure 5.13

Solution to Example 5.2 (see Section 5.9)

The use of Grade 8. 8 bolts, which have more than twice the shear capacity of Grade 4. 6
bolts is more economic, particularly since the installation costs are the same.

5.3 Welded Connections

The most common processes of welding used in connections are methods of fo.sion (arc)
welding. There are several techniques of fusion welding which are adopted, both manual
and automatic/semi-automatic, such as manual metal arc (MMA) and metal inert gas
(MIG). The MMA process is usually used for short runs in workshops or on site and the
MIG process for short runs or long runs in the workshop. The two most widely used types
of weld are fillet and butt welds.
160 Design of Structural Steelwork

5.3.1 Fillet Welds

Fillet welds, as illustrated in Figure 5.14, transmit forces by shear through the throat
thickness.
The design strength (pw) is given in BS 5950:Part 1, Table 36, (in the case of Grade 43
steel Pw = 215 N/rnm2), and the effective throat thickness as defined in Clause 6.6.5.3 is
normally taken as 0. 7 times the effective leg length. It is assumed that when using this value
the angle between the fusion faces lies between 60° and 90°. When the fusion faces are
inclined at an angle between 91° and 120° then the 0.7 coefficient should be modified as
indicated in Figure 5 .15.

Double fillet weld Single fillet weld Lap splice Fillet weld detail

Figure 5.14

Angle of fusion faces Coefficient

91° s a s 100° 0.65
101° s a s 106° 0.60
107° s a s 113° 0.55
114° s a s 120° 0.50

Figure 5.15

In situations when 120° s a s 60° poor access to the acute fillet weld and a small
throat thickness on the obtuse fillet weld can create problems. In these situations a different
type of weld, e.g. a single-sided butt weld, may be more appropriate. BS 5950 indicates in
Clause 6. 6. 5. 4 that the strength of such acute and obtuse fillet welds should be demon-
strated by testing.
Where possible a run of fillet weld should be returned around comers for a distance of
not less than twice the leg length. If this is not possible, then the length of weld considered
 Connections 161

effective for strength purposes should be taken as the overall length less one leg length for
each length which does not continue round a comer, (Clause 6. 6. 5. 2).
In many connections welds are subject to a complex stress condition induced by multi-
directional loading. The strengths of transverse fillet welds and longitudinal fillet welds
differ, end fillet welds being the stronger. In addition, in side fillet welds, large longitudinal
forces are concentrated locally on the member cross-section.
A significant variation in tensile stress occurs across the width of the tensile members
when the lateral spacing between weld runs is considerably larger than the length. These
effects are limited in BS 5950 by limiting the spacing Twas indicated in Figure 5.16. In
Clause 6. 6. 5. 5 the code also permits the vectorial summation of stresses to determine the
stress for which fillet welds should be designed; this is illustrated in later calculations.

Effective length

End or transverse fillet weld Side or longitudinal fillet weld

Figure 5.16

5.3.2 Butt Welds

A butt-weld is formed when the cross-section of a member is fully or partially joined by

preparation of one or both faces of the connection to provide a suitable angle for welding. A
selection of typical end preparations of butt welds is illustrated in Figure 5.17.

Double V butt weld SinQie V butt weld T butt weld

Figure 5.17

The strength of a full penetration butt weld is defined in Clause 6. 6. 6.1 and is generally
taken as the capacity of the weaker element joined, provided that appropriate electrodes and
consumables are used. In most situations when designing structural frames, full penetration
162 Design ofStructural Steelwork

welds are unnecessary and the additional costs involved in preparing Slich connections is
rarely justified unless dynamic or fatigue loadings are being considered. Butt welds are used
extensively in the fabrication of marine structures such as ships, submarines, offshore oil
installations and in pipe-work.

5.3.3 Design of Fillet Weld Connections

The design of simple fillet weld connections is illustrated in Example 5.3 and Example 5.4.

5. 3. 3.1 Example 5. 3 Fillet weld lap joint

A flat-plate tie is connected to another structural member as indicated in Figure 5.18.

Design a suitable 6 mm side fillet weld to transmit a 75 kN axial force .

75kN

Throat area
Leg length 's

Figure 5.18

Clause 6.6.5
Table 36 Design strength of fillet weld Pw = 215 N/mm2

Clause 6.6.5.3
Strength of fillet weld /mm length = Pw x throat area
throat size 'a' = 0.7 x leg length's'
a = 0 ~ 7 x 6.0 = 4.2 mm
:. Strength = (215 x 4.2x 1.0) I 103
= 0.903 kN
Clause 6. 6.3.2 Effective length of weld required, L = 75/0.903 = 83 mm

Clause 6.6.5.2 Overall length ofweld = 83+6 = 89 mm

on the side and should be returned round each corner at least equal to 2 x leg length
i.e. 12 mm.
Tw=40mm L > Tw Acceptable
 Connections 163

5. 3. 3. 2 Example 5. 4 Fillet weld- eccentric joint

A 65 x 50 x 8 angle tie is connected by the long leg to a gusset plate and is required to
transmit characteristic loads as indicated in Figure 5 .19. Design a suitable fillet weld.

Cross-section

Figure 5.19

Factored load = (1.4 x 50)+ (1.6 x 60) = 166 kN

X

~"'""'"'"'"'"'''"'~

65 mm :~ : :: -Jt-------~~~::::~-+~ p
"''''''''''''''''''''''''''~'~''''''''''~
y
Figure 5.20

The force is assumed to be transmitted through the centroid of the section Since the force
is applied nearer to weld Y than weld X, weld Y will transmit a proportionately larger share
of the total force.

Clause 6.6.5
Table 36 Design strength of fillet weld Pw = 215 Nlmm2
Clause 6.6.5.3 Assuming a 6 mm fillet weld throat a =0.7x6.0 4.2mm

Strength of weld lmm length = (215 X 4.2) I 103 = 0.9 kN

Effective length of weld required = 166 I 0.9 = 184.4 mm
Weld X =184.4 x 2 1.1 = 59.9mm
65
WeldY = 184.4-60 = 124.4 mm

Clause 6. 6. 2.1 End 2 x leg length i.e. 12 mm

Let X= 75 mm returns ~ and Y = 140 mm

Clause 6. 6. 2. 2 Both X andY > Tw (= 65)

164 Design ofStructural Steelwork

5.4 Beam End Connections

There are three types of beam end connections which are commonly used in the fabrication
of steelwork:

+ double angle web cleats,

+ flexible end plates
+ fin-plates.
The method adopted by any particular fabricator will depend on a number of factors
such as the joint geometry and the equipment available. Generally, the following character-
istics are found:

+ All three types of connection are capable of transmitting at least 75% of the shear
capacity of the beam being connected, depending upon the depth of the plates
and/or the number of vertical rows ofbolts used.
+ Fin plates are the most suitable for the connection of beams which are eccentric to
columns or connections which are skewed.
+ End plates are the most suitable when connecting to column webs.
+ Fabrication and treatment do not present any significant problems for any of the
three types of connection.

It is important in simple design to detail beam end connections which will permit end
rotation of the connecting beam, thus allowing it to displace in a simply supported profile
while still maintaining the integrity of the shear capacity. This rotational capacity 1s
provided by the slip of the bolts and the deformation of the connection component parts.

5.4.1 Double-Angle Web Cleats

Typical angle web cleats comprise two 90 x 90 x 10 angle sections bolted or welded to the
web of the beam to be supported, as shown in Figure 5 .21.

Beam I column flange Beam I beam-web

connection connection

Figure 5.21
 Connections 165

The 10 mm projection of the web cleats beyond the end of the beam is to ensure that
when the beam rotates, the bottom flange does not bear on the supporting member. The
positioning of the cleats near the top of the beam provides directional restraint to the
compression flange. When this positioning is used in addition to a length of cleat equal to
approximately 60% of the beam depth, the end of the beam can be assumed to have
torsional restraint.
This detail enables an effective length of compression flange of l.OL to be used when
designing a beam which is not fully restrained.

5.4.2 Flexible End Plates

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

Flexible end plate

Figure 5.22

Connections using flexible end plates are generally fabricated from an 8 mm or 10 mm

thick plate which is fillet welded to the web of the beam as shown in Figure 5.22.
As with double angle web cleats, the end plates should be welded near the top flange and
be of sufficient length to provide torsional restraint. If full depth plates are used which are
relatively thick and which may be welded to both flanges in addition to the web, then the
basic assumption of a simple connection in which end rotation occurs will be invalid, this
could lead to overstressing of the other elements.

5. 4. 3 Fin Plates

A fin-plate connection comprises a length of plate which is welded to the supporting

member, such as a column or other beam web, to enable the supported beam to be bolted on
site, as in Figure 5.23. As with angle cleats and flexible end plates, appropriate detailing
should ensure that there is sufficient rotational capability to assume a simple connection.

Fin plate connection

[J n ,

Figure 5.23
166 Design ofStructural Steelwork
Experimental data has indicated that torsions induced by the plate being connected on
only one side of the web of a beam are negligible and may be ignored.
Recommendations for the detailing of fin plates as given in Joints in Simple
Construction, Vo1.2 (Ref: 14) are :

+ the thickness of the fin plate or beam web should bt?:

(i) 0.42d for grade 50 steel or
(ii) 0.5d for grade 43 steel
+ grade 8. 8 bolts are used, untorqued and in clearance holes,
+ all end and edge distances on the plate and the beam web are at least 2d,
+ the fillet weld leg length is at least 0. 8 times the fin plate thickness,
+ the fin plate is positioned reasonably close to the top flange of the beam,
+ the fin plate depth is at least 0.6 times the beam depth.

5.5 Example 5.5 Web cleat, end plate and tin plate connections

A braced rectangular frame in which simple connections are assumed between the columns
and rafter beam is shown in Figure 5.24. Using the data provided, design a suitable
connection considering;

(i) double angle web cleats,

(ii) a flexible end plate,
(iii) a fin plate

Factored design load 50 kN/m -~

r-r-~~~~~~~~,~~~~
( '-lI
/-
457x 191 x 98 U.B. X )
'j "' (i) Double angle web cleats (i) Double angle web cleats
(ii) A flexible end plate (ii) A flexible end plate
(iii) A fin plate (iii) A fin plate
7.0 m span

Figure 5.24

Assuming simple supports at the ends of the beam:

Total design load on the beam =50 x 7.0 = 350 kN
Design shear force at the connection = 175 kN
The use of the following components is assumed where appropriate in each connection:

(i) M20 grade 8.8 bolts in 22 mm dia. holes,

(ii) 6 or 8 mm fillet welds with E43 electrodes,
(iii) grade 43 steel adopted throughout.
Solution to Example 5.5 (see Section 5.10)
 Connections 167

5.6 Design of Moment Connections

The principle difference between 'simple design' and 'rigid design' of structural frames
occurs in the design of the connections between the elements. In the former the connections
are assumed to transmit direct and shear forces; in the latter it is necessary to transmit
moments in addition to these forces. The moments can be considered to be either:

(i) in the plane of the connection, as shown in Figure 5.3(a) or

(ii) perpendicular to the plane of the connection, as shown in Figure 5.3(b)

In both cases the connections are generally designed using either H.S.F.G. bolts or
welding. There are a number of approaches to designing connections in moment resisting
frames. In most connections the problem is to identify the distribution of forces, moments
and stresses in the component parts. Other factors which must be considered are the overall
stiffuess of the connection, and the practical aspects of fabrication, erection and inspection.
In rigid frame design each component of the frame can be designed individually to
sustain the bending moments, shear forces and axial loads; the connections must then be
designed to transfer these forces. In many instances the connections occur where members
change direction, such as at the eaves and ridge of pitched roof portal frames. Such frames
are usually transported 'piece-small' from the fabrication shop to the site and provision
must be made for site-joints. High Strength Friction Grip bolts are ideally suited for this
purpose.
In welded connections, such as the knee joint shown in Figure 5.25, because the
compressive forces x andy are not collinear, an induced compressive force Z exists to
maintain the equilibrium of the forces. This force Z acts across the web plate at the comer
and in order to obviate the likelihood of the web plate buckling, comer stiffeners are
required as shown, to carry the force Z.

The bending stress lines flowing between column and

beam are not able to follow a sudden change of direction
exactly and become more concentrated towards the
X inside comer. This leads to an appreciable shift of the
neutral axis towards the inside comer and a redistributed
stress diagram, as shown. As the total compression must
equal the total tension, an enhanced value of the
maximum compressive stress results. This distribution is
Fillet welds omitted further modified by the direct compressive stresses in the
Figure 5.25 beam and column.
168 Design ofStructural Steelwork
5.6.1 Typical Site Connection Using H.S.F.G Bolts

Typical site connections using H.S.F.G. bolts are shown in Figure 5.26. The cap plate
transmits the force in the tension flange by means of the H.S.F.G bolts while the force in the
compression flange is transmitted in direct bearing. Where the depth of the connection in
Figure 26(a) leads to forces of too large a magnitude to be transmitted reasonably, the depth
of the connection can be increased by the introduction. of a haunch, such as is shown in
Figure 26(b).

Cap plate

- _L -
End plate

Stiffener
plate each
side of web

(a) (b)
Figure 5.26

Similar details occur at the ridge connection as shown in Figure 5.27.

Pinned connection Moment connection

Figure 5.27

5.6.2 Example: 5.6 Moment connection in a rectangular porta/frame

The uniform rectangular portal frame shown in Figure 5.28 is subjected to loading which
induces moments and shear forces at the knee joint as given in the data below. Using this
data, determine a suitable size ofH.S.F.G. bolt for the connection between the column and
the roof beam.
 Connections 169

See joint detail

/--....'\.
(
\
' X 305 X 149 UB

Column : 610 x 305 x 149 UB

Figure 5.28

610x 305x 149 UB

r S.F.G bolts (
/illetweld

Tensile force
Flange bolts
transmit tensile force
due to moment

H.S.F.G bolts - 610 X 305 X 149 Web bolts

(D-D
resist shear force

- H.S.F.G bolts Compression force

due to moment
Compressive force is transmitted
In bearing

Figure 5.29 Column-beam joint detail

Design Data:
Colunm I Beam Section 610 X 305 X 149 UB
Ultimate Design Moment at the knee joint 540 kNm
Ultimate Design Shear Force at the knee joint 380kN

Section Data: 610 X 305 X 149 VB

D 609.6 mm d .= 537.2mm fxx = 124.7 x 103 cm4
B 304.8 mm hiT = 7.74 lyy = 9.308 x 103 cm4
t = 11.9 mm dlt = 45.1 rxx = 25.6 em
T 19.7 mm ryy = 6.99 em u = 0.886
X - 32.5 A = 190 cm2

Solution to Example 5.6 (see Section 5.11)

170 Design ofStructural Steelwork

5. 6.3 Example: 5. 7 Crane bracket moment connection

An industrial frame building supports a light electric overhead travelling crane on brackets
bolted to the main columns as shown in Figure 5.30 below. Using the design data given
determine a suitable size ofH.S.F.G. bolt to connect the brackets to the columns.

Characteristic dead load = 60 kN

Characteristic imposed load = 85 kN
------------------ -------- ---------
1~mm

a
Crane gantry girder

3 at 90 mm I
Figure 5.30
L
Assuming that the bracket rotates at the level of the bottom bolts {this is conservative)
then the maximum tensile force induced in the bolts = Tmax =

where:
n = number of vertical columns of bolts
e = eccentricity of applied loads
P = applied load
Ymax =distance from the centre of rotation ofthe bracket to the most distant bolt

I y2 = (9o 2 + 1802 + 21o2 ) 113.4 x 103 mm2

Design Load= (60 x 1.4) + (85 x 1.6) = 220kN
Design Bending Moment = (220 x 200) = 44 x 103 kNm
44 X 10 X 270
3
= 52.38 kN
2 X 113.4 X 103
Design Load 220.0
Maximum Shear Force I bolt = _ __..:::::.. _ __ = 27.5 kN
Number of Bolts 8.0
Assuming 20 mm dia. H.S.F.G. bolts:
PsL = 71.3 kN :?: 27.5 kN
Pt = 130kN 2 52.38 kN

= [ 27.5
+ ( 0.8 X
5~~~8 )] = 0.71 ~ 1.4
71.3
M20 H.S.F.G. bolts are adequate
 Connections 171

5.7 Splices

Fabrication and/or transportation constraints sometimes dictate that beams or columns are
delivered on site in separate sections which require spliced connections during the erection
stage. In such circumstances it is necessary for the splice to transmit all of the forces, i.e.
bending moment, shear and axial forces, which exist at the location of the connection.
Spliced connections must provide adequate stiffness and continuity; this is particularly
important at locations which are not adjacent to lateral restraints. The tendency for
compressive loads to induce lateral instability must be considered and can be accommodated
by either:

(i) providing flange plates of similar dimensions to the flanges of the members being
connected, or
(ii) satisfying the requirements given in Appendix C: Clause C. 3 of BS 5950:Part: I
relating to strut action.

The design of splices should satisfy the recommendations given on Clause 6.1. 7 of the
code.

5. 7.1 Beam Splices

Beam splices can be either bolted or welded. Bolted splices using flange and web cover
plates as shown in Figure 5.31 (a) and (b) provide more rotational rigidity than welded
moment end-plate splices and are the type considered in this text.

Figure 5.31(a)

Figure 5.30(b)
172 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Since in most cases, continuity of the beam section has been assumed in the analysis,
and joint rotation caused by bolt slip is generally unacceptable, it is recommended that high-
strength-friction-grip bolts are used. Usual practice is to adopt a symmetrical arrangement
of bolts in each set of cover plates.
Spacing and edge distances as specified in Clause 6. 2 and 6. 4 are normally adopted with
either M20 or M24 bolts. It is common in the design to assume that the bending moment is
resisted by the flange plates, the shear by the web with any co-existent axial load being
divided equally between the flanges; this is illustrated in Figures 5.32 (a), (b) and (c).

Compression
·----,

Mom~
Compressive
"Ol force
( oi
.~J Tensile
force

Tension

Figure 5.32(a)

Shear force

- -- J

Figure 5.32(b)

Fx
r- --, r-
10 01 10 2
I 0 0 I I 0
Fx I ""
L':..
..,. I
_:_J Fx
I ..,.
L::. Fx
2

Figure 5.32(c)

5. 7.2 Example 5. 8 Beam splice

A beam in a rigid-jointed frame structure is required to be site bolted to a welded stub on a

column flange as shown in Figure 5.33. Design a suitable spliced connection. Assume that
the bending moment induces compression in the top flange of the beam at this location and a
compressive axial force is also present.
 Connections 173
~
ZZ'///.'/. /. /.'/, rH-t-----t+b
r--- ---..,
:o o: 457 X 152 X 67 U8
:o o:
!o o!___ _J
Beam to be conn ected
I L---
\
I Lf++-----+++--'
457 X 152 X 67 UB
Stud welded to column
~
Figure 5.33

Design shear force = 250 kN

Design bending moment lOOkN
Design axial load = 75kN

Section properties: 457 x 152 x 67 UB

D = 458mm T = 15.0mm ryy = 32.7 mm A = 85.6 cm2
B = 153.8 mm t = 9.0 mm Syy 187 cm3

Force in top flange:

3
Axial load= Mx + Fx ( 100 X 10 + 75) 263.2 kN compression
(D- T) 2 458-15 2

Force in bottom flange:

Axial load= ( Mx ) ~ = (100 X 103 _ 75) 188.2 kN tension

D-T 2 458-15 2

Check beam flanges:

The beam flange plates must be of sufficient size to transmit the greater of the above two
forces allowing for a reduced cross-sectional area due to the bolt holes.

Strength of flange plate = pyAe ;: : 263.2 kN

Clause 3. 3. 3 Ae = Ke X A net :s; gross area
Assuming Grade 43 steel and M20 H.S.F.G. bolts
Ke = 1.2 and Anet = [153.8- {2 X 22)] X 15 = 1647 mm2
Table 6 T < 16.0 mm py = 275 N/mm 2

Strength of flange plates = (275 x 1.2 x 1647)/103 = 543.5 kN > 263.2 kN

Flange plates are adequate

Design of flange cover plates:

263.2 X 103
Minimum area required for cover plates ;:::: = 957mm2
275
174 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Ae = 1.2 Anet = 957

.". Anet 796 mm2
Assuming cover plates 150 mm wide
Anet [150- (2 X 22)] X Tcover plate 796
Tcover plate ~7.5 mm.
Adopt 150 mm x 15 mm thick cover plates

Since the cover plates are the same as the beam flanges, the possibility of failure due to
strut action need not be checked; however the calculations have been carried out to illustrate
the method.
The equation given in Appendix C: Clause C. 3 : can be used to evaluate the secondary
moment
M rlfcs
max-(
1--
fc)
Pc
where:
Mmax is the moment about the y-y axis to be shared by both cover plates
17 = 0.001a(A-- A.,) ~ 0
a = 3.5
A, slenderness Ljryy
s is the plastic modulus

I I

A., (~ 2 £y
0.2- 0.2 (~ 2 x205x10 3 y 17.15
Py 275
17 0.001 X 3.5 X (122- 17.15) 0.367
263.2 X 103
!c = 30.75 N/mm2
85.6 X 102
Syy = 187 x 103 mm3
~ 2 X 205 X 103
Pe = = 135.94 N/mm2
122 2
0.367 X 30.75 X 187 X 103
Mmax = = 2.73 kNm
( 1 - 30.75) X 106
135.94
= 1.37 kNm per flange

The flange cover plates should be checked for the combined axial load due to the
primary moment and applied axial load, and the secondary moment equal to Mmax I 2 due to
strut action.

F mMY
Clause 4. 8. 3. 3.1 --+--
AePy Znet.Py
 Connections 175

where:
F the applied axial load,
m the equivalent uniform moment factor (assumed to equal 1.0 in this case),
M the applied moment about the y-y axis due to strut action,
Ae the net cross-sectional area of the cover plate,
Znet the elastic section modulus of the cover plate allowing for the holes,
py the yield stress from Table 6.

22 mm 22 mm

!Y
30mm 90mm 30 mm

150 mm

Figure 5.33

fyy 15 ~~503 - 2( 15 ~2223 + [15 X 22 X 452 J) 2.86 x 106 mm4

3.56x10 6
Znet 38.13 x 103 mm3
87.5
Anet = (150 x 15)- (2x 22x 15) 1590 mm2

F mM 263.2 X 103 1.37 X 106

--+-- 0.6 + 0.13 = 0.73
AePy ZnetPv
(1590 X 275) 38.13 X 103 X 275)
+ ( =

Flange cover plates are adequate

Design of flange bolts:

The force in the flange plate bolts is induced by the force due to the bending moment and
the co-existent axial load combined with the secondary effects of strut action, i.e.

Shear due to bending moment and axial load = 263.2 kN

Shear due to strut action = (1. 37 x 103)/90 = 15.2 kN
Total shear to be transmitted = (263.2 + 15.2) = 278.4 kN

Assuming M20 H.S.F.G. bolts,

Slip resistance = PsL = 1.1 Ksf.tPo
Clause 6. 4. 2.1 Bearing resistance = Pbg = dtpbg
Assume that the end distance e ;::: 3d, with 10 mm thick cover plates
Pbg =dtpbg = (20 x 10 x 825)/ 10 3 = 165 kN/bolt
176 Design ofStructural Steelwork

The number of bolts is governed by the slip resistance

278.4
Minimum number of bolts required ~ - - - 3.9
71.3

Adopt eight M20 H.S.F.G. bolts with two pairs on each side

It is normal practice to make both flanges the same.

Clause 6.2.1 Minimum spacing ~ 2.5d = 2.5 x 20 =50 mm
Maximum spacing s 14t = 14 x 10 = 140 mm
Clause 6.2.3 Minimum end/edge distances~ 1.25D = 1.25 x 22 = 27.5 mm
Clause 6. 2. 4 Maximum edge distance s lite = 11 x 10 = 110 mm

In H.S.F.G. bolted connections, the outer splice (i.e. cover plates) should not be thinner
than the lesser of:

(i) bolt diameter/2, or

(ii) 10 mm
320
60 50 100 50 60

--rrtrr--
I I I I
I I I I I 30
- 1-

90 150

--cb-cb- +~~--
I I : I I

- 1-
I I I I I 30
I I I I
Flange cover plate
150 mm x 320 mm x 15 mm thick

Figure 5.35

Clause 6.4.2.3: When the distance, Lj, between the first and last rows of fasteners (200 mm
in the case above), is greater than 500 mm, then the slip resistance of the bolts should be
determined using:
 Connections 177

Design of web cover plate:

The web cover plates should be designed for shear and bending induced by the vertical
shear force at the splice. The bolts, which will be in double shear, should be designed to
resist the vertical shear combined with the rotational shear caused by the eccentricity of the
force, as shown in Figure 5.36.

Cover plate size

Minimum edge/end distances 2:: l.25D ·- 25nun
end distance to ensure that slip resistance governs 2:: 3D = 60nun
For H.S.F.G. bolts the minimum plate thickness 2:: D/2
2:: lOnun lOnun

Try a plate 240 nun wide x 300 nun deep x 10 nun thick.

Applied shear force Fv = 250 kN = 125 kN/plate

Clause 4.2.3
where:
Av = 0.9[(10 X300}- (3 X 22}] = 2640 nun2
Pv = (0.6 X 275 X 2640)/10 3 436 kN > 125 kN
Cover plates are adequate in shear

A conservative estimate of the bending strength of the web cover plate can be made
assuming that:

where .Au used to determine Pb is calculated using the equation given in Appendix B: Clause
B.2.7,
I

ALT = n X 2.8 X ( ~;y

where:
n = 1. 0 Le ~ 3 00 nun d ~ 120nun t lOnun

Table 19

Sxx lOx:ooz -2 [(10x22x90)+(10x22x5.5)]

178 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Mb (231 x 183 x 103 ) I 106 = 42.3 kNm.

Applied bending moment (250 x 60) I 103 = 15 kNm = 7.5 kNm I plate
Mx < Mb
Cover plate is adequate in bending

Bolts in web cover plate:

1 60mm

90
90
r=:fl
'
-·r-·-125 kN
__17.5 kNm
f125 kN
'
41.67 kN
<p 41.67 kN G-

<p 41.67 kN + 0
<p -0
41.67 kN 41.67 kN
Direct Rotational
shear shear
Figure 5.36

Resultant shear force= ~41.67 2 +41.67 2 = 58.9 kN

< Double shear capacity of the bolts
Bolts in web are adequate

5. 7.3 Column Splices

As with beam splices, continuity of a structure must be maintained at the location of the
splice. It is necessary to ensure adequate stiffuess about both axes in addition to ensuring
adequate strength. In braced multi-storey frames, the nominal moments induced by
incoming beams (see Section 4.2 Chapter 4) as indicated in Clause 4. 7. 6 must be included
in addition to the axial load when designing the splice. The bending moments are assumed to
be carried solely by the flanges whilst the axial load may be shared between the web and the
flanges in proportion to their cross-sectional areas.
Although not essential, it is usual to assume that the column ends are prepared for
contact in bearing and that untorqued bolts in clearance holes are used.
Generally column splices are situated a short distance, e.g. 500 mm above floor level. In
circumstances in which a splice is located away from a point of lateral restraint, the effects
of strut action as illustrated in Section 5. 6.1 for beam splices must be considered.
It is advisable wherever possible to minimize secondary effects due to eccentricity and
splices should therefore connect members in line such that the centroidal axes of the splice
plates coincide with those of the column section above and below the splice. Columns of the
same serial size but of different mass per metre run and of different serial sizes can be
 Connections 179

accommodated by the use of packing plates, web plates and angle sections as shown in
Figure 5.37
In circumstances in which it is necessary for the splice to comply with structural
integrity requirements as specified in Clause 2. 4. 5. 3, the flange cover plates and bolts
should be capable of transmitting a tensile force equal to two thirds of the factored vertical
load applied to the column floor immediately below the splice. If there is no net tension due
to the combined moment and axial load, then the splice can be designed to transmit the
applied compressive load by bearing.
The empirical detailing requirements indicated should ensure that sufficient stiffuess and
robustness of a splice is achieved when only bearing is being considered. If net tension does
exist when considering combined moment and axial loading then the strength of the flange
cover plates must be checked in tension and bearing, and the bolt group checked in shear.

External cover plates Internal cover plates External cover plates

Figure 5.37

Recommended splice details to ensure adequate stiffuess and robustness and continuity.

+ The thickness of the flange cover plates should be at least equal to the greater of
10 nun or half the upper column flange thickness.
+ When cover plates are positioned on the outside, there width should be at least
equal to the width of the upper column flanges.
+ The length of the cover plates should be at least equal to the greater of
(i) 225 mm + division plate thickness or
(ii) the width of the upper column flanges
+ When colunms of the same serial size are used a nominal web cover plate of width
at least equal to half the overall depth of the upper column should be used.
+ When colunms of different serial sizes are used, a division plate of sufficient
thickness to allow a 45° dispersion of load from the upper column to the lower
column should be used in conjunction with a pair of nominal web cleats.
180 Design of Structural Steelwork

+ Grade 8.8, untorqued bolts are normally adopted with typically 4 No. M20 bolts in
the web plates.

+ When combined bending and compressive loading results in a net tensile force being
induced, then torqued H.S.F.G. bolts should be used with the cover plates being
checked for bearing and tension.

+ Clause 6. 2 governs the fastener spacing and edge distances.

+ The spacing of the flange cover plate bolts perpendicular to the direction of stress
should be maximized to optimize the joint rigidity.

+ Packing pieces of steel will be required to accommodate different thicknesses of

flange and web plates

5. 7. 4 Example 5. 9 Column splice

A column in a multi-storey frame is spliced above the first floor level as shown in Figure
5.38. Design a suitable splice which must satisfy structural integrity requirements in
addition to transferring the given ultimate loading.

I
I"'
t Fz 1
-t
3.5 m
-f---- 203 X 203 X 52 U C

:z: I
t F1
3.5 m
I Splice position
I :z: 1

-r- 254
t F1
X 254 X 73 UC
-t
_l
3.5 m

Figure 5.38

Section properties: 203 x 203 x 52 UC

D = 206.2 mm; B = 203.9 mm T 12.5 mm lxx = 5259 cm4

Section properties: 254 x 254 x 73 UC

D = 245.1 mm; B = 254.1 mm T 14.2 mm lxx = 11410 cm4
 Connections 181
Neglect the self-weight of the tie beams
Beam end reactions due to ultimate loading F1 = 600kN
F2 = 300kN
Design axial loading on lower column (2 X 600) + 300 + (7 X 0.52) + (4 X 0.73)
= 1507 kN

Clause 4. 7. 6 Bending moment due to floor beam (1507 X (0.127 + 0.1)

342kNm

5259 11410
Clause 4. 7. 4
(~)upper ---
350
= 15
(~)lower =
400
= 28.5

(~)lower 28.5
= 1.9 ~ 1.5

(~)upper
15

The moment should be divided in proportion to the stiffness of the columns.

Design bending moment on lower column = 342 x ( 28 .5 ) = 224 kNm
. 28.5 + 15

Clause 4. 5.1. 3 Assume a 45° dispersion of the load through the division plate
Thickness of plate required ~ D1 - Dz 254 - 206 = 24 mm
2 2
Adopt division plate 25 mm thick

Check for the presence of tension in the splice due to combined axial load and bending
moment

Axial load induced in cover plates by the moment ~ 342 X 103 = 1659 kN
206.2

Since this value is greater than the applied compressive force of 1507 kN tension is
developed and it is necessary to check the tensile and bearing capacities of the flange cover
plates and the shear capacity of the bolt group. In addition, Clause 6.3.4 relating to long
joints must be satisfied.

Flange cover plates:

Clause 4. 6.1: Tensile capacity Pt
Table 6: Since thickness of plates py = 275 N/mm2

Clause 3.3.3: Ae = Ke x net area where Ke = 1.2

182 Design ofStructural Steelwork

s gross area
gross-area = 205 x 10 = 2050 mm2
net-area 2050 - (2 x 22 x 10) = 1610 mm2
Ke x net-area 1.2 x 1610 = 1932 mm2
Pt = (1932 X 275)/10 3 = 531 kN

Tensile force in flange plate ~ (1659- 1507) = 152 kN < 531 kN

Cover plates are adequate in tension

Clause 6.3.3.3: Bearing capacity = dtpbs s 0.5etpbs

Table 33 Pbs = 460 N/mm2 Assume that e ~ 2d
Bearing capacity (20x 10 x 460)11 03 = 92 kN/bolt
Bearing capacity = 6 x 92 = 552 kN > 152 kN
Cover plates are adequate in bearing

Bolt group in cover plates:

Clause 6. 3.4: Joint length is less than 500 mm therefore no reduction in shear capacity
required. Since tension exists M20 H.S.F.G. bolts will be used to eliminate bolt slip.

Clause 6. 4. 2.1: Shear capacity = PsL = l.lKsJ..IPo

BS 4604: Part 1 Po= 144 kN Ks= 1.0 f..J = 0.55
Shear capacity= 6 x (1.1 x 1.0 x 0.55 x 144)
475.2 kN ~ 152 kN
Bolts are adequate in shear

Clause 2.4.5.3.(c) Structural integrity requirements

The column splice should be capable of resisting a tensile force of not less than two-thirds
of the factored vertical load applied to the column from the floor level next below the splice,
t.e.

Factored vertical load = 600 kN = 300 kN per cover plate

< the tension, bearing and shear capacities
Splice is adequate with respect to structural integrity
 Connections 183
5.8 Solution to Example 5.1

Contract :Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 5.1 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 1 of 2 Date:

References Calculations Output

20 kN

BS:5950:Ptl Structural use ofsteelwork in building

BCSA Joints in Simple Construction Volumes 1 & 2

Assuming that all edges are either rolled or machine

flame cut
Clause 6.2.3 (a) Minimum edge distance ~ 1.25D
Table 31 Since 16 mm dia. bolts are being used, the clearance
holes are 16 + 2 = 18 mm dia.
:. Min. edge/end distance = 25 mm
~ 1.25 x 18 = 22.5 mm Acceptable
Clause 6.3.2 (b)
(i)
Bolt shear capacity = Ps = p.As
Table 32 Ps = 160 N/mm2
Tensile area of 16 mm dia. bolt = At = 157 N/mm2
Bolt shear capacity = (160 x 157)11 03 =25.1 kN
(ii)
Clause 6.3.3.2 Bolt bearing capacity Pbb = dtpbb
Table 32 d = 16 mm, t = 10 mm Pbb = 460 N/mm2
Bolt bearing capacity = (1 6 x 10 x 460 )11 03 = 73.6 kN
(iii)
Clause 6.3.3.2 Plate bearing capacity Pbs = dtpbs
Table 33 :0: 0.5efpbs
Since in this case e < 2d the bearing capacity will be
governed by 0.5etpbs
e = 25 mm, t = 10 mm, Pbs = 460 N/mm2
Plate bearing capacity = (0.5 x 25 x 10 x 460)/103 = 57.5 kN

Note: It is normal practice to ensure that the end distance is at

least equal to 2d and hence the bolt bearing capacity will goverr
184 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract :Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 5.2 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 2 of 2 Date:

References Calculations Output

(iv)
Clause 4. 6.1 Plate tension capacity P 1 = Aepy
Table 33 Ae = KeAne! < Agross
Table 6 Ke = 1.2, py = 275 N/mm2
Anet = (50- 18) X 10 = 320 mm2
Agross = 50 X 10 = 500 mm2
Ae = 1.2 X 320 = 384 mm2

Plate tension capacity= (384 x 275)/10 3 = 105.6 kN

From (i) to (iv) the capacity of the connection is
governed by the shear strength, i.e.
Maximum shear which can be transmitted = 25.2 kN Connection is
> 20.0kN adequate
 Connections 185

5.9 Solution to Example 5.2

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 5.2 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No.: 1 of 2 Date:

References Calculations Output

45 mm 50 mm 45
rtm I I

S 5950: Ptl Structural use ofsteelwork in building

BCSA Joints in Simple Construction Volumes 1 & 2

Assuming that all edges are either rolled or machine

flame cut
Clause 6.2.3
Table 31 (a) Minimum edge distance::: 1.25D
Since 20 mm dia. bolts are being used, the clearance
holes are 20 + 2 = 22 mm dia.
:. Min. edge/end distance provided = 40 mm
::: 1.25 x 22 = 27.5 mm Acceptable
(b) (i) Bolt shear capacity P. = p.A.
P• = 160 N/mm2

Clause 6.3.2 Tensile area of20 mm dia. bolt At =245 mm2

Table 32 Bolt shear capacity = (1 60 x 245)/103 = 39.2 kN/bolt

(ii) Bolt bearing capacity Pbb = dtpbb

d = 16 mm, t = 10 mm, Pbb = dtpbb
Clause 6.3.3.2 Bolt bearing capacity = (20 x 12 x 460)/103 = 110.4 kN/bolt
Table 32
Note: the value oft is the lesser ofthe sum ofthe outer
Clause 6.3.3.2 plate or the inner plate (i.e. 16 mm or 12 mm)

(iii) Plate bearing capacity Pbs = dtpbs

.:S 0.5etpbs
Table 33 e = 40 mm, (2::. 2d) t = 1 2mm,
186 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 5.2 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 2 of 2 Date:

References Calculations Output

[Jbs= 460 N/nun2

Plate bearing capacity= (20 x 12 x 460) = 110.4 kN/bolt

(iv) Plate tension capacity= Pt = Aepy

Ae = K.Anet < Agross
Ke = 1.2, py = 275 N/nun2

Clause 4.6.1
Clause 3.3.3
Table 6 Anet = (130- 44)12 = 1032 nun2
Agrass = 130 X 12 = 1560 nun2
A. = (1.2 x 1032)/103 = 1238.4 nun2
Plate tension capacity = (1238.4 x 275)/10 3 = 340.6 kN

From (i) to ( iv) the capacity of the connection is

governed by the shear capacity, i.e.
Maximum. shear which can be transmitted= 4 x 39.2
= 156.8 kN Connection is
> 150 kN adequate
 Connections 187

5.10 Solution to Example 5.5

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 5.5 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 1 of 9 Date:

References Calculations Output

(J
Factored design load 50 kN/m --,

~ I~ 457 X 191 X 98 U.B.

"- (i) Double angle web cleats

(ii) A flexible end plate
(iii) A fin plate
7.0 m
span

(i) Double Angle Web Cleats

Use 2/ 90 x 90 x 10 angle sections
Minimum length "" 60% of beam depth
= 0.6 x 467 = 280 mm
Assume end distances =40 mm and
spacing of bolts =70mm
Length of angle required = (2 X 40) + (3 X 70) = 290 ffiffi
> 280 o.k.
~ I I

I ~ "'"" '- : b~: ~ti~;h

*
<jl
2 190 x 90 x__lQ____o
L......+--+-'--'1 angle secbons
!
+I
•
-+-
I
70
70
4Q_J
290 mm
I

't:::======!= ,-+-- '--t----1

1 -i
:::l1~rojection
~~
Bolt group A- cleat I beam Bolt group B- cleat I column

f=l
Bolt Group A: M20 Grade 8.8 bolts in double shear

50 (j.i

fa-- '-( -- ~~1~~n; ;05) =

--+--
):
t --r··.
:} __
t--+-- (")
8.75 kNm
70 . 175 kN

70 • Direct Shear = 175 kN .....

j_ - --f{-- cp
Equivalent loading
188 Design of Structural Steelwork

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No. :Example 5.5 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 2 of 9 Date:

References Calculations Output

The equivalent loading on the bolt group results in a 'vertical'

shear force acting through the centroid of the bolts in addition
to a 'rotational' shear force induced by the moment of
8.75kNmm.

9
9
9
9
Vertical shear force /bolt = 175 kN = 43.75 kN
4
Rotational shear force I bolt =

Applied Moment x Distance to extreme bolt (y 2 )

L(Distance from c. of. g. to each bolt) 2

8.75 X 103 X 105

= 37.5 kN

~37.5~

43.75 kN Resultant shear force

in the top bolt

Resultant maximum shear force = ~43.75 2 + 37.5 2

= 57.6 kN
Clause 3.6.2 Double shear capacity of 4 N° M20 Grade 8.8 bolts
Ps = 2(p.As) =2(375 X 245) I 103 = 183.75 kN Bolts adequate in
Ps > 57.6 kN shear
 Connections 189

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 5.5 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 3 of 9 Date:

References Calculations Output

(b) Bolt Bearing

4 N° M20 Grade 8.8 bolts in 10 mm thick plate
pb = 4(970 X 10 X 20) I 103 = 776 kN
Cleat shear

- r-
,...-
40

-~40
-

-
-

-
=l 290 mm
v:
-~t/, -

=J
- - --

- - -~
'--
t%

shear force = 87.5 kN I cleat

Shear Capacity= Pv = 0.6pyA.v

where:
Av = 0.9[(290 x 10)- (4 x 22 x 10)] = 1818 mm2
Clause 6.3.3.3 Pv = (0.6 x 275 x 1818)/10 3 = 300 kN Cleat adequate in
Pv > 87.5 kN shear

Cleat Bearing
Table 33 Bearing Capacity Pbs = dtpbs _::: 0.5etpbs
e = 40 since e = 2d dtpbs = 0.5etpbs
Pbs = 460 Nlmm2 Cleat is adequate
Pbs= (20 X 10 X 460)/10 3 = 92 kN > 57.612 = 28.8 kN bearing

Beam Web Shear

T~~
42mm ~~
l~~
i web thickness = 11.4 mm

r-
-l10mm
190 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract : Connections Job Re[ No. : Example 5.5 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 4 of 9 Date:

References Calculations Output

Clause 4.2.3 Shear Capacity Pv = 0.6p.Av

Table 6 Assume Av = 0.9 [ (290 x 11.4)- (4 x 22 x 11.4)]
= 2073 mm2
Pv "" (0.6 X 275 X 2073)/10 3 = 342 kN Beam web is
Pv > 175 kN adequate in shear

Beam Web Bearing

As before e = 2d = 40 mm
Clause 6.3.3.3 Pbs = (20 X 11.4 X 460)/103 = 104.8 kN Beam web is
Pbs > 57.6 kN adequate in bearing
Bolt Group B : M20 Grade 8.8 bolts in single shear.

! !
--4-- --4---r-
-y-r-
1 1
---qr--
---4-- ---4--r-
--v-
I I
-y-r-
i i

Shear force = 175 kN

Shear Force I bolt = 175 I 8 = 21.9 kN

Clause 6.3.2
Table 32 Ps = (375 X 245)/10 3 = 91.9 kN Bolts are adequate
Ps > 21.9 kN in shear

Bolt Bearing
Clause 6.3.3.2 Pbb = dtPhb where [Jbb = 460 Nlmm2
Table 33 Pbb = (20 X 10 X 460)/10 3 = 92 kN Bolts are adequate
pbb > 21.9 kN in bearing

Cleat Shear
Shear Force/ Cleat = 175 I 2 = 87.5 kN
Clause 4.2.3 Pv = 0.6pyAv
Table 6 py = 275 Nlmm2 ; Av = 1818 mm2 Cleats are adequate
Pv = (0.6 X 275 X 1818)/10 3 = 300kN in shear

Cleat Bearing
Clause 6.3.3.3 Pbs = dt[Jbs ~ 0.5etpbs
 Connections 191

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 5.5 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 5 of 9 Date:

References Calculations Output

Table 33 As before e = 2d
Pbs = (20 X 10 X 460)110 3 = 92 kN Cleats are adequate
Pbs > 21.9 kN in bearing

(b) Flexible End Plate

Using a 150 x 8 mm thick end plate
Minimum length ""'0.6D i.e. 290 mm as before

I I
i i

Bolt Shear
Clause 6.3.2 Shear capacity in single shear Ps = 91.9 kN
Table 32 Maximum design shear force/bolt = 17 5 I 8 = 21.7 5 kN Bolts are
Ps > 21.75 kN adequate in shear

Bolt Bearing
Clause 6.6.3.2 Bolt bearing capacity Pbb = (20 x 8 x 460) I 103 Bolts are
= 73.6 kN > 21.75 kN adequate in bearing

Clause 4.2.3 Plate shear

. !
- ·--4-·- -·--4-·
I I
- .--{jr·- -. --{j1-.
- --4--- ---4--
1 I
- ·--{jr·- ---y-
i i

shear= 175 kN shear I section = 87.5 kN

Table 6 Pv = 0.6pyA.v
Av = 0.9 [(290 X 8)- (4 X 22 X 8)] = 1454mm2
Pv = (0.6 X 275 X 1454) I 10 3 = 240 kN Plate adequate in
Pv > 87.5 kN shear
192 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 5.5

.
Cales. by : W.McK.
Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 6 of 9 Date:

References Calculations Output

Plate bearing
Clause 6.3.3.3 Pbs = dtpbs :::; 0.5efpbs e = 2d
Table 33 Pbs = (20 X 8 X 460) I 10 3 = 73.6 kN > 21.75 kN Plate adequate in
bearing

Web shear

175 kN

~~
290mm
0

__l
p--0---'

~40~

Pv = 0.6pyAv
----------
Av = (0.9 X 290 X 11.4) = 2975 mm2
Pv = (0.6 X 275 X 2975) I 103 = 491 kN > 175 kN Beam web is
adequate in shear
Clause 6.6.2 Weld
Assuming 6 mm fillet welds, E43 electrodes
Effective length of weld = 2 [290- ( 2 x 6)] = 556mm
Clause 6.6.5 Pw = 215 Nlmm2 throat size = 0.7 x 6 =4.2mm 556 mm length
Table 36 Strength of weld I mm = (4.2 x 215) I 103 = 0.903 kN 6 mm fillet weld is
Weld capacity = 0.903 x 556 = 502 kN > 175 kN adequate

(c) Fin Plates

40

[]~~
- 1-- 10mm

60 ~40
100

~
~10mm
*
11.4mm
 Connections 193

Contract :Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 5.5 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 7 of 9 Date:

References Calculations Output

Fin plate thickness t == 10 mm 5. 0.5d

Fin plate length /5. 0.6 x 467 == 280 mm say 290 mm
Applied vertical shear force== 175 kN

(a) Bolt bearing

fweb == 11.4 mm, t fin plate == 10 mm

_d
Pbs- _ 20 X 10 X 460 == 92 kN
Table 33 lPbs- 3
10

Vertical shear force I bolt == 175 == 43.75 kN

4
Moment == (175 x 60)/10 3 == 10.5 kNm

10.5 X 10 3 X 105
Rotational shear force I bolt ==
2( 35 2 + 105 2 )
== 45 kN

Resultant shear force on outermost bolt

~---

== J43.75 2 +452
= 62.8 kN Web and Plate are
Pbs> 62.8 kN adequate in bearing

(b) Bolt shear

P, == p.A. == (375 X 245) /10 3 = 91.9 kN Bolts are adequate in
P. > 55.4 kN in bearing and shear
(c) Beam web shear
As for beam web shear with double angle web cleats
(see page 189)

e 1 5. 2.5d == 2.5 x 20 == 50 mm
::; e1 = 50 + 40 == 90 mm :. e1 ==50 mm
194 Design of Structural Steelwork

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 5.5 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 8 of 9 Date:

References Calculations Output

e2 ~ 2.5d = 2.5 x 20 = 50 nun

~ et, ;z: 50 By inspection :. ez =50 nun

Dnet = (210 +50+ 50)- (4 X 22) = 222 nun

Block shear capacity "" 0.6pyAv

Av = Dnet X 1w = 222 X 11.4 = 2530.8 nun Adequate with respect

p vb = (0.6 X 275 X 2530.8)/1 03 = 417.6 kN > 175 kN to block shear

(d) Fin plate shear

The fin plate is 10 nun thick and therefore has a slightly
lower shear capacity than the 11.4 nun thick web. By
inspection, this is still adequate.

AppendixB (e) Fin Plate Bending

Clause B.2. 7

I
LEd)z
A.LT =nx2.8x (7

where n is as given in Clause 4.3.7.6 and equals 0.77

LE=60nun
1175 kN

~~
290 mm
0

_j_
1'"--o__J

~40~
L------
I
60x290)2
ALT = 0.77 X 2.8 X ( 102 = 28.4
 Connections 195

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 5.5 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No.: 9 of 9 Date:

References Calculations Output

Table 12 py = 275 N/rum2 Au= 28.4 :. Pb = 275 N/rum2

Mb = (210.25 x 103 x 275) I 106 = 57.8 kNm

Mx = (175 X .60) / 10 3 = 10.5 kNm Fin plates are adequate

> Mx in bending

Weld between fin plate and column

Consider a pair of welds each of unit width x 290 rum long

Applied moment = 10.5 kNm

Applied shear force = 175 kN
Total length of weld = 2 x 290 = 580 rum
Direct vertical shear force/rum= 175/580 = 0.3 kN/rum

I = 2 x (1 x 2903)4 = 4.06 x 106 rum4

XX 12
Distance to the extreme fibre = 145 rum

(10.5 X 10 3) X 145
Max. bending force/rum= 6 = 0.38 kN/m
4.06 X 10

Resultant Force/rum= ~0.3 2 +0.375 2 = 0.48 kN I rum

Strength of 8 rum fillet weld = 1.2 kN/rum Adopt 8 rum fillet
2 0.8 x plate thickness welds
196 Design ofStructural Steelwork

5.11 Solution to Example 5.6

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 5.6 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Bolted Moment Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 1 of 2 Date:

References Calculations Output

Flange thickness= 19.7nm

II
I ~~ ---e-
;::e-.;_
•
•
~
~
!
r
T609.6nm
~~
---o-
---o-
!--a-
:-e-
---o-. ~-
• II-
j_ ---o- --e.-

--
·' ~:">.'''

--
Ultimate design moment = 540 kNm
-- ~-

Ultimate design shear = 380 kN

Assume that the moment is transferred by the flange
bolts whilst the shear is transferred by the web bolts.

. Moment
Flange force mduced by the moment = Ft =
lever- arm
F, _ 540 X 10 6 = 915 .4 kN
t- (609.6-19.7)

Moment:
Tension capacity P1 = 0.9Po ;::: 915 ·4 = 229 kN
4

. . .
Clause 6442 Min. . d
P0 requrre 229-
=- ·0 = 2554kN
. Adopt 4 No. 30 mm
0.9
For 30 mm H.S.F.G Bolts Po = 286 kN H.S.F.G. Bolts

Shear:
Slip resistance PsL = 4 x (1.1 x KsJ.IPo) ;::: 380 kN
where Ks = 1.0 and JJ. = 0.45 Bolts are adequate
PsL provided = 4 X 1.1 X 0.45 X 286 = 566 kN ;:=: 380 kN in shear

Clause 6.4.2.1 Bearing resistance Pso = 4 x (dtpbg) ;::: 380 kN

Pso provided = 4X (30 x 12 x 825) I 10 3 = 1188kN Bolts are adequate
;::: 380kN in bearing
 Connections 197

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 5.6 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Simple Bolted Connections Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 2 of 2 Date:

References Calculations Output

Clause 6.4.2.2 Clearly in this case the shear and bearing capacity of the
connection are more than adequate.

The welds, end-plate and stiffeners must also be

designed to transfer the appropriate loads and in addition
the column flange and web should be checked.
The end-plates, and column web and flanges and the
welds must also be designed to transfer the appropriate
load. If necessary additional strengthening such as
stiffeners may be required to enhance the buckling or
bearing capacity of the column web.
The detailed design required for this is beyond the scope
of this publication. A rigorous, detailed analysis and
design procedure for connections and their component
parts can be found in Joints In Steel Constrnction :
Moment Connections, published by The Steel Construction
Institute.
6. Plate Girders

6.1 Introduction

In many instances, it is necessary to support heavy vertical loads over long spans resulting
in relatively large bending moments and shear forces. Ifthe magnitude ofthese is such that
the largest Universal Beam section, even when compounded with plates, is inadequate then
it is necessary to fabricate a beam utilizing plates welded together into an I -shaped section.
The primary purpose of the flange plates is to resist the tensile and compressive forces
induced by the bending moment. The primary purpose of the web plate is to resist the
shearing forces. These sections are normally more efficient in terms of steel weight than
rolled sections, particularly when variable depth girders are used, since they can be custom
designed to suit requirements. In addition, the development of automated workshops has
reduced fabrication costs, particularly when compared to box girders and trusses which are
still fabricated manually resulting in high costs.
When compared to other forms of construction, plate girders do have some dis-
advantages, e.g. they are heavier than comparable trusses, more difficult to transport, have
low torsional stiffuess, can be susceptible to instability of the compression flange during
erection and do not easily accommodate openings for services.
Since plate girders are normally highly stressed, the possibility of local buckling will tend
to be higher than in rolled sections, particularly with respect to the web plate. In most cases,
stiffeners are provided along the length of the girder to prevent the web plate from buckling.
A typical plate-girder and its component parts is shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2; in
addition a flow chart is shown in Figure 6.3, indicating the principal steps which are
undertaken when designing such a girder.

Flange Plate - Transverse Stiffeners

'TFillet
~Welds

Load Bearing Stiffener

and end post
Elevation of Typical Plate-Girder Cross-Section

Figure 6.1

198
 Plate Girders 199

Load bearing stiffener and end

post

Figure 6.2 Typical plate girder

Determine Design Load Effects

e.g. bending moments, shear forces

l modifytria1 section
!Initial sizing 1
suitable l L unsuitable
!Determine moment capacity I
suitable l I
unsuitable
!Determine shear capacity I
suitable l I
unsuitable
!check deflection
suitable
1
!Design intermediate transverse stiffeners I
suitable
1
!Design load bearing stiffeners I
suitable l
!Prepare detail drawing of girder I
Figure 6.3
200 Design ofStructural Steelwork
6.1.1 Design Load Effects

The design load effects on a plate-girder are determined using standard structural analysis
techniques. They comprise the effects induced by bending which are primarily,

Bending
Moment
( ~/
F;/ Figure 6.4
(i) Compressive and tensile forces above and below the neutral axis of the cross-section

Figure 6.5
(ii) Shearing forces which are resisted by the web

Figure 6.6
(iii) Forces tending to induce failure by web buckling

Figure 6.7
(iv) Forces tending to induce failure by web crushing
(v) Vertical deflection

The magnitudes and senses of these effects are dependent on the magnitude and nature of
the forces applied to the girder. The service design loading for buildings is given in BS
6399:Part 1 and the appropriate load factors can be found in Table 2 ofBS 5950:Part 1.
 Plate Girders 201

6.2 Initial Sizing

The initial sizing of the component parts of a plate girder is carried out on the basis of
experience and consideration of the section classification as given in BS 5950:Part 1. While
webs tend to be slender, they should not be excessively so, since additional stiffening will be
required with its inherent fabrication costs.
Tables 6.1 and 6.2 given below indicates typical values of span-to-depth ratios and web
thicknesses for plate girders used in buildings.

Table 6.1 Table 6.2

Typical Typical
span-to- thickness
Applications depth Beam depth (mm) of web
ratio (mm)
1 simply-supported, non- I
(i) : composite girders with I
I
I concrete decking; I
I I
1 constant depth beams used 12-20 (a) 1 Up to 1200 10
I
: in simply-supported I
1 composite girders I
I
: constant depth beams used I
(ii) : in continuous non- I
I
1 composite girders using 15-20 (b) I 1200- 1800 12
I
: concrete decking I
1 simply-supported crane I
I
(iii) : girders 10-5 (c) I 1800- 2250 15
I I
I
I
(d) : 2250 - 3000 20
I

6.3 Moment and Shear Capacity

The moment capacity of plate girders where the flanges of the section are plastic, compact
or semi-compact, but where the web is slender (as defined in Table 7) or is thin and
susceptible to shear buckling (i.e. d/t ~ 63s), can be evaluated using one of three methods
outlined in Clause 4.4.4.2 ofBS 5950:Part 1. Method (a) in which the moment is assumed
to be resisted by the flange plates alone subjected to a uniform stress of py and the shear
stress is assumed to be resisted by the web is adopted in this text. This method is
considerably easier to understand and use than the other two that are given.
202 Design ofStructural Steelwork

The implication in the code of using a uniform stress equal to py, is that the compression
flange is fully restrained, In instances where this does not occur, a value of Pb can be
determined using the equivalent slenderness ~T and Table 12. The equivalent slenderness
can be evaluated using Clause 4.3. 7 or the equations given in Appendix B of the code.
For the design of sections in which the flanges are slender, a reduction factor should be
applied to the uniform stress value; this can be found in Table 8 of the code.
The section classification of the web as indicated in section 2.2 relates to local buckling
induced by longitudinal compressive stresses. Webs can also fail due to local buckling
caused by concentrated loads applied to the flanges, as indicated in Section 2.5.1. In
addition to these two modes of failure, a thin web can fail owing to shear buckling in which
diagonal compressive and tensile stresses are developed within web panels between
stiffeners. The compressive stresses induce out-of-plane shear buckling and tension-field
action subsequently enhances the load-carrying capacity until failure occurs with the
development of plastic hinges in the flanges, as shown in Figures 6.8 and 6.9.

shear
force

shear shear
force force

shear
force

Figure 6.8

L Plastic hinge

Figure 6.9

The code permits allowance for tension-field action in the design of webs and stiffeners.
This technique enables a more accurate assessment of the contribution made by stiffeners to
the strength of the web and hence a more economic section to be designed. Tension-field
action is not considered in this text.
The shear capacity of a section when tension-field action is not being considered is given
in Clause 4.4.5.3. This is dependent on the critical shear stress qcr, given in Table 21 and
will determine if intermediate stiffeners are required.
 Plate Girders 203
6.4 Deflection

As with Universal Beam design, the deflection induced by the unfactored imposed loads
should not exceed the limits specified in Table 5 of BS 5950:Part 1. The actual deflection
can be calculated using coefficients or the equivalent uniform load distribution technique,
both of which are illustrated in the example at the end of this chapter.

6.5 Intermediate Stiffeners

Since, for economy, plate girders are designed with thin webs (i.e. Clause 3. 6. 2 BS
5950:Part 1, dlt 2:. 63&), shear buckling must be considered. The serviceability
requirements which require a minimum thickness to prevent buckling of the web and of the
flange into the web are given in Clauses 4.4.2.2 and 4.4.2.3 ofBS 5950:Part 1 respectively.
As mentioned previously, the shear buckling resistance of webs can be calculated from
Clause 4. 4. 5. 3. If this value is exceeded, then it will be necessary to include intennediate
stiffeners to prevent out-of-plane buckling of the web.

6.6 Load Bearing Stiffeners

When a concentrated load is applied through the flange, for example at a point of support or
under a column, it is sometimes necessary to provide load-bearing stiffeners, which may be
single or double, to prevent local buckling and crushing of the web. The load carrying
capacity of the web in buckling and bearing can be determined using Clauses 4. 5. 2 and
4.5.3 (see Chapter 2 Section 2.5 for universal beam design).
Where load-bearing stiffeners are provided at supports they are also known as end posts.
The design of end posts including their connection to the web and flange plates is set out in
Clauses 4. 5. 4 to 4. 5.11. In some instances it is necessary to check the compression edge of
the web between stiffeners; the procedure for this is given in Clause 4.5.2.2 and is
illustrated in Example 6.2 of this chapter.

6. 7 Example 6.1 Plate girder in multi-storey office block

A four-storey office development is to be designed such that approximately 108 m2 of office

space is provided in the upper floors, and only perimeter columns are to be used on the
ground floor to accommodate parking facilities. Design a suitable plate girder to satisfy the
structural arrangement indicated in Figures. 6.10 (a) and (b).
204 Design ofStructural Steelwork

I' I • Roof
I I
I I I
I I I I I
I
I I
t
'I

I
I
I
I
I

I
I
l
I

I
I
I

I
3rd. Floo

'I I
I
~
I
f
I
I
I
2nd. Flo or

I I I I
I

t
I

1st. Floo
±11 I I I I I I I I
I I

I L PIa te girder
I
I I

~ ~?0 ~ ~~
3.0 m 3.0 m I 3.0 m I 3.0

Figure 6.10(a) Elevation

.....................................................................................................................................

7.5m 7.5m 7.5m 7.5 m

Figure 6.10(b) Plan

Design Data:
Characteristic dead load on the roof (including. self-weight) = 4.0 kN/m2
Characteristic dead load on the floors (including. self-weight) = 5.0 kN/m2
Estimated self-weight of the plate girder 4.5 kN/m
Characteristic imposed loads on the roof and floors as per BS 6399:Part 1
Assume that the compression flange is fully restrained throughout and that Grade 43 steel is
used.
 Plate Girders 205
6. 7.1 Design Loading

The design loading on the girder is determined using static analysis in which the floor and
roof beams are assumed to be simply supported. This results in the girder being subjected to
a uniformly distributed load due to the self-weight, and three concentrated loads at the
internal colunm positions.
The code of practice for the dead and imposed loading on buildings (BS 6399:Part 1)
permits a reduction in the value of the imposed loads on multi-storey structures. In cases
where a single span of a beam or girder supports not less than 40m2 of floor area at one
general level, the reduction is in accordance with Table 3.
In this design the area of floor supported is equal to (7.5 m x 12.0 m) = 90 m2 and
therefore the imposed load should be reduced accordingly, i.e. using linear interpolation and
the values given in Table 3 the reduction equals 6.25%. It should be noted that the Table 3
values do not apply to roofloadings (Clause 5.2).

6. 7.2 Column Loads

A typical internal colunm supports the roof/floor area shown m Figure 6.11, 1.e.
(7.5 x 3.0) = 22.5 m2

,,, '''l
m x 3.0 m =~=i:l
I

Figure 6.11

Senrice dead load on the roof = 4.0 x 22.5 =

90kN
Service imposed load on the roof(BS 6399:Part 1, Clause 6.0) =
1.5 X 22.5
=
33.75 kN
Service dead load on each floor = 5.0 x 22.5 = 112.5 kN
Service imposed load on each floor (BS 6399:Part 1, Clause 6.0) allowing for a 6.25%
reduction in floor loadings = (1- 0.0625) x (2.5 x 22.5) = 52.73 kN
206 Design of Structural Steelwork

Design load I column =

1.4[90 +(3 X 112.5)]+ 1.6[33.75 +(3 X 52.73)] = 905.6 kN
Estimated design self-weight of plate-girder = 1.4 X 4.5 6.3 kN/m

905.6 kN 905.6 kN 905.6 kN

6.3 kN/m

1396.2 kN 1396.2 kN

1.. 3.0 m .. 1.. 3.0 m .. 1.. 3.0 m ·I· 3.0 m ·I

1.. 12.0m ... 1
Figure 6.12

Design bending moment = (1396.2 x 6)- (905.6 x 3)- (6.3 x 6.0 x 3)

= 5547 kNm
Design shear force 1396.2 kN

6. 7.3 Initial Sizing

Assume a span/depth ratio of 12, (see Table 6.1),

. 1200
The depth of the gtrder : d : : : - - = 1000 mm
12
If the flange plate thickness is assumed to be greater than 40 mm then the design strength
py from BS 5950:Part 1 Table 6 is 255 N/mm2
Using method (a) mentioned previously, in which the moment capacity of the section is
based on the flanges alone as shown below:

Bending
Moment

Figure 6.12

an estimate of the flange force and hence the flange area required can be made.
 Plate Girders 207

Bending Moment _ 5547 x 10 3

Flange force Fe = Ft ~ 5547 kN
depth d 1000
Fe = Area ofthe flange x stress in the flange
5547 103
= 217 53 mm2
X
Area of flange required ~
255
A flange plate 450 mm wide x 50 mm thick provides an area of 22500 mm2 . Assume a
10 mm thick web plate (see Table 6.2). The trial girder cross-section is as shown in Figure
6.13.

:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: :.:·:.: 50 mm

10 mm 1000 mm

:.:-:-:-: :-:·: :-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:·:·:·:·:··· 50 mm

450 mm

Figure 6.13

The cross-sectional area ofthe proposed girder 2 x (450 x 50)+ (1000 x 10)
55 x 103 mm2
Unit weight of steel = 7. 85 x 10-8 kN/mm3

Self-weight of the girder I m {55 x 103 ) x (1000) x ( ~-~;) = 4.32 kN/m

This is slightly less than the self-weight assumed in the initial sizing of the girder.

6. 7.4 Section Classification (Clause 3.5)

The local buckling of cross-sections can be avoided by limiting the width to thickness ratios
of individual elements which are subjected to compression. The various elements of a cross-
section, predominantly the flanges and webs, are classified in BS 5950:Part 1, Table 7 as
being plastic, compact, semi-compact or slender, the definitions of which are given in
Clause 3.5.2. Where elements of a cross-section are shown to be slender, then additional
measures which must be taken to prevent local buckling are given in Clause 3. 6.

6. 7. 5 Flanges

T = 50 mm from Table 6 py = 255 N/mm2

208 Design ofStructural Steelwork

b= (B-t) = (450- 10) = 220 mm

2 2
,_ ~ 220 ~4.4· ~ r75 ~ {275 = 1.04
vlli
&
T 50 ' Py

In Table 7 flanges in which !!_::::: 7.5& are considered to be plastic.

T

6. 7.6 Web

t = 10 mm from Table 6 pyw = 275 N/mm2

d = 1200 = 120 . & = ~275 = 1.0
t 10 ' 275
d
In Table 7 webs in which 98& < ::::: 120& are considered to be semi-compact
t
Clause 3.6.2
In addition, since d > 63&, then Clause 4.4.4.2 should be used to determine the capacity
t
of the section since the web is thin and is required to carry shear (i.e. method (a) described
previously).

Clause 4. 4. 2. 2
To ensure that the web will not buckle under normal service conditions it is necessary to
satisfy the following minimum web thickness criteria:
d
(a) without intermediate stiffeners: t ~
250
(b) with transverse stiffeners only :
d
(i) where stiffener spacing a > d then t ~
250

(a)2
1

(ii) where stiffener spacing a ::::: d then t ~ d

250 d
1200
Assuming the more critical case with stiffeners, then t ~ 4.8mm
250
Clause 4. 4. 2. 3
Similarly, to ensure that the flange does not buckle into the web, it is necessary to satisfy
the following criteria:

(a) without intermediate stiffeners: t ~

d ( Pyr)
250 345
(b) with intermediate transverse stiffeners:
 Plate Girders 209

(i) where stiffener spacing a > 1.5d then t 2: d ( Pyr)

250 345
1

2
(ii) where stiffener spacing a ::;; 1.5d then t 2: d ( Pyr)
250 455
Assuming the more critical case with stiffeners, i.e. a 2: 1.5d,
then t 2: 1000(255) = 3.0 mm
250 345
Clearly the web is satisfactory in both respects.

6. 7. 7 Moment Capaci(v (Clause 4.4.4.2 (a))

The moment carrying capacity of the section ignoring the web is given by :

M= pyf X Sx:x
where:
Sx:x is the plastic section modulus based on the flanges alone and equals (flange area x
distance between the centroids of the flanges)
Sx:x = (450 x 50) x (1050) = 23.625 x 106 mm3
M = 255 x 23.625 = 6024 kNm.
M applied < M therefore the section is adequate with respect to bending

Note: If the compression flange had not been fully restrained, then the value of pyf would
have been replaced by a value of Ph from Table 12. This is considered at the end of this
chapter in Example 6.2.

6. 7.8 Shear Capaci(v (Clause 4.4.5.3)

Designing without tension-field action, the shear capacity of the section is given by:

Vcr = qcr d t 2:. design shear force

where qcr is the critical shear strength obtained from Tables 21 (a) to (d) as appropriate. If
no intermediate stiffeners are assumed the spacing is taken as infinity.
The above equation can be rearranged such that

design shear force

minimum qcr required 2:
dt
1396.2 X 103
qcr 2: = 139.6 N/mm2
1000 X 10
210 Design ofStructural Steelwork
An extract from Table 21 (b) is given in Figure 6.14.
It is evident that when d/t = 120 and py = 275 N/mm2 a value of a/d < 0. 78 will ensure a
value of qcr 2: 139.6 N/mm2

Stiffener Spacing ratio aid \

dlt 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 (

- - - - - - - \

- - - - - - -
115 165 165 165 154 142 132
120 165 165 162 149 137 126
125 165 165 158 144 131 120 )
__.)
.....___.. - - - -

Figure 6.14 Extract from Table 21 (b)

The stiffener spacing a ~ 0.78 x 1000 = 780 mm;

Adopt a value of spacing = 750 mm
A suitable arrangement of stiffeners is shown in Figure 6.15

Load Bearing Stiffener Transverse Stiffeners Load Bearing Stiffener

,l 4@ 750 crs. ~" 4@ 750 crs. ,l 4@ 750 crs. ~, 4@ 750 crs. ,,1._

Figure 6.15

In the case of a girder supporting a larger uniformly distributed load the shear force may
reduce significantly towards the centre and hence permit an increase in the stiffener spacing
towards the middle of the span.

6. 7. 9 Deflection (Clause 2. 5)

Clause 2. 5.1
In Table 5 the deflection limit for beams without plaster or brittle finishes is given as
0 < span
max - 200
This is the deflection induced by the unfactored imposed load only, i.e. the service
imposed load.
 Plate Girders 211
The actual deflection can be determined using appropriate coefficients such as those
given in Table 2.1 in Chapter 2, or can be estimated using the equivalent uniform load
technique.

Clause 3.1.2
Table 6 the modulus of elasticity E == 205 kN/mm2
Service load I column == (33.75 + (3 x 52.73)) == 191.9 kN
The mid-span deflection for a beam with three point loads can be evaluated by super-
imposing the contributions from each load i.e.

,
(j ~2
{191.9 (12000) 3 [ 3 x 3 - 4
X
3
( 3 ) ]}
- + 191.9 X (12000)
3

max 48£] 12 48£]

Jmax ~ 6.43 mm
Note: The 2 above can be used in this instance because of the symmetry.

12000
Table 5 value =:: == 60 mm
200

(b) Equivalent U.D.L. technique

Loading considered for deflection calculation is as shown in Figure 6.16.

191.9 kN 191.9 kN 191.9 kN

287.9kN t t 287.9kN
3.0 m I• 3.0 m • I• 3.0 m , I , 3.0 m ·I
12.0 m .1
Figure 6.16

0.104 B. Max L2
The estimated maximum deflection is given by
EI
In this case

B.Max= (287.9 x 6)- (191.9 x 3) == 1151.4 kNm

0.104 X 1151.4 X 10 3 X (12000) 2
6.8mm
205 X 12.412 X 109
smce (J' max < span the deflection is acceptable
200
212 Design ofStructural Steelwork
6. 7.10 Intermediate Stiffeners (Clause 4.4.6)

Clause 4. 4. 6. 3
The maximum outstand (b,) of intermediate stiffeners is governed by the requirements of
Clause 4. 5.1. 2, i.e.
When the outer edge is not continuously stiffened then b, :s; 19t,e
and when 13t,e :s; b, :S;19t,e the design should be based on a core with b, = 13t,e
Assuming 8 mm flats for the stiffeners and e = 1. 0 then b, :s; 19 x 8 = 15 2 mm

The maximum flange width available =

(450-10)
2 =220 mm and 1~. therefore adequate.

Clause 4. 4. 6. 4
The minimum second moment of area, /,, about the centre-line of the web should satisfy:
I, ? 0.75cf for a ? J2d
and
1.5d 3 t 3
I, ? for a < J2d
a2

a =750mm J2d 1414 a< J2d

I, ::::: 1.5 x 1000: x 103 = 2.667 x io6 mm4
750

t 8 (2bs +
12
tf
flange
plate
t b, )
t II 2b, + t
b,
(2bs + t) == 158 mm
~ \
(158-10) Section through stiffeners
outstand = 74mm and web
2
say 75 mm Figure 6.17

13t5 & = 13 x 8 x 1. 0 = 104 mm > outstand :. acceptable

Two stiffeners 75 mm x 8 mm thick will be adequate.

Clause 4. 4. 6. 6
If the web has been designed using tension-field action it is necessary to carry out a
buckling check, otherwise this clause can be ignored.

Clause 4. 4. 6. 7
The weld between the web and intermediate stiffeners not subject to external loads should

be capable of resisting a shear force

 Plate Girders 213

10 2
:. weld capacity ~ = 0.27 kN/mm run on two welds
5 X 75
It is normal practice to use a minimum fillet weld in structural elements of this type of not
less than 6 mm, (strength= 0 .9 kN/mm).
Adopt four continuous 6 mm fillet welds for each set of intermediate stiffeners. Since the
stiffeners are not subject to external loading, they may terminate clear of the tension flange
by an amount approximately equal to 4t, i.e. 40 mm.
The stiffeners should extend to the compression flange but no welding is required at this
location.

6. 7.11 Load Bearing Stiffeners (Clause 4. 5)

Clause 4. 5. 4. 2
The minimum area of stiffener which should be in contact with the flange to limit bearing
stresses is determined by :

(0.8 x the external load or reaction)

contact area ~
the design strength of the stiffener

(0.8 X 1396.2 X 10 3 )
A ~ = 4061 mm2
275

Assuming stiffeners 12 mm thick

Allowing for a 20 mm fillet for the weld at the web to flange
intersection, the contact area A is given by:

A = 2(b.- 20)12 = (24b.- 480)

since A ~ 4061 mm2
(24b, - 480) ~ 4061
~ 189 mm
- ::: : : : -

Try stiffeners comprising 2 flats 200 mm x 12 mm thick. ~b. b5 -..!.

Contact Area = 2(200- 20) x 12 = 4320 mm2

Figure 6.18

Clause 4.5.1.2
The maximum outstand requirements are the same as those for the intermediate stiffeners.
13t,B = 13 x 12 x 1. 0 = 156 mm
19t,c = 19 x 12 x 1. 0 =228mm
214 Design ofStructural Steelwork

since 13ts& :::; bs :::; 19t.s the stiffeners should be designed on the basis of a core section
equal to 1318 &, i.e. 156 mm.

Clause 4.5.1.5
The buckling resistance of the stiffener is considered to be the compressive resistance of a
stru~ with a cross-section equal to the full or core area of the stiffener together with an
effective length of web on each side of the centre-line of the stiffeners, (where available},
limited to 20t. This is shown in Figure 6.19.
The compressive strength Pcis taken from Table 27(c) which requires a slenderness ratio
)., = effective length
radius of gyration
The radius of gyration of the cross-section should be taken about an axis parallel to the web

12 322 3 194 103

I =
X
+
X
= 33.4 x 106 mm4
12 12

Area = (322 X 12) + (194 X 10) = 5804 mm2

ryy = g =
33.4 X 106
5804
= 78.56mm

T·.; 12 mmthick

B
:\0

. 322mm ~mm!E:mw,~:··,m··l- !Ommthick

.
I .:
{- ~;
! 20t=200mm
Effective cross-section of stiffener
))

Figure 6.19

The compressive strength Pcis taken from Table 27(c) which requires a slenderness ratio
)., = effective length
radius of gyration
The radius of gyration of the cross-section should be taken about an axis parallel to the
web
12 X 3223
I = +
12
Area = (322 x 12) + (194 x 10} = 5804 mm2
 Plate Girders 215

~=
33.4 X 106
ryy = = 75.86mm
5804

The effective length for load bearing stiffeners where the flange through which the load is
being tra.ilsferred can be considered restrained against lateral movement relative to the other
flange should be considered as:

(a) Le = 0.7L
where restraint to the flange against rotation in the plane of the stiffener is provided by other
structural members,

(b) Le =L
where no such restraint is provided.

(The effective length for intermediate transverse stiffeners should be assumed to be 0. 7L.)
In each of the cases above Lis the length of the stiffener.
Assuming case (a) above;

700
Le = 0.7 X 1000 700 mm; A = 9.23
75.86

Clause 4. 7. 5
The design strength obtained from Table 6 should be reduced by 20 N/mm2 for welded
sections, therefore since t < 16 py = 255 N/mm2 •
From Table 27(c) when A= 9.23 and py= 255 N/mm2 Pc = 255 N/mm2
The buckling resistance ofthe stiffener Px = (255 x 5804)/10 3 = 1480 kN
Since Px ;;:: 1396.2 kN the stiffeners are adequate with respect to buckling

Clause 4. 5. 5
The bearing capacity of the stiffeners should be sufficient to sustain the difference between
the applied load or reaction and the local capacity of the web, as given in Clause 4. 5. 3. i.e.

Local bearing capacity of the web = (b 1 + n 2)tpyw

where:
b1 is the stiff bearing length as defined in Clause 4.5.1.3 and Figure 8 of the code
n2 is the length obtained by dispersion of the load through the flange to web connection
at a slope of 1:2.5 to the plane of the flange.
t is the web thickness
pyw is the design strength of the web from Table 6

Assuming the stiff bearing length to be zero (this is conservative):

216 Design ofStructural Steelwork

J Web !
12 mm /.t
j
l I Bearing length
1\ I
Bearing area
50 m m t=" ·: .,:~:;:;;::~~=:~:~:;:,:,~:::i::~::::~:::::~:::~:~:::~:::::t:':':~:~:#(:~:::::::~(:~::f:::::t:: I
u
.----+- 2.5 x 50= 125 mm , n2 = 131 mm Fla~ge plate
1396.2 kN \I
I '\
:" Longitudinal section through web

Figure 6.20

[(o + 131)10 x 275] = 360 .2 kN

103
The bearing stiffener should be checked for a load = (reaction - P 1ocal)
= 1396.2 - 360.25 = 1036 kN

The bearing capacity of the stiffener = PY• x cross-sectional area

The bearing .capacity of the stiffener

= (275 X 4320) = 1188 kN
103

since this is greater than 1036 kN the stiffeners are adequate in bearing.

Clause 4. 5. 9
The connection of the bearing stiffeners to the web should be designed to resist the lesser of:

(i) the tension capacity of the stiffener, i.e.

(5804 X 275)
Pt = kn..
ory
= I 03 = 1596 kN
or
(ii) the larger of the sum of any forces acting in opposite directions or the sum of any
forces acting in the same direction, i.e.

Applied force= End reaction= 1396.2 kN

Case (ii) is the design criterion here,

Length of the stiffener = 1000 mm
Force to be resisted by the weld I mm = 13962 = 1.4 kN/mm
1000
Adopt four continuous 6 mm fillet welds for each set of load bearing stiffeners.
 Plate Girders 217
Clause 4. 5.11
Load bearing stiffeners which are required to resist compression should either be connected
by continuous welds or non-slip fasteners or fitted against the loaded flange.
In cases where:

(i) a load is applied directly over a support;

(ii) it forms the end stiffener of a stiffened web or
(iii) it acts as a torsion stiffener (see Clause 4. 5. 8),

the stiffener should be fitted or connected to both flanges.

It is common practice to specify a full strength weld for the flange/stiffener connection.

6. 7.12 Flange to Web Connection

When a beam/plate-girder bends, in addition to the vertical shear stress at a cross-section

there is a complementary horizontal shear stress, i.e.

Figure 6.21

The connection between the flange and the web must be designed to transfer this
horizontal shear stress 'q'. The value of' q' can be determined from

QA-Y N/mm2
q = __
It

horizontal
shear stress

Section
considered

Figure 6.22 Figure 6.23

218 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Q!A-Y
= __
Shear force I nun length = qx t Nlnun
I
where:
Q is the vertical shear force at the position along the span being considered,
Ay is the first moment of area (about the neutral axis) of the part of the cross-section
above the level at which the shear stress is being evaluated,
I is the second moment of area of the cross-section about the neutral axis.

A = (450 X 50) y = 525 nun

450 1100 3 440 X 1000 3

=
X
I
12 12

Q shear at end = 1396.2 kN

139~2 225 103 525

=
X X X
Shear force I nun 1.33 kNim
12.412 X 109

The strength of two 6 nun fillet welds = (2 x 0.903) = 1.806 kNinun.

Adopt a continuous 6 mm fillet weld on each side of the web.

Note: An intermittent weld could have been used here but this tends to create potential
corrosion pockets and is best avoided.

6.8 Example 6.2 Plate girder with intermittent restraint to flange

A welded plate girder is simply-supported over a span of 15.0 m and supports two columns
at the third-span points in addition to a uniformly distributed load along its length. Adequate
lateral restraint is provided to the compression flange at the supports and column locations.
Using the data provided design a suitable plate girder.

Design data:
Column loads
service dead load = 140kN
service imposed load = 400kN
Uniformly distributed load
service dead load = 8.0kNim
service imposed load = 25.0kNim
Assumed self-weight of girder = 3.0 kNim

Solution to Example 6.2 (see Section 6.9).

 Plate Girders 219
6.9 Solution to Example 6.2

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 6.2 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 1 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

BS 5950:Pt 1 Strnctural use of steelwork in building

BS 6399:Pt 1 Loading for buildings, Code ofpractice for imposed loads

Unfactored U.D. Dead Load = 8.0kN

Unfactored U.D. Imposed Load = 25.0 kN
Assumed self-weight of girder = 3.0kN
Unfactored Point Load (dead) = 140kN
Unfactored Point Load (imposed) = 400kN
Design Loads
Table 2 Yr U.D.L.. = (1.4 X (8+3)] + (1.6 X 25] = 55.4 kN/m
Point Loads= [1.4 x 140] + [1.6 x 400] = 836kN

836 kN 836 kN

1251.5kN
~-
~t1251.5kN
1: ·I 1s.om I :1
For analysis this can be considered as the superposition
of two separate load cases as shown below :

~4~/m

415.5 kN t~ 415.5 kN
1: • 15.0 m • :I
836 kN 836 kN

836 kN t 5.0 m I 5.0 m 1

5.0 m t836 kN
1~ · · ~ 15.0 ~I
Support reactions = (415.5 + 836) = 1251.5 kN
Design shear force = 1251.5 kN
220 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 6.2 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 2 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

Design bending moment = Mx

Mx = ( 55.4; 152 J+ (836 X 5) 5738.125 kNm

1251 .5kN
Shear Force Diagram

5565 kN 5738.125 kN 5565 kN

I I

Bending Moment Diagram

Initial sizing Assume a span/depth ratio of 14

depth of girder d "" 15000 = 1071 mm
14
say 1200 mm
Assuming 16 ~ T ~ 40 mm
Table 6 py = 265 N/mm2

5738 X 10 3
Flange force = 4781 kN
1200
Clause 4.3. 7.3 Since the flange is not fully restrained a value less than
265 N/mm2 should be used when estimating the required
flange area. The moment capacity will be based on:

Assume Pb = 260 N/mm2

Area of flange plate req' d
4781 X 10 3
Ac "" 260
 Plate Girders 221

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 6.2 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 3 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

Try flange plates 460 mm wide x 40 mm thick.

= 460 X 40 = 18.4 X 103 mm2
Aprovided
Assume a 10 mm thick web
Trial section :
............................... ,:::; 40mm

10mm

1200mm

.·... ·..·..................·.·.·.·.·.·:::; 40mm

1 460mm j

Section properties of proposed girder:

Area= 2( 460 x 40) + ( 10 x 1200) = 48.8 x 103 mm2

fxx = [ 460 ~ 21280 3 ] _ [ 450 ~ 21200 3 ]

= 15.59 x 109 mm4

!yy = 2 [ 40 X 460 3 ] + [ 1200 X 10 3 ]

12 12
= 649 x 106 mm4

ryy =
Fi= 649
48.8
X

X
10 6
10 3
= 115.32 mm

Sxx = ( 460 X 40 ) X ( 1240 )

Self-weight= (48.8xlo 3 ) x (1000) x C~;) =3.8kN/m

(this is more than the assumed value, but is o.k.)

Table 7 Section Classification

Flanges:
I

Table 6 T = 40 mm py = 265 N/mm2 &= (275)2 = 1.02

265
222 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 6.2 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 4 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

b = ( 460 2- 10) = 225 mm

!?_ - 225 = 5.63 :::; 7.5&

T 40

Web:
1

t = 10 mm py = 275 N/mm2 & = (275)2 = 1.0

275
d 1200 d
= 120 98&:::; - :::; 120&
t 10 t
Clause 3.6.2 :!_ > 63& web is thin, use Clause 4.4.4.2 to determine
t
moment capacity

Clause 4.4.2.2 b) with transverse stiffeners only :

d
where stiffener spacing a > d then t ;::
250

(a)2
1

where stiffener spacing a :5 d then t ;:: d

250 d

Assuming the more critical case with stiffeners,

then t 1200 = 4.8 mm
;::
250
Clause 4.4.2.3 Assuming the more critical case with stiffeners Web is adequate
then t ;:: 1200 (265) = 3.7 mm with respect to
250 345
serviceability
Clause 4.3. 7.3 Mb=Sxx·Pb
Table 11 Ph is dependent onpy and equivalent slenderness /kr
AoLT = nuvl!.

A. = LE = 1500 = 43 .36 A.= 43.36

ryy 115.32

AppendixB For sections which are symmetrical about both axes,

Clause B.2.5 either set of equations can be used to determine
 Plate Girders 223

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 6.2 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 5 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

'U and 'x' u =

where:
Sxx = 22.82 X 106 mm'
649 10 6 )
Y = (1
X
= 0.958
- 15.59 X 10 9

A = 48.8 x 10 3 mm2
hs = 1200 + 40 = 1240 nun

u =
4 X (22.82 X 10 6 r X 0.985]0.Z
5
--
[
(48.8 X 10 3
I
r X 1240 2
0.859 u = 0.859

X = 0.566h. (A/ J)z

where:
J = .]_ (2PB + fd)
3
J = -j-[(2 X 40 3 X 460) + (10 3 X 1200 )]
= 20.03 x 10 6 mm 4
I

X = 0.566 X 1240 X (
48·8 X
103 ) 2 = 34.64 X= 34.64
20.03 X 10 6

Table 14 ~ - 4336 - 1.25· N= 0.5 v = 0.98

X 34.64 '

Clause 4.3. 7.6 Assuming that the plate girder is not subject to
destabilising loads
Table 13 m = 1.0
Table 17 {J is +ve. and y lS +ve
55.4 X 52
Mo= = 173.125
8
M 5565
Table 16 r = 173.125
= 32.14 n = 0.98

Au = nuvA. = 0. 98 x 0.859 x 0. 98 x 43.36 = 35.77 A.= 35.77

224 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 6.2 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 6 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

Table 16 For py = 265 Nlmm2 and ..1-u = 35.77 Ph= 263 Nlmm2
Mb=Sxx·Pb
Mb = (263 x 22.82 x 10 6 )110 6 = 6001.7 kNm. Section is adequate
Mb>Mx with respect to
bending
Clause 4.4.5.3 Shear Capacity :
Outer third of span
Vcr = qcr<it where Vcr = 1251.5 kN

Min. qcrrequired > vcr = 1251.5 X 10 3 = 104.3 Nlmm2

- dt 1200 X 10

Table 21 (b) py = 275 Nlmm2 , dlt = 120,

:. aid < 1.2 ( qcr = 106 Nlmm2 )
Stiffener spacing a s 1.2 x 1200 = 1440 mm
A stiffener spacing of 1250 mm is suitable for the outer Adopt stiffeners @
third. 1250 mm centres for
the outer third
Middle third of span Vcr= 138.5 kN
138.5 X 10 3
Min. qcr required :;:.: = 11.54 Nlmm2
1200 X 10
Table 21 (b) aid = oo qcr = 69 Nlmm2

Intermediate stiffeners are not required in the middle third

At this point the web serviceability requirements should
be re-checked and the web between the stiffeners should
be checked for edge-loading .

Clause 4.4.2.2 ..!.__ = 1200 = 4 _8 mm

250 250

Clause 4.4.2.3 d (Pyf) _ 1200 (265) = 3 _7 mm

250 345 250 345

Assuming no rotational restraint to top flange

Clause 4.5.2.2 /.d s

Ped
[ 10+ -2- -E-
. (a/d)2 (d/tf
l
55.4
/.d = - = 5.5 Nlmm2
10
 Plate Girders 225

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 6.2 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure :Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No.: 7 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

Assuming no stiffeners in the middle third,

aid= oo No stiffeners are
E 205 10 3
= = 14.24 N/mm2
X
Ped - - - required in the
(d/t)2 120 2
Ped > /ed middle third.

I I :::r:: I:: r::: : :

I I 5000mm J
I I
4 @1250 crs. = 5000mm 4 @1250 crs. = 5000mm

Clause 4.2.5 Deflection

span 15000
&nax ~ --- = 41.7mm
360 360
5W! 3 23?/ 3
&Jdl = -- and bJ,oint loads = --
384EI 648EI

Deflection due to unfactored imposed loads

UDL W = 25 kN/m Point loads P = 400 kN

15000 3 [5 X 25 X 15 + 23 X 400]
205 X 15.59 X 10 9 384 648

bact"' 20.2 mm < 41.7 mm Deflection is

acceptable
or

Using the equivalent UDL technique,

B.Max. due to unfactored loads = 2703 kNm.

0.104 X 2703 X 10 3 X 15000 2

= 19.8 mm
205 X 15.59 X 10 9

Clause 4.5.1.2 Intermediate stiffeners

Table 6 Assume 8 mm thick flats py = 275 N/mm2 s = 1.0
226 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 6.2 Cales. by: W.McK.
Part of Structure : Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 8 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

. . Outstand b. :::; 19 x 8 = 152 mm

~.... . fl 'dth a vat'1a ble = {460 - 10) =225mm
fv1axunum ange Wl Adequate
2
Clause 4.4. 6.4 a= 1250 mm, .fid = ../2 x 1200 = 1697mm
a < .fid

1.5 X 1200 3 X 10 3 6 4
= 1.659 x 10 mm
1250 2

I. = 1.659 X 106

(2b. + t) = 135.5 .. b.= 62.8 mm say 65 mm Adopt 2/stiffeners

13ts& = 13 X 8 X 1.0 = 1.4 > outstand 65 mm x 8 mm thick

Clause 4.4.6. 7 Weld capacity ~ Adopt 4 continuous

5b. 5 X 65
= 0.31 kN/mm on two welds 6 mm fillet welds

Terminate stiffeners at 4t clear of tension flange

i.e. 4 x 10 = 40 mm
Extend stiffeners to compression flange, no weld required.

Load bearing stiffeners under point loads

0.8 X 836 X 10 3
Clause 4.5.4.2 Contact area A > ------ = 2432 mm2
275

Assuming stiffeners 10 mm thick, and allowing 20 mm fillet

for weblt1ange weld
A = 2(b.-20) X 10 = 2432
b. = 142 mm

Try stiffeners comprising 2 flats 145 x 10 mm thick

Clause 4.5.1.2 13ts& = (13 x 10 x 1.0) = 130 mm
19ts& = '(19 X 10 X 1.0) = 190mm
130 <b. < 190
:. Use core section equal to 130 mm
 Plate Girders 227

Contract: Connections Job Ref. No.: Example 6.2 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Plate girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 9 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

Clause 4.5.1.5

:!1-- 10 mm thick
·I
l
·w~...~
f=.==Elil=···=~·>··=~ · ··>1 :·:m:;!
·:····ill
·nill:·:·ill··=ill ·'·"ill···ill·
······ill ·"'ill···mill
:···ill ·< C::=~ 10 mm thick
· i:i!iJ

!! (
!
' - - - - -1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
201 = 200 mm i 201 =200 mm
I I

J0 X 270 3 400 X 10 3
I = + = 16.44 x 106 mm4
12 12
Area = (270 X 10) + (400 X 10) = 6700 mm2
/16.44 X }0 6
r = = 49.5 mm
6700

LE = 0.7 X 1200 = 840 mm

840
A. = - = 16.91
49.5
Clause 4. 7.5 py = 255 N/mm2 (Table 6 value less 20 N/mm2)
Table 27(c) Pc = 253 N/mm2

Buckling resistance = Px = (253 X 6700)11 03

Px = 1695 kN >> 836kN Adequate in buckling

Clause 4.5.5 Bearing capacity (Applied load - Ploca!)

~
= (836- 275) = 561 kN
P1oca! = (b, + n2 )tpyw
Assume b 1 = 0 n2 = (2.5 x40) = 100 mm
P1ocal = ( 100 X 10 X 275 )/103 = 275 kN

Bearing capacity = Pcrip = (275 x 6700 )11 03

Pcnp= 1843 kN >> 561 kN Adequate in bearing
228 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 6.2 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 10 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

Clause 4.5.9 Welded cOimection

Tension capacity Pt = Aepy = (6700 X 275)/103
= 1843 kN
Applied force = 836 kN
Design weld for 836 kN

Length of stiffener = 1200 nun

Strength of weld required = 836 = 0.7 kN/nun Adopt 4 continuous
1200
End Post 6 nun fillet welds
Q8 X 12515 X 10 3
Clause 4.5.4.2 Contact area A > = 3641 nun2
275
Assuming stiffeners 12 nun thick, and allowing 20 nun fillet
for web/flange weld
A = 2(b.- 20) x 10 = 3641 nun2
b. = 172 nun
Try stiffeners comprising 2 flats 180 x 12 nun thick

Clause 4.5.1.2 13t5 & = (13 x 12 x 1.0) = 156 nun

19fs& = (19 X 12
1.0) = 228 nun
X
130 < bs < 190
:. Use core section equal to 156 nun

Clause 4.5.1.5

\
J
rl-I
322mm
1
••

.x«··
~~
12 mm thick

· ""' ' ··
10 mm thick
1
I 1

~~
!I 2ot =200 mm

1<:::: 'f-,
10 322 3 206 X 10 3
X
I = + = 33.41 x 106 nun4
12 12
Area = (322 X 10) + (246 X 10) = 6324nun2
/33.41 X J0 6
r = = 72.7nun
6324
 Plate Girders 229

Contract : Connections Job Ref. No. : Example 6.2 Cales. by : W.McK.

Part of Structure : Plate Girders Checked by:
Calc. Sheet No. : 11 of 11 Date:

References Calculations Output

LE = (0.7 X 1200) = 840nun

A. = -840- = 11.6
72.7
Clause 4. 7.5 py = 255 N/nun2 (Table 6 value less 20 N/nun2>
Table 27(c) Pc = 255 N/nun2

Buckling resistance = Px = (255 x 6324)/10 3

Px = 1613 kN > 1251.5 kN Adequate in buckling

Bearing capacity ~ (Applied load - Piocai)

P1ocal = ( b, + n2 )tpyw = 275 kN as before
(Applied load - Piocai) = (1251.5- 275) = 976.5 kN

Clause 4.5.3 Bearing capacity Pcnp = ( 275 x 6324 )/10 3 = 1739 kN

Pcnp » 976.5 kN Adequate in bearing

Clause 4.5.9 Welded connection

Tension capacity Pt = A.py = (6324 X 275)/10 3
= 1739 kN
Applied force = 1251.5 kN

Design weld for 1251.5 kN

Length of stiffener = 1200nun Adopt 4 continuous
1251.5
Strength of weld required =--= 1.04 kN/nun 6 nun fillet welds
1200

Flange to web connection

q Q'A-Y
= __ N/nun2
I
Q = 1251.5 kN

Ay = (460 X 40 X 620) = 11.408 x 10 6 nun3

JJO( = 15.59 x 10 9 nun4 Adopt 2 continuous

1251.5 11.408 I 06
=
X X
q = 0.915 kN/nun 6 nun fillet welds
15.59 X 10 9
7. Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3

7.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an introduction to the contents of the Concise Eurocode 3 and
illustrates the design of simple structural elements. A more comprehensive treatment can be
found in Introduction to Concise Eurocode 3 (C-EC3) - with Worked Examples published
by The Steel Construction Institute.
The European Standards Organisation, CEN, is the umbrella organisation under which a
set of common structural design standards (e.g. ECl, EC2, EC3, etc.) have been developed.
The Structural Eurocodes are the result of attempts to eliminate barriers to trade throughout
the European Union. Separate codes exist for each structural material, including EC 3 for
steel. The basis of design and loading considerations is included in EC 1.
Each country publishes its own European Standards (EN); for example, in the UK the
British Standards Institution (BSI) issues documents, which are based on the Eurocodes
developed under CEN, with the designation BS EN.
Currently, the Structural Eurocodes are issued as Pre-standards (ENV) which can be
used as an alternative to existing national rules. In the UK the BSI has used the designation
DD ENV; the pre-standards are equivalent to the traditional 'Draft for development'
Documents.
In the UK the Eurocode for steelwork design is known as 'DD ENV 1993-1-1 Eurocode
3: Design of steel structures: Part 1.1 General rules for buildings' (together with the United
Kingdom National Application Document).
Eurocode 3 adopts the 'Limit State Design' philosophy as currently used in UK national
standards.

7.1.1 National Application Document (NAD)

Each country which issues a European Standard also issues a NAD for use with the EN.
The purpose of the NAD is to provide information to designers relating to product standards
for materials, partial safety factors and any additional rules and/or supplementary
information specific to design within that country.

7.1.2 Concise EC3 (C-EC3)

In the UK The Steel Construction Institute has published C-EC3 - Concise Eurocode 3 for
the Design of Steel Buildings in the United Kingdom. This document is an abridged version
of DD ENV 1993-1-1 and covers only the sections and Clauses which are necessary for the
design of types of steel structures most commonly used in the UK. This can be used as a
stand-alone design standard for most building structures. Unlike EC 3, many of the design

230
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 231

provisions in this document are presented in Tabular or Chart format which will be familiar
to UK designers. A summary of the abbreviations is given in Table 7 .1.

Table 7.1

Abbreviation Meanin2
CEN European Standards Organisation
EC Eurocode produced by CEN
EN European Standard based on Eurocode and
issued by member countries
ENV Pre-standard of Eurocode issued by member
countries
DDENV U.K version ofPre-standard1 (BSI)
NAD National Application Document issued by
member countries (BSI)
C-EC3 Concise Eurocode (abridged version of DD
ENV 1993-1-1) published by the SCI for UK
designers

7.2 Terminology, Symbols and Conventions

The terminology, symbols and conventions used in EC 3 differ from those used by BS
5950:Part 1. The code indicates 'Principles' which are general statements and definitions
which must be satisfied and 'Rules' which are design procedures which comply with the
principles. The rules can be substituted by alternative procedures provided that they can be
shown to be in accordance with the principles; C-EC3 does not make this distinction.
There are two types of Annexe in EC3: normative and informative. Normative Annexes
have the same status as the main body of the text, while Informative Annexes provide
additional information. The Annexes generally contain more detailed material or material
which is used less frequently.

7. 2.1 Decimal Point

Standard ISO practice has been adopted in representing a decimal point by a comma, i.e.
5,3 = 5.3.

7.2.2 Actions

The term 'actions: is used when referring to:

232 Design ofStructural Steelwork

+ permanent loads (G) e.g. dead loads such as self-weight

+ variable loads (Q) e.g. imposed, wind and snow loads
+ accidentalloads (A) e.g. explosions, fire

7.2.3 Resistance

The term 'resistance' is used when referring to member capacity:

+ shear resistance (Vpi·Ra)

+ moment resistance (Mc.Ra)
+ buckling resistance (Rb.Ra)

7.2.4 Subscripts

Multiple subscripts are used to denote variables and are defined in Appendix B of C-EC3.
The level of sophistication is above that used in BS 5950:Part 1; for example, Vp1.Ra is the
design (d), plastic (pl), shear(V) resistance (R) of a section.

7.2.5 Design Values

The term 'design' is used for factored loading and member resistance.

Design loading (Fa) = characteristic (k) value x partial safety factor (YF)

characteristic (k) value

Design resistance (Ra) =
partial Safety factor ( YM)

Note: Design loads apply to both serviceability and ultimate limit states.
The application of design loads to a structure results in design effects such as internal forces
and moments denoted by Sa .. Structures must be designed such that
Sa s Ra

7.2.6 Partial Safety Factors

The Eurocode provides indicative values for various safety factors and are shown in the text
as 'boxed values', i.el1,351. Each country defines 'boxed values' within the NAD document

to reflect the levels of safety required by the appropriate authority of the national
government; in case of the UK, the BSI.
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 233

A comparison between the values of partial safety factor for loads which are adopted in
C-EC 3 and BS 5950:Part 1 is given in Table 7.2.

Table 7 2
Load Type C-EC 3 BS 5950:Part 1
Permanent (G) ra = 1.35G YF= 1.4G
Variable (Q) YQ = 1.5Q YF= l.6Q
(Wind) includes wind load YF= l.4W
Permanent+ Variable 1,35G + 1,35Q 1.2G +1.2Q
(+Wind) + (0,9 X 1,35)Qwind + l.2W

The UK NAD includes a rule (Clause 4(b)) which states that the wind loading should be
taken as 90% ofthe value obtained from CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972. This compensates
for the higher value of YQ used in C-EC 3. Note: CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 has been
superseded by BS 6399: Part 2 1995.
When considering combinations of loads consisting of more than one variable load, EC3
adopts a method utilizing a combination factor If/. The values of If/ for different types of
variable load are given in ECl, but are currently included in the UK NAD. For most
building structures in normal design situations, a simplified approach is also given in EC3.
This is reflected in the modified partial load factor of 1,3 5 for the combination of more than
one independent variable load. In addition to the above, imposed floor loads and imposed
roof loads are considered to be independent types of variable load. This simplified approach
has been adopted in C-EC3.
The partial safety factors for resistance YM are given in Clause 5.1 of C-EC3 and,
unlike BS 5950: Part 1 where YM = 1.0, there are three values:
Ymo 1,05 applies when plastic yielding occurs at failure
Yml 1,05 applies when either overall or local buckling occurs at failure
Ym2 1,2 applies when failure occurs on the net section of bolt holes

Separate values apply for connection design, details of which are given in Chapter 6 of
C-EC3.

7.2. 7 Symbols

The symbols used to denote section properties in C-EC3 are different from those used in BS
5950: Part 1 and the current structural section property tables published by SCI. A number
of 'Properties of Structural Steel Sections' tables are included in Part IV of Introduction to
Concise Eurocode 3 (C-EC3) - with Worked Examples published by SCI (publication
number Pll5). Tables 7.3 and 7.4 give comparisons ofthe symbols used in C-EC3 and BS
5950:Part 1.
234 Design ofStructural Steelwork
Table 7.3

Depth of Width of Thickness Root

Code section section radius
Web Flange
C-EC3 h b tw tr r
BS 5950:Part 1 D B t T r
Depth between Ratio for local
Code fillets Shear area buckling Area

C-EC3 d Av cltr dftw A

BS 5950:Part 1 d Av biT d/t A

Table 7.4

Second Radius of Lateral torsional

Code moment of gyration buckling constants
area
major nunor major nunor
C-EC3 lyy fzz iyy izz hr aLT aLrfiLT
BS 5950:Part 1 fxx fvv ixx ivv see Note*
Elastic Plastic modulus Warping Torsion
Code modulus constant constant
major mmor major nunor
C-EC3 WeJ.v Wel·z Wvl· Wvl·v fw It
BS 5950:Part 1 Zxx Zvv Sxx Svv H J

Note: Two new parameters hr and aLr are defined in Clauses (16) and (17) of C-EC3.
The parameters combine the term ry with the buckling parameter 'U' and the torsional index
'x' used in BS 5950: Part 1. The value of aLrliLr is approximately equal to 0, 8hlt1-

7.2.8 Conventions

The difference in conventions most likely to cause confusion for UK engineers is the change
in the symbols used to designate the major and minor axes of a cross-section. Traditionally,
in the UK the y-y axis has represented the minor axis; in C-EC3 this represents the major
axis, the minor axis being represented by the z-z axis. The x-x axis defines the longitudinal
axis. All three axes are shown in Figure 7 .1.
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 235

z
C-EC3 convention BS 5950: Part 1 convention

Figure 7.1

7.2.9 Materials

The grades of steel given in Table 3.1 of C-EC3 are designated as Fe 430 or 8275, both of
which represent steel equivalent to grade 43 and Fe 510 or 8355 which represent steel
equivalent to grade 50. The two designations 'Fe' and '8' represent the designations given
to types of steel in BS EN 10025:1990 and BS EN10025:1993 respectively; the 1993
version supersedes the earlier 1990 version. Both designations are given in C-EC3.
The numbers following Fe and 8 are the nominal ultimate tensile strength fu and yield
strength_[y respectively, i.e.

for Fe 430 or 8275 steel fu 430 N/mm2

+ == 275 N/mm2
.Jy

These values must be adopted as characteristic values for design. Generally, h will be
used in calculations; however, there are circumstances, such as determining the tensile
resistance of the net area at bolt holes, whenfu will be used.

Two categories of material thickness are given in Table 3.1 ofC-EC3:

t :::; 40 mm and 40 mm < t :::; 100 mm

when determining the characteristic material strength, four are given in Table 6 of BS 5950:
Part 1.
Although not stated in EC3, for rolled I and H sections 't' is normally assumed to be the
flange thickness. When considering the web resistance, the value of fy corresponding to the
web thickness can be used as in BS 5950: Part 1.
236 Design of Structural Steelwork

In Clause 3.I.4 of C-EC3 the value of the Modulus of Elasticity (E) is gtven as
210 Nhnm2, this differs from BS 5950: Part 1 which gives a value of205 N/mm2 •

7.3 Section Classification

In C-EC3 the elements of cross-sections are classified as Class I to Class 4 as indicated in

Chapter 2, Section 2.2 of this text. A more detailed, comprehensive treatment is given inC-
EC3 than in BS 5950:Part 1. Three Tables 5. 6(a), (b) and (c) are given for classification of
Class I, 2 and 3 cross-sections respectively. The resistance of Class 4 cross-sections is
governed by local buckling. In BS 5950:Part 1 the strength of slender cross-sections is
limited according to the requirements of Clause 3. 6 and the strength reduction factors in
Table 8.
In C-EC 3 a more realistic approach is taken in which an effective width of section is
used while still maintaining the full yield strength in resistance calculations. The SCI
publication P115 gives the classification of standard sections under pure bending or pure
compression in the Section Property Tables. The classification of flanges subject to
combined bending and compression or tension is given in Tables 5.6 (a) to (c). Webs
subject to combined bending and compression or tension are dealt with in Clause 5. 3. 2 and
Table 5.8 for Class I and Class 2 cross-sections and in Table 5.9 for Class 3 cross-
sections.

7.4 Use of C-EC3

A selection of examples are used in this chapter to illustrate the use of C-EC3 for the design
of structural elements. Where necessary, extracts from appropriate Tables in C-EC3 have
been included, although access to a copy of C-EC3 is preferable. The clause reference
numbers relate to those used in C-EC3 and not EC3 which differs slightly.

7. 4.1 Example 7.1 Beam with full lateral restraint

A simply supported beam ABCD supports a uniformly distributed load and two point loads
as shown in Figure 7.2. Using the design data given check the suitability of a 457 x 152 x
52 UB with respect to:

(i) shear
(ii) bending
(iii) web crushing
(iv) web crippling (this is an additional check which is not required in BS 5950:
Part 1),
(v) web buckling and
(vi) deflection
Assume the compression flange to be fully restrained.
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 237

W1 W1

A
~
t
Figure 7.2
D

Design Data:
Point loads: W1
Characteristic permanent load G = 4.5 kN
Characteristic variable load Q = 22.5 kN

Uniformly distributed load: w2

Characteristic permanent UDL (includes self-weight) g 1.4kN/m
Characteristic variable UDL q = 8.0kN/m

Solution:

Section properties: 457 x 152 x 52 UB

h = 449,8 mm b = 152,4mm fw = 7,6mm ft = 10,9 mm
cit! 6,99 dftw = 53,6 d = 407,6 mm izz = 3,11 em
Wel·y 950 cm3 Wpl·y = 1096 cm
3 l »' = 21370 cm4 Av = 36,5 cm2

Table 2. 1 Partial safety factors

Table 2.1 Partial safety factors YF - for not(

Dead load Imposed floor load
Ya Yo
1,35 1,5
1,35
1,35
1,35 ~
~

Extract from Table 2.1 C-EC3 Concise Eurocode ... (The Steel Construction Institute)

Permanent load ra = 1,35

Variable load YQ = 1,5
Factored point load (1,35 X 4,5) + {1,5 X 22,5) = 39,8 kN
Factored UDL {1,35 X 1,4) + (1,5 X 8,0) = 13,9 kN/m
238 Design of Structural Steelwork
39,8 kN 39,8 kN

B 13,9 kN/m C
A D
90,4kN~100,4kN

90,4 kN

xm

x = (22,8/13,9) = 1,64 m
100,4 kN

(90,4 + 62,6)2 + (1,64 X 22,8)

Maximum bending moment = 171,7 kNm
2 2

Design shear force Vsd = 100,4 kN

Design bending moment Msd = 171,7 kNm
Coincident shear force V,d = 62,6 kN

Table 3 .1 Material strength

Table 3.1 Nominal yield strength J;,

and nominal ultimate tensile strength(,. for steel
N aminal steel grade thickness l
BS EN 10025: BS EN 10025:
(
1990 1993 ts40mm
.fv(N/mm2) .fv(N/mmz) J
Fe 430 S275 275 430 __;

Extract from Table 3.1 C-EC3 Concise Eurocode ... (The Steel Construction Institute)

Grade S275 steel, t = 10,9 < 40 mm

:. J;, = 275 N/mm2 fu = 430 N/mm2

Clause 5. 3 Section classification

Table 5. 6(a) Flange is subject to compression

 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 239

Table 5.6(a) Limiting width to thickness ratios for Class 1 elements

Width to
Type of Loading Stress distribution in Type of thickness Fe430
element element section ratio (S275)

I [
1+/y
:·········-! I
ts40mm
......... I
-~

outstand :• Welded clft 8,3

element Flange ~I c
of subject to .I
compression I Rolled
compression cit! 9,2

---
I
flange ..___
./ ------..../ ~ -

Extract from Table 5.6(a) C-EC3 Concise Eurocode ... (The Steel Construction Institute)

c!t1 = 6,99 < 9,2 :. Flange is Class 1

Also from Table 5.6(a) Web is subject to bending
cltw = 53,6 < 66,6 :. Web is Class 1
Section is Class 1

This classification is also given in the 'Properties of Structural Steel Sections', Part IV
of SCI publication Pll5.

Clause 5. 5.1 Design plastic shear resistance

The Shear Area is defined in Table 5.16 and given in SCI publication Pll5 Clause
5.1 (1). For Class 1 section material partial safety factor YMo = 1, 05

36,5 X 102 ( 275/ J3)

552kN
1,05 X 10 3
Section is adequate in shear

Clause 5.5.2(1) Design moment resistance

By inspection the coincident shear force<< 0,5Yp1.Rd

Clause 5.5.2.2(1) For Class 1 sections

240 Design ofStructural Steelwork

(1096 X 10 3 X 275) _
Mc.Rd = 287 kNm
1,05 X 106 -

Msd < Mc.Rd

Clause 5.5.5(2) Since the compression flange is fully restrained there is no

need to check for lateral torsional buckling.
Section is adequate in bending

Clause 5. 5. 6. 2 Shear buckling

For S275 grade steel the limiting value of dltw = 63,8
actual value of dltw = 53,6 < 63,8
Shear buckling check is not required

Clause 5. 7.1 Resistance ofweb to transverse forces

In BS 5950:Part 1 web buckling (Clause 4.5.2) and web bearing (Clause 4.5.3) checks are
carried out to determine if load bearing web stiffeners are required. In C-EC3 an additional
check is also required, i.e. web crippling.

Clause 5. 7. 3 Web crushing (i.e. bearing)

Design crushing resistance Ry.Rd = [(S. + Sy)fwhw]IYMJ

where:
Sy = ft(btl tw) 0' 5 [(ytl Jywt' 5 [1- (YMoOj:Ed/ fxr) 2t' 5
for an end bearing or point load at the end of a member and

Sy = 2tt(brl fw) 0' 5 ffxrl fyw] 0' 5 [1- (YMoafEd/ fxril 0' 5
for a bearing within the length of a member or a point load within the span.

Oj:Ed is the longitudinal stress in the flange

b1 is the flange breadth b, but ::; 25t1
S.r is the length of stiff bearing defined in Figure 5.16 of C-EC3

Assume the value of S.r to be 50 mm

Both the flanges and the web are Class 1 :. fxr = /yw = 275 N/mm2

Clause 5.1 (1) For Class 1 cross-sections YMo = 1,05

For buckling of sections YMJ 1,05

Check at support
At the end support the bending moment equals zero
a;_ M.,d _ 0
fEd - ( h- f f )(h X b) -
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 241

check b1 152,4 < (25 X 10,9) o.k.

s == 109(152,4)0,5(275)0,5[1-0t.s 48,81 rnm

y ' 7,6 275

RyRd == [(48,81 + 50)7,6275]/(1,05 X 103) == 148 kN

X

Maximum reaction F sd < Ry.Rd

Web is adequate in bearing

Clause 5. 7. 4 Web crippling

Design crippling resistance Ra.Rd == 0,5tw2 (Efyw) 0' 5 [(ttl fw) 0' 5 + 3(twlft)(Ssld)]lyMJ

where:
S, is the stiff bearing length and S/d ::; 0,2

In addition if a co-existent bending moment exists at the location where web crippling is
being checked, the following conditions must be satisfied:

Fsd ::; Ra.Rd , Msd ::; Mc.Rd ' and

At support D
Assuming the stiff bearing length 50rnm
50
== 0,12 < 0,2
407,6
Clause 5.1 (1) 1,05

Clause 3.1. 4 Modulus of elasticity E == 210 x 103 N/rnm2

Design crippling resistance:

R Rd == o,5 x 7,62(210 x 103 x 275rs [( 10,9)0.5 + 3( 7,6 )(o 12)] == 302 kN

a. 1,05x103 7,6 10,9 '

Maximum design shear force Vsd== 100,4 kN < Ra.Rd

Web is adequate at supports

At point B under point load

Under the point load the stiff bearing length will be at least equal to 50 rnm and there is
a coincident bending moment.
:. Ra.Rd ::::: 302 kN
242 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Clause 5. 7. 4(2) Fsd = 39,8 kN

Ra.Rd ~ 302 kN
Msd = 171,4 kNm
Mc.Rd = 287 kN

_ 39,8 171,4
Fsd ~ Ra.Rd, , M.rd 5 Mc.Rd ,
Fsd
--+-- - -+--
Msd
= 0,73 ~ 1,5
Ra.Rd Mc.Rd 302 287
Web is adequate under point load at point B

By inspection web under the point load at C is adequate.

Clause 5. 7. 5 Web buckling

Clause 5. 4. 3. 2 Design buckling resistance

where:
fJA = 1,0
=
rs.
A beff X tw
beff is the effective breadth of the web taken as [h 2 + S} At the ends of a member beff

should not be taken as greater than the actual length available (~+a) ,
(where a is the distance from the centre of support to the end of the beam), nor
greater than 'h'. This is indicated in Clause 5. 7.5(2) and for various load cases in
Figure 5.17 of C-EC3.
fc is the compressive strength obtained from Table 5.14 (a) or (b) using buckling curve
(c)

To obtain a value of fc from Table 5.14 requires a value of slenderness (A-) which is
dependent on the conditions of lateral and rotational restraint of the flanges at the location
on the member where the force is applied.
Typical values of A, for the more common situations are given in Table 5.29.

At support D
Clause 5. 7.5(4) and Table 5.29 Assuming that the ends of the web are restrained against
both rotation and relative lateral movement.

A = 2,5dftw = 2,5 X 53,6 = 134

Table 5.13 The web is considered to be a solid section and

Clause 5. 7.5(3) Use buckling curve c

Table 5.14(a) steel grade S275 fJA = 1, 0 t ~ 40 mm
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 243

strengthfc (N/mm2) for steel grade Fe 430 (S275)

t s 40 mm 40 mm s t s 100 mm
A-.Jii: Buckling curve Buckling curve
a b c d a b c d
- - - - - - - - -
130 103 94 87 76 102 93 85 75
135 96 89 82 72 95 88 80 71
"-- 140 90 _84_ II 68 90 83 76 67,

Extract from Table 5.14(a) C-EC3 Concise Eurocode ... (The Steel Construction Institute)

A-.Jli: = 134 :. fc = 83 N/mm2

Clause 5.1(1) YMl = 1,05
Clause 5. 7.5(1) and Table 5.17 assuming a = 50 mm
he« = 449 ' 2 +50= 274 6 mm < h
~' 2 '
Clause 5. 4. 3. 2 Design buckling resistance

= 1,0 X 83 X (274,6 X 7,6)

1,05 X 10 3

165 kN
Maximum design shear force Vsd = 100,4 kN < ~.Rd
Web is adequate in buckling

By inspection the web is adequate in buckling at points B and C.

Clause 2. 4 Serviceability Limit State of Deflection

The check for the limit state of deflection differs from that used in BS 5950:Part 1. C-EC3
recommends limiting values of maximum vertical deflection due to variable loads and
combined permanent and variable loads allowing for a pre-camber where it is used.
Second-order deflections induced by the rotational stiffuess of semi-rigid joints and
possible plastic deformations at the serviceability limit state should also be considered when
appropriate.
The partial safety factors to be adopted when determining the serviceability design loads
for deflection calculations are given in Table 2. 3, they are:

(i) permanent loads ra = 1,0

(ii) variable floor loads YQ = 1,0
(iii) variable roof loads YQ = 1,0
(iv) variable wind loads YQ = 0,9 X 1,0 = 0,9
244 Design ofStructural Steelwork

For combinations of loading:

(i) + (ii) Ya 1,0 YQfloor = 1,0

(i) + (iii) Ya = 1,0 YQroof = 1,0
(i) + (iv) Ya = 1,0 YQwind = 0,9
(i) + (ii) + (iii) + (iv) Ya = 1,0 YQfloor = 1,0 YQroof = 1,0 YQwind = 0,81

Design point loads:

permanent load Ga = 1,0 x 1,0 l,OkN
variable Qa = 1,0 x 5,0 = 5,0kN

Design distributed loads:

permanent load ga = 1,0 x 1,4 = 1,4 kN
variable load qa = 1,0 x 8,0 = 8,0kN

Since the beam has a non-standard load case, the deflection can be estimated using the
'equivalent distributed load' technique explained in section 2.6.1 of Chapter 2, i.e.

6 ~ o,1o4 x B.MaxL2
max EJ

permanent loads:

1,0 kN 1,0 kN

A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~D
9,2 kN 6,73 kN

9,2 kN

5,4 kN x =(5,4/1 ,4) =3,9 m

l xm l
(9,2 + 6,4)2 (3,9 X 5,4)
B.Max = + = 26,1 kNm
2 2
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 245

variable loads:

5,0 kN 5,0 kN

~ D
36,4kNt=37,6kN

36,4 kN
X= (15,4/8,0) = 1,93 kN

B.Max
(36,4 + 20,4)2 + (1,92 x 15,4) = 71 ,58 kNm
2 2

()I ~ 0,104 X 26,1 X 103 X 80002

permanent load deflection 3,87mm
210 X 21370 X 104

variable load deflection (}z ~ 3 87 X 71,58 = 10,6mm

' 261
'

Table 4.1 Recommended limiting deflections:

L 8000
due to variable loads 32mm
250 250
t5z < 32 mm

Variable load deflection is acceptable

Figure 4.1

where bO = pre-camber In this the pre-camber equals zero

~ax = 3,87 + 10,6 = 14,47 mm

Table 4.1 Recommended limiting deflections:

L 8000
due to combined loads = - - - 40mm
200 200
(61 + 6-z) < 32 mm

Combined load deflection is acceptable

246 Design ofStructural Steelwork

7.5 Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB) (Clause 5.5.5)

Clause 5.5.5(3) indicates that lateral torsional buckling need not be checked if the spacing
of restraints is such that:

ALT .fi3: : :; 34,7 for steel grade S275

< 30,6 for steel grade S355

where J..Lr is the equivalent slenderness given in Clause 5.5.5(a) as:

where:
k is the effective length factor from Tables 5.21 and 5.24 for beams and cantilevers
respectively.
C1 is a factor to allow for the shape of the bending moment diagram and also depends
upon the end restraint conditions. C 1 encompasses the equivalent uniform moment
factor 'm' and the slenderness correction factor 'n' used in BS 5950:Part 1. The
value of C 1 equals 1.0 for cantilevers, for other beams the values of the parameter
[k/cJ] 0•5 are given in Table 5.22 and 5.23 depending on the loading type.
hr and aLT are as defined previously and given in Section Property Tables.
f3w = 1,0 for Class 1 or Class 2 cross-sections
Wez.)Wpl·y for Class 3 cross-section
We.ff)Wpl·y for Class 4 cross-sections as defined in Clause 5.5.5(7)

Clause 5.5.5(4) The conditions of Clause 5.5.5(3) will be satisfied for Class 1, or Class
2 rolled I, H or channel sections provided that:
k ]0,5
[- L :::; 35,0iLr or 37,5iz for steel grade S275
c1
:::; 30,8iLT or 33,0iz for steel grade S355

Clause 5.5.5(5) and Table 5.17

The conditions of Clause 5.5.5(3) will be satisfied for rectangular hollow sections provided
that the value of f3w[k/CI]L/iz does not exceed the values given in Table 5.17. This is similar
to Clause B.2.6 and Table 38 for boxed sections inAppendix B ofBS 5950:Part 1.
In Clause 5.5.5(10) an alternative equation for determining the equivalent slenderness
J..Lr is given:
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 247
0,5

ALT =
[
~I ]
ALTB

where ALTB is the basic equivalent slenderness obtained from Table 5.19 using Llhr and
aLrliLT.
In Clause 5.5.5(11) a further alternative is given to determine .fi, for a rolled section
0,5

using Table 5.20 and parameters L I aLT and /3~ 5 [ ~1 ]

L/iLT

7.6 Example 7.2 Beam with intermediate and end restraints

A single span beam ABCD of 8,0 m length supports point loads at B and C as shown in
Figure 7.3. Using the design data given check the suitability of a 406 x 140 x 39 UB with
respect to lateral torsional buckling resistance.

Ar-----~8~----------~C~________,D
4,0 m 2,0 m

406 X 140 X 39 UB

Figure 7.3
Design Data:
Point load W1
Characteristic permanent load 6,0kN
Characteristic variable load 15,0 kN
Point load W2
Characteristic permanent load 6,0kN
Characteristic variable load 24,0kN

Solution:
Section properties: 457 x 152 x 52 UB
h 397,3 mm b = 141,8 mm fw = 6,3mm fJ = 8,6mm
c/tf = 8,24 dftw = 57,1 d = 359,7mm izz = 2,89mm
W.z.y = 625 cm3 Wpl·y = 718 cm3 IY.Y = 12410 cm4 Av = 27,1 cm2
aLT/iLT = 36,3 hr = 3,33 em aLT = 12,1 em
EC3 Section classification = 1. 0

Table 2.1 Partial safety factors

Permanent loads ra = 1,35
Variable loads YQ = 1,5
248 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Factored load W1 = [(1,35 X 6) + (1,5 X 15)] = 30,6 kN

Factored load W2 = [(1,35 X 6) + (1,5 X 24)] = 44,1 kN

30,6 kN

A~----~~---------c~------~·
4 kN 4,0 m 40,7 kN
~~--~~--~------4-~-----+

Table 3.1 Material strength Grade S275 steel t = 6,3 mm < 40 mm

J;, = 275 N/mm2 fu = 430 N/mm2

r----------------------------------------------------1 I
Clause 5. 3 Section classification: This is given in the section property tables and is:
shown here for illustration purposes. :
Table 5. 6 Flange subject to compression :
c!t1 = 8,24 < 9,2 Flange is Class 1 :
I
Web is subject to bending 1
dltw = 57,1 < 66,6 Web is Class 1
I
1
Section is Class 1 :

Check the critical length between B and C

Assumptions compressive flange is laterally restrained at A, B, C and D

beam is fully restrained against torsion
both flanges are free to rotate on plan
Table 5.21 k= 1,0

A 8 c D

~ 81,4 kNm

Bending Moment Diagram

smaller end moment 68,0

If/= = = 0,835
1arg er end moment 81,4
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-ECJ 249

Table 5.22 Factors [kiCJ] 0' 5 for end moment loading with k = 1,0

Table 5.22 Factors fk/C1l 0' 5 and fk/C31 End moment loading
M lf/M
(f f) k= 1,0 k = 0,85 k= 0,7

If/ [kiCJ]o,5 [kiC3] [kiCJ]o,5 [kiC3] [kiCJ]o,5

- - - - - - ~
+0,9 0,97 1,00 0,89 0,70 0,79 (
+0,8 0,95 1,00 0,85 0,67 0,76 t
+0,7 0,92 1,00 0,83 0,66 JL13~

Extract from Table 5.22 C-EC3 Concise Eurocode ... (The Steel Construction Institute)

By interpolation [kiCJ] 0' 5 0,957

Clause 5.5.5(4):

0,5
[
~] ]
L = 0,957 X 4000 3828 mm, (35,0iLT) = 35,0 x 33,3 1166mm

[c kl ]o,5L > 35,0hr :. Length BC of the beam must be checked for LTB

Cl.ause -'·- 5.5(7') H

IVIb.Rd
-
-
f3 W;;;wpl.y
YMJ

where .tb is the bending strength and must be determined from Table 5.18(a) for rolled
sections using_fv and the modified slenderness A.Jii::
_ [k 1ct) 0 ' 5 L liLT 0,957 X ( 4000 I 33,3) 114,95
--
A LT- [
1+ (LI aLT)
2 lo ,
25
1 + (4000 1121) 2 0 25
] ,
2,57
44,73

[
25,66 25,66

f3w = 1, 0 for Class 1 cross-sections

Table 5.18(a) ALT-..Jr-;;--/3

Pw = 44,73 and J; = 275 Nlmm2
250 Design of Structural Steelwork

Table 5 .18(a) Bending streng!h_ h_ _(1'J/mm2) = Rolled

2Lrffw Yield strength};, (N/mm2)
255 275 335 355
- - - - -
44 237 254 303 319
46 235 252 300 316

Extract from Table 5.18(a) C-EC3 Concise Eurocode.,. (The Steel Construction Institute)

/b = 253 N/mm2
Clause 5.1(1) YMJ 1,05

= l,Ox253x718xl0 3 = 173 kNm

YMJ 1,05x106
Maximum design moment between B and C Msd = 81,4 kNm

By inspection the lengths of beam between AB and BC are adequate.

Section is adequate w.r.t L TB

Alternative method of evaluating equivalent slenderness 2Lr

Clause 5.5.5(10)
4000
Table 5.19 Llhr == - - - 120
33,3
121
= 36,3 (or from section property tables)
33,3

Table 5.19 Basic equivalent slenderness 2LrB

LliLr aLrlhr
4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
- - - - - - - - - - -
115 47,9 58,1 66,3 73,0 85,4 93,5 98,9 102,7 105,3 107,2
120 49,0 59,5 67,9 74,8 87,8 96,4 102,2 106,3 109,2 111,3
125 50,0 60,8 69,4 76,6 90,1 99,2 105,5 109,9 113,0 115,3
~ ...._______,- ~ ~

------------
Extract from Table 5.19 C-EC3 Concise Eurocode ... (The Steel Construction Institute)

ALTB = 109,75
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 251
0,5

ALT =
[
~I ]
ALTB = 0,975 X 109,75 = 104

Table 5.18(a) ALT..Jii: = 109,75 X 1,0= 109,75, /y 275 N/mm2

fi, = 146 N/mm 2
the value of Mb.Rd can be determined as before.

Alternative method of evaluating bending strength/b

Clause 5.5.5(11)
4000
- - - 33,1
121
Pw = 1,0

0,5
1,0 X 0,957 X 4000 = 115
/3~5 ~I
[ ]
L/iLT 33,3

Table 5.20(a) Bending strength Ji, for ROLLED SECTIONS

Grade Fe 430 (S275) steel t ~ 40 mm (fv = 275 N/mm2)
fJW 0' 5 [k/CI] 0' 5LliLr LlaLr
0 2 4 6 - - - 30 35
- - - - - - - - - -
110 135 142 160 180 - - - 253 256
115 126 133 150 171 - - - 251 254
120 117 124 142 162 - - - 248 252

Extract from Table 5.20(a) C-EC3 Concise Eurocode ... (The Steel Construction Institute)

fi, = 253 N/mm2

The value of Mb.Rd can be determined as before.

7. 7 Example 7.3 Truss members with axial tension/ compression

AnN-girder supports characteristic permanent and variable loads as shown in Figure 7.4.
Using the design data provided check the suitability of the sections indicated for members
AB and CD.

Design Data:
Point load W1
Characteristic permanent load 15 kN
Characteristic variable load 30kN
252 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Point load W2
Characteristic permanent load 7,5kN
Characteristic variable load 15 kN

c D 8

6 Bays at 4,0 m

Figure 7.4

Member AB: 100 x 100 x 10 single angle, double bolted to a gusset plate
Member CD: compound strut comprising 2/150 x 90 x 12 angles double bolted
with long legs connected to both sides of a gusset plate.

Note: Assume 20 mm diameter bolts in 2 mm clearance holes at a pitch of 2,5 x bolt

diameter for all connections

Solution:

Table 2.1 Partial safety factors ra = 1,35 YQ = 1,5

Factored load (1,35 X 15) + (1,5 X 30) = 65,25 kN

Factored load (1,35 X 7,5) + (1,5 X 15) = 32,63 kN

32,63 kN 65,25 kN 65,25 kN 65,25 kN 65,25 kN 65,25 kN 32,63 kN

c Fco 0 8

195,75 kN 6 Bays at 4,0 m 195,75 kN

Figure 7.5

Member force AB (Nsa) = + 230,7 kN tension

Member force CD (Nsa) = - 293,6 kN compression
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 253

Table 3.1 Material strength Grade S275 steel, t :::; 40mm

h = 275 N/mm2 fu = 430 N/mm2

Member AB: 100 x 100 x 12 single angle, double bolted to gusset plate
Section properties: A = 22,8 cm2

Clause 5.4.2(1) Tension members

Design tension resistance = Nsd :::; NtRd
Clause 5.4.2(2)
where:
Nt.Rd :::; NpLRd = Af/YMo
NtRd :::; Nu.Rd = 0,9AnetfulyM2

Clause 5.4.2(6) For angles connected through one leg reference is made to Clause 5.8.3.2
for bolted connections and Clause 5. 8. 3. 3 for welded connections.

Clause 5.8.3.2 As in BS 5950:Part 1 allowance is made for secondary effects due to

eccentric connections in angles. In C-EC3, for angles with a single row of bolts in one leg
the design ultimate resistance of the net section is determined from:

2,0(e2- 0,5do)tfu
single-bolted Nu.Rd =
YM2
fJ2AneJu
double-bolted Nu.Rd
YM2
fJ3AneJu
more than two bolts Nu.Rd
YM2
where:
do is the diameter of the ~olt hole
e2 is the edge distance ofthe bolt hole
/32 is the reduction factor for 2 bolts as given in Table 5.30
/33 is the reduction factor for 3 bolts as given in Table 5.30
Anet is the net cross-sectional area of the angle. For an unequal angle connected by its
smaller leg, A net must be taken as the net cross-sectional area of an equal of leg size
equal to the smaller leg.

Note: This differs from BS 5950:Part 1 in that it applies to all bolted angles connected by
one leg, i.e. both tension and compression members.

Clause 5.1 (1) Material partial safety factors YMo = 1,05 YM2 = 1,2

(22,8 X 102 X 275)

Clause 5.4.2(2) Npl.Rd = Af)YMO 597kN
1,05 X 103
254 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Clause 5.8.3.2 Nu.Rd =

Table 5.30
Table 5.30 Reduction factors 132 and !
Pitch PI PI~ 2 5 do 2,5 <p1 < 5,0 do
2 bolts 132 = 0,4 132 = 0 1 + 1 2pl I
::?: 3 bolts /33 = 0,5 /33 = 0,3 + 0,8pl

Extract from Table 5.30 C-EC3 Concise Eurocode ... (The Steel Construction Institute)

pitch of bolts = 2,5 x 20 = 50 mm < 2,5d0

For 2 bolts fJ2 = 0,4

Clause 5.4.1.2(1)
Anet = [Agross- (do X t)] = [2280- (22 x 12)] = 2016 mm2

= = 0,4 2016 430

= 289 kN
fJ2Anetfu X X
Clause 5. 8. 3. 2 Nu.Rd
YM2 1,2 X 103
= 289 kN
< NtRd
Section is adequate

Member CD: 2/150 x 90 x 12 double angles, double bolted to both side of a 12 mm

gusset plate

Section properties:
2/150 x 90 x 12 double angles
A= 55 2 cm2
'
izz = 3,7 em iyy= 4,78 em
1/150 x 90 x 12 single angle
A= 27,6 cm2 iyy = 4,78 em izz = 2,5 em iw = 1,95 em

In C-EC3 the length ofthe longer leg is denoted by 'h',and the shorter leg by 'b'.
As in BS 5950:Part 1 the thickness is denoted by 't'.

h 150
Section Classification: Table 5. 6(c) - = = 12,5 < 13,9
t 12

b+h 150+90
= = 20,0 < 21,3
12
Section is Class 3
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 255
Clause 5.4.3(1) Compression members

Nsd S Nc.Rd at every cross-section

s Nb.Rd for the member as a whole
where:
Nc.Rd is the design compression resistance of the cross-section
Nb.Rd is the design buckling resistance of the member given by Clause 5.4.3.2(1) as:

/3A = 1,0 for Class 1,2 or 3 cross-sections

A~ff/A for Class 4 cross-sections where Aeffis defined in Clause 5. 3.4
.fc is the compressive strength obtained from the appropriate buckling curve in Table
5.14 for the relevant value of the modified slenderness ration .AJlf:

For angles connected through one leg the in-plane slenderness ratios are given in Clause
5.8.3.1. These values also apply to back-to-hack double angles with the exception of the
check for the v-v axis which is unnecessary.

Clause 5.8.3.1 For S275 grade steel;

A~ff.v 0, 7.Av + 30,4 (not required for double angles)

Aeff.y 0, 7Ay + 43,4
A~ff.z 0,7 Az + 43,4

The effective slenderness is used with the buckling curve in Table 5. 4.

Assuming the double angles are held apart by packing pieces 450 mm from each end and at
4 75 nun centres along the length.
Consider the combined double angle buckling over the full length.

4000
For the double angle: Le = 4000 mm A:w - - - 83,7
47,8
4000
Azz = --- 108,1
37,0

Consider each component buckling between the packing pieces.

475
For the single angle: Le = 475 mm Aw = = 24
19,5
475
9.9
47,8
256 Design ofStructural Steelwork

= 475 = 19
25

Clause 5.8.3.1 By inspection A-e.o:z is the critical value

Clause 5.4.3.2(5) Aeff.z = (0,7 X 108,1) + 43,4 = 119,1 < 180

Table 5.14(a) Buckling curve c t :::; 40 rnm lc = 99,0 N/mm2

Clause 5.1(1) 'YMl = 1,05 YM2 = 1,2 /3A = 1,0

f3AfcA 1,0 X 99 X 55,2 X }02

Clause 5.4.3.2(1) Nb.Rd = = = 520kN
YMJ 1,05 X 103

AJ;, 55,2 X 102 X 275

Clause 5. 4. 3.1 (2) Nc.Rd = - = 1446 kN
YMo 1,05 X 103

f32Anetfu
Clause 5.8.3.2(2) Nu.Rd =
YM2

A net = [5520 - (22 X 12)] = 5256 rnm2

Table 5.30 /32 0,4

0,4 X 5256 X 430

Nu.Rd = = 753 kN
1,2 X 103

.". Nc.Rd - 520kN

Nsd < Nc.Rd Section is adequate

7.8 Example 7.4 Concentrically loaded single storey column

A single storey colunm supports a symmetrical arrangement of beams as shown in Figure

7.6. Using the data provided check the suitability of a 203 x 203 x 60 UC section and
design a suitable slab bas.eplate.

Design Loads:
F1 = characteristic dead load Gk= 75 kN
F 1 = characteristic imposed load Qk = 175 kN
F2 = characteristic dead load Gk= 20kN
F 2 = characteristic imposed load Qk= 75 kN
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 257

Assume a characteristic concrete cube strength fck = 30 N/nun2

,--/

5,0m

03 X 60 UC-

simple base plate

I /

Figure 7.6
Solution:
Section properties: 203 x 203 x 60 UC
h = 209,6 nun b 205,2 nun fw 9,3 nun ft = 14,2 nun
c/tf = 7,23 dffw 17,3 d = 160,8 nun izz = 5,19 nun
iyy = 9,0 em izz 5,19 em A 76,0 cm2
EC3 Section classification 1. 0

Table 2.1 Partial safety factors

Pemmnent loads ra= 1,35
Variable loads YQ = 1,5
Factored load W1 [(1,35 X 75) + (1,5 X 150)] = 326,3 kN
Factored load Wz [(1,35 X 20) + (1,5 X 65)] = 124,5 kN
Applied axial load = 2(W1 + W 2) = 2(326,3 + 124,5) ~ 902 kN

Table 3.1 Material strength Grade S275 steel t < 40 nun

h = 275 N/nun2 fu 430 N/nun2

Clause 5.1(1) YMo = 1,05 YMJ = 1,05 YM2 = 1,2

Clause 5.4.3.1(1)

Clause 5. 4. 3.1 (2) For a Class 1 section

7600 X 275
1,05xl03
< Nc.Rd
Section is adequate in compression

Clause 5. 4. 3. 2. (1) for Class 1 sections fJA = 1,0

258 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Assume the column is pinned at the top and the bottom

Table 5.12 Effective buckling lengths for various end restraint conditions

Effective buckling length about yy axis = lyy = 1,0 x 5000 = 5000 mm

Effective buckling length about zz axis = lzz = 1,0 X 5000 5000 mm

lyy 5000
Clause 5.4.3.2(2) ~ = = --- 55,6
iyy 9,0
5000
Azz = ~ - - - 96,3
lzz 51,9
Clause 5.4.3.2(5) ~ < 180 Azz < 180

Table 5.13 Selection of appropriate buckling curve depending on type of cross-section

and h/b ratio
For y-y axis use curve b, for z-z axis use curve c

Table 5.14(a) Grade S275 steel

For y-y axis J.,Jji; = 55,6 !c 210 N/mm2
For z-z axis J.,Jji; = 96,3 !c = 131 N/mm2

Critical value of fc = 131 N/mm2

fJ AfcA = 1,0 X 131 X 7600

= 948 kN
y Ml 1,05 X 103
Nsd < Nb.Rd
Section is adequate

Clause 6.10 Design of slab baseplate

The design of column slab baseplates is more comprehensive and detailed than the use of
the empirical equation given in Clause 4.13. 2 of BS 5950:Part 1. The minimum thickness,
which should not be less than the flange thickness of the column being supported, is related
to an effective projection 'c' of the baseplate from the face ofthe column or any stiffeners
as shown in Figures 6.18 and 6.19 of C-EC3. This is illustrated in this example.

Clause 6.1 0.1 (3) The effective projection should be determined from:

c - t[ /y ]0,5
3jiy MO

where:
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 259

t is the thickness of the baseplate

J; is the yield strength of the baseplate material
jj is the bearing strength of the joint given byfi = f3Jc/cd
where:
/cd is the design value of the concrete compressive strength from Table 6.12
A is the joint coefficient. This can be taken as 2/3 provided that:
(i) the characteristic strength of the grout is not less than 0,2 x characteristic
strength of the concrete ifc~c.cube)
(ii)the thickness of the grout does not exceed 0,2 x the smallest plan dimension of
the baseplate

k1 is the concentratiOn
. tactor whi ch.IS given
c. . by 10· -- [aa1bb1 ]o,s

where 'a' and 'b' are the length and width of the baseplate respectively and 'a 1' and 'b 1 ' are
the length and width of the effective area of concrete foundation as given in Figure 6. 20 of
C-EC3.
Alternatively a conservative value of~ can be taken as equal to 1,0.

Assume the characteristic strength of the grout is the same as the characteristic strength
of the concrete
/ck = C30 and /gk = 30 N/mm2
Table 6.12 /cd = fcJrc In Eurocode 2 [EC2] for concrete design the
value of Yc = 1,5
Clause 6. 10.1 (5) /cd = ~ = 20 N/mm2
1,5
Clause 6.10.1(6) /gk?:. 0,2 xfck • 0
Pi = 2/3

Clause 6.10.1(7) Assume Js· = 1,0

Clause 6.1 0.1 (5) jj = f3Jc/cd = (0,67 X 1,0 X 20) = 13,4 N/mm2

Table 3.1 Grade S275 steel J; = 275 N/mm2

Clause 5.1(1) YMO = 1,05

Assume t ~ the column flange thickness t = 15 mm

Clause 6.10.1(3) Effectiveprojection'c'

l ]0,5 275 ] 0•5

c - t[ 0
y - 15 [ 38.3 mm
3fJYMo 3 X 13,4 X 1,05

This effective projection should be considered all around each element of the column
including any baseplate stiffeners.
260 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Try baseplate ~ (h+ 2c) x (h + 2c) x 15 mm thick.

[209,6 + (2 x 38,3)] = 286,2 mm say 290 mm square

4,2

~
59,6
Non
effective
area

290 85,9
t
59,6

~~~~~~~~~~~
4' 2 -1'-'3:.. .::82.3',f--,!":....::-'...:-.l'----'--=-=__:__----,f=-=..!..::._,j<--,ji=..::..c.::,r
.:,
14,2 290
Figure 7.7

Effective bearing area = (290 x 290)- 2[(290 x 4,1) + (108,4 x 59,65)]

= 68 ' 79 x 103 mm2

902 X 103
Effective bearing pressure= = 13.23 N/mm2 < jj
68,79 X 103
Adopt 290 x 290 x 15 mm thick baseplate

7.9 Axially Loaded Members with Moments

The interaction between bending and axial loading is discussed in Chapter 4 and a number
of interaction equations given which are adopted by BS 5950:Part 1. These equations allow
for the secondary effects caused by one type of loading on member behaviour which is
subject to another type ofloading.
C-EC3, Clause 5. 6 also provides interaction equations to take account of secondary
effects. Three cases are considered.

(1) Resistance of cross-section (re local capacity check in BS 5950:Part 1)

Clause 5. 6.1. 2
For Class 1 or 2 cross-sections with low shear
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 261

where: MN.Rd is the reduced plastic resistance moment allowing for an axial force N.rd· The
value of MN.Rd can be determined using the approximate expression from Table
5.27. The UK NAD also permits the use of the relevant expressions given in UK
section property tables as an alternative to Table 5.27.

As with BS 5950:Part 1 both a conservative and a more exact expression is given; for
example, assuming 'low shear' for bi-axial bending the Conservative Approach in Clause
5. 6.1. 2 (3) uses the expression:

Nsd + My.Sd + Mzsd ::; 1.0

Afy I rMO MpLy.Rd MpLz.Rd

The More Exact Approach in Clause 5. 6.1. 2(4) uses the expression:

[ My.sd ]a+[ Mz.sd ]p ::; 1.0

M Ny.Rd M Nz.Rd

in which a and f3 are given in Table 5.28.

Similar expressions to the Conservative Approach are given for Class 3 and Class 4
cross-sections.

C-EC3, Clause 5.6.1.5 gives criteria when 'high shear' is present

(2) Buckling resistance of members with combined bending and axial tension.
Clause 5.6.2(1)
When members are susceptible to lateral torsional buckling (i.e. A, LT .fji; > 34,7 for grade
S275 steel and 30,6 for grade S355 steel), then

M.ff Sd ::; Mb.Rd

where:
· t l1e des1gn
1s · buckl"mg resistance
· moment = f3wh~Ly
YMJ

Meff.Sd is the effective internal moment = WcomO'com.Ed

where:
Wcom.Ed is the elastic section modulus for the extreme compression fibre

Scom.Ed [ M Sd _ If/ vecNt.Sd]

W,om A
0,7 in the UK NAD
= design value of axial tension.
262 Design ofStructural Steelwork

(3) Buckling resistance of members with combined bending and axial compression
Clause 5.6.3(1)
Three conditions are considered in Clause 5.6.3(1)

(a) Axial compression and major axis bending

Nsa + kyMy.sd ::; 1,0

Nb.min.Rd rJMc.y.Rd
where:
Nb.min.Rd is the minimum design buckling resistance moment = f3whA
YMJ
The use of Nb.min.Rd instead of Nb.y.Ra as given in C-EC3 is conservative

Mc.y.Rd is the design moment resistance for major axis bending.

= ~dy for Class 1 or Class 2 cross-sections

YMo

= W.dy for Class 3 cross-sections

YMo

= W..tr /y for Class 1 Or Class 2 cross-sections

YMJ
= 1,5 this is a conservative value, a procedure is given in C-EC3
for determining a more precise value,
= YMo for Class 1,2 and 3 cross-sections
YMJ
= 1, 0 for Class 4 cross-sections
For members which are susceptible to LTB

[ Nsa + kLrMy.sa] ::; l,O

Nb.z.Rd Mb.Rd

is the design buckling resistance for the minor axis.

· the design
IS
· buckl.mg resistance
· moment = f3wh~Ly
YMJ
kLr = 1,0 this is a conservative value, a procedure is given in C-EC3
for determining a more precise value.

Additional moments must be added for Class 4 cross-sections.

 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 263
(b) Axial compression and minor axis bending

NSd + kyMz.Sd ~ 1,0

Nb.min.Rd l"JMc.z.Rd

As before Nb.min.Rd gives a conservative answer

kz = 1,5 and 17 = r Mo for Class 1,2 or 3 cross-sections

YMJ
= 1,0 for Class 4 cross-sections

Additional moments must be added for Class 4 cross-sections.

(c) Axial compression and biaxial bending

For members which are susceptible to lateral torsional buckling,

ky, kz and 17 are as defined before,

kLT = 1- 1-lLrNsd ~ l,Othe value of 1.1. is defined m C-EC3 but can be taken
Nb.z.RdY Ml

conservatively as 1,0 therefore = 1- Nsd

Nb.z.RdYMl

7.10 Example 7.5 Multi-storey column in simple construction

A multi-storey column in simple construction supports four beams at first floor level as
shown in Figure 7.8. Check the suitability of a 203 x 203 x 60 UC given the factored
design loads indicated.
264 Design ofStructural Steelwork

roof level
"===~====:::r-------,1
3,0m rM
60 kN 250 kN from
first floor level I
section x-x / 8
I
35 kN

J
4,5m lW
cross-section at top of lower
slab base "- A length of column AB

Figure 7.8
Solution:
Section properties: 203 x 203 x 60 UC
h = 209,6 mm b = 205,2 mm fw = 9,3 mm t1 = 14,2 mm
c/fJ = 7,23 dffw = 17,3 d = 160,8 mm izz = 5,19 mm
iyy = 9,0 em izz = 5,19 em iu = 5,53 em aLr = 64,5 em
aLrlhr = 11,7 A = 76,0 cm2

Table 3.1 Material strength Grade S275 steel t < 40 mm

J;, = 275 N/mm2 fu = 430 N/mm2
Clause 5.1 (1) 'YMo = 1,05 YMl = 1,05

Table 5. 6(a) Section classification

The outstand compression flange of the section is subject to compression only:

cltr = 7,23 < 9,2

Flange is Class 1

The web of the section is subject to both compression and bending and should be
classified according to the criteria given in Clause 5.3.2.
Clause 5.3.2.1 For symmetric I -sections

CTw =
At section x-x on column length AB

N.,d = (230 + 130 + 60 +35 + 250) = 705 kN

N 705x10 3
____g_ = = + 471 N/mm2
dtw 160,8 X 9,3
Table 5.8 Limiting values of crw (see Extract from Table 5.8)
Web is Class 1
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 265

An alternative conservative approach is to classify the web as subject to compression

only i.e. Table 5. 6(a) dltw = 17,3 < 30,5 Web is Class 1
Section is Class 1

r----------------------------------------------------1
1Clause 5.3.2.1
For Class 1 and Class 2 webs which are subject to bending and tension1
I
I or compress10n:
: (1) For symmetric !-sections the following equation should be satisfied:
I
I
I Nsd :s; Table 5.8 value
I dtw
where:
O"w is the mean web stress, taken as +ve for compression and -ve for tension

(2) For rectangular hollow sections the following equation should be satisfied:
O"w = Nsd + IMz.sdl :s; Table 5.8 value
2dtw dt(b- tw)
where O"w as in (1). 1
I
I
Clause 5.3.2.2 For Class 3 webs which are subject to bending and tension or'
compress10n:

(1) For symmetric !-sections the following equation should be satisfied:

Cia = N sa :s; Table 5.9 value
A
where:
Cia is the mean longitudinal web stress, taken as +ve for compression and -ve for tension
A is the gross cross-sectional area.

(2) For rectangular hollow sections the following equation should be satisfied:
Nsd (b- fw )I Mz.sdl
--+ :s; Table 5.9 value
A b VV,Lz
where Cia as m (2)
I
The section classification for Class 4 cross-sections is based on the 'effective' width of:
1the compression elements and is dealt with in Clause 5.3.4. :
I I
I I
266 Design ofStructural Steelwork

Table 5.8 Limiting values of O"w (Nimm2) for Class 1 and 2 cross-sections
[compression positive : tension negative]
Class 1 Class 2
dltw Fe 430 (S275) Fe 510 (S355) Fe 430 (275)
(ts 40 mm) (ts 40mm) (t < 40mm)
26
* * *
28
* 312
* p
30 273 l
* *
32 239 238
* v
34
-
212
-
207
-
*
- ,
- - - -
* For Grade 275 steel with dltw = 17 3 < 26 O"w is always satisfactory

Extract from Table 5.8 C-EC3 Concise Eurocode ... (fhe Steel Construction Institute)

At section x-x the net moments are as follows:

Net moment about the y-y axis

(230-130)(2096
[ _,___1_03:----'- --2-' + 100)
.1] = 20,48 kNm

Net moment about the z-z axis = [

(60-35)(93
103 -t- 1]
+ 100) = 2,62 kNm

r----------------------------------------------------
Appendix F, Clauses F.4(1) and (2) of C-EC3 permits the net moment at any level of a
multi-storey column in simple construction to be divided between the column length above
and below that level in proportion to the stiffuess coefficients IlL of each length. This is the
same as Clause 4. 7. 7 in BS 5950: Part 1 with the exception that the approximation using
(I I L)
50% of the moment when lower s 1.5 is not included.
(I/ Ltpper

Consider the lower length of column at section x-x

(IIL)Iower = (/14,5) (JIL)upper = (/13,0)

. . stiffuess coefficient forlower length= ( (I; t) )

4
I I 4,5 + I I 3,0
= 0,4

design moment about y-y axis My.sd = 0,4 x 20,48 = 8,19 kNm
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 267

design moment about z-z axisMz.sd = 0,4 x 2,62 = 1,05 kNm

design axial load Ns.d = 705 kN

Clause 5. 6.1. 2 Resistance of Class 1 and Class 2 cross-sections with low shear
A conservative check can be made using Clause 5.6.1.2(4), i.e.

AjylyMO = (7600 X 275)/(1,05 X 103) 1990 kN

~1-Y.RdjY 654 X 103 X 275

Table 5.27 Mpl·y.Rd = = 171,3 kNm
YMo 1,05 X 106

~l.z.RdfY 303 X 103 X 275

MpLz.Rd = = 79,4kNm
YMo 1,05 X 106

Clause 5.6.3.2(1) 1] = YMO = 1,0

YMJ

Nsd + My.Sd + Mz.Sd = 705 + 8,19 + 1,05 = 0,42 < 1,0

Af~ I r MO Mpl.y.Rd MpLz.Rd 1990 171,3 79,4
Section is adequate in compression

If this check had failed then a more exact approach could have been used using the
expression in Clause 5.6.1.2(3).

Clause 5. 6. 3. 4 Buckling resistance moment

(1) All members subject to axial compression and biaxial bending must satisfy

NSd + My.Sd + Mz.Sd < 10

Nb.min.Rd lJMc.y.Rd lJMc.z.Rd - '

Clause 5.4.3.2(1) Nb.min.Rd p = 1, 0 for Class 1 sections

YMJ
Table 5,12 Effective buckling length about the y-y axis = 4500 mm
Effective buckling length about the z-z axis = 4500 mm

4500
Clause 5.4.3.2(2) ---50
90
268 Design ofStructural Steelwork

lzz 4500
Azz = = - - = 86,7
izz 51,9
Clause 5.4.3.2(5) A, < 180 Azz < 180

Table 5.13 h/b ~ 1,2

for y-y axis use buckling curve b
for z-z axis use buckling curve c

Table 5.14(a) for y-y axis ;t.Jii: = 50 fc = 233 N!tnm2

for z-z axis ;t.Jii: = 86,7 lc 148 N/mm2
Critical value of .fc = 148 N/mm2

1,0 X 148 X 7600

Nb.min.Rd = 1071 kN
1,05 X 103

Clause 5.6.3.2(1) Assume ky = 1,5 (conservative value)

Clause 5.6.3.31) Assume kz 1,5 (conservative value)

Clause 5.5.2.2(1) Mc-y.Rd 171,3 kNm

Mc.z.Rd ~l.z.RdfY = 79 4 kNm

YMo '

Clause 5.6.3.2(1) 1] = Y MO = l,Q

YMI

N Sd + My.Sd + Mz.Sd = 705 + 1,0 X 8,19 + 1,0 X 1,05 = O,n < l,Q
Nb.min.Rd 1JMc.y.Rd 1JMc.z.Rd 1071 171,3 79,4

Clause 5.5.5(2) and (3) If ;tLT.JP: > 34,7 then lateral torsional buckling must be
checked

Table 5.22 The value of [k/CI] 0' 5 is given for end moment loading for the ratio

smaller end moment 0

If/ = = = 0 and k = 1,0
1arg er end moment 8,19

0,73 Assume
 Concise Eurocode 3 C-EC3 269

Clause 5.5.5(9)

0 73 X (4500)
' 55,3
= ----~-:-::-:- = 45,7
2 0 25
[1 (450 I 645) ] •
+
25,66

A, LT ..J7i: > 34,7 :. lateral torsional buckling should be checked

Clause 5. 6. 3. 4(2) For members susceptible to lateral torsional buckling

~ 1,0

Table 5,18 and J; = 275 N/mm2

1,0 X 235 X 567 X 103

Clause 5.5.5(7) = = 126,9kNm
1,05 X 106
Assume kLr = 1,0

= 705 + (1,0 X 8,19) + (1,5 X 1,05)

= 0,74 < 1,0
1071 126,9 (1,0 X 79,4)

Section is adequate
Bibliography

1. BS 5950: Structural use of steelwork in building

Part 1: Code of practice for design of simple and continuous construction, BSI, 1990

2. BS 6399: Loading for buildings

Part 1: Code of practice for dead and imposed loads (1984)
Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads (1995)
Part 3: Code of practice for imposed roofloads (1988)
Code of practice for imposed roofloads - Draft for public comment- 1995
BSI, 1984, 1988, 1995

3. Extracts From British Standards for Students of Structural Design

BSI, 1988

4. BS 648: Schedule of weights of building materials

BSI, 1964

5. CP 3: Chapter V Loading
Part 2: Wind Loads (1972)- Superseded by BS 6399: Part 2, BSI, 1972

6. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures DD ENV 1993- 1- 1

Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, 1992

7. Baddoo N.R., Morrow A.W. and Taylor J.C.

C-EC3- Concise Eurocode 3 for the design of steel buildings in the United Kingdom
The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 116, 1993

8. Taylor J.C., Baddoo N.R., Morrow A.W. and Gibbons C.

Steelwork design guide to Eurocode 3: Part 1.1 -Introducing Eurocode 3.
A comparison ofEC3: Part 1.1 with BS 5950: Part 1
The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 114,1993

9. Narayanan R., Lawless V., Naji F.J. and Taylor J.C.

Introduction to Concise Eurocode 3 (C- EC3)- with Worked Examples
The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 115, 1993

10. Introduction to Steelwork Design to BS 5950: Part 1

The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 069, 1988

11. Steelwork Design Guide to BS 5950: Part 1: 1990

Volume 1 Section Properties, Member Capacities
The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 202, 1990

270
 Bibliography 271

12. Steelwork Design Guide to BS 5950: Part 1: 1990

Volume 2, Worked Examples (Revised Edition)
The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 002, 1990

13. Supplement A: Revised I and H Sections to Steelwork Design Guide to BS 5950:

Part 1: 1990- Volume 1 Section Properties Member Capacities (3rd Edition)
The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 144, 1994

14. Joints in Simple Construction

Volume 1: Design Methods (1991)
Volume 2: Practical Applications (1992)
The Steel Construction Institute, 1991, 1992

15. Joints in Steel Construction - Moment Connections

The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 207/95, 1995

16. Design for Manufacture Guidelines

The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 150, 1995

17. Steel Designers' Manual, Fifth Edition

Blackwell Science (UK), 1994

18. Handbook of Structural Steelwork

The Steel Construction Institute, Publication Number 21/90, 1990

19. Hayward, Alan and Weare, Frank

Steel Detailers 'Manual, Blackwell Science (UK), 1992

20. Baird, J.A. and Ozelton, E.C.

Timber Designers 'Manual, 2nd Edition, Blackwell Science (UK), 1984
Index

Axially loaded members, 86 buckling parameter, 51

anchor plate, 121, buckling resistance moment, 41, 74
bearing, 120-122 castellated, 34, 40 ll4, 116
buckling, 107,110 compact, 38, 47, 111, 113
columns, 86, 106, 108 conservative method, 48, 70-2
column baseplates, 120 deflection,34,35,45,46,65-9, 72, 73,
compound struts, ll 0 76, 77,84, 87
compression members, 106 destabilising load, 45
compressive resistance, 109 effective length, 44
compressive strength, 110 elastic moment of resistance, 36
effective area, 10 1, 103, 104 elastic section modulus, 37, 41
effective lengths, 108 elastic shear stress distribution, 39
gauge space, 102 equivalent uniformly distributed load,
gross cross-sectional area, 109 66
holding down bolts, 120 equivalent uniform moment factor, 49
intermediate packing, 99, 113 equivalent slenderness, 48, 53
joint resolution, 93 flange plates, 34, 75 110
lattice girders, 86, 87, 99, ll4 full lateral restraint, 4 2
location cones, 121 high shear, 46, 47, 58
method of sections, 90 hollow sections, 35, 56
net area, 10 1 intermittent lateral restraint, 43
packingpieces, 104, 106, lll, 113 lateral restraint, 41,4 2
pin-jointed frames, 87, 91 lateral torsional buckling, 2, 35, 41,
sag rods, 99 44-6,48,56,60, 70,72
secondary bracing, 114-118 limiting elastic moment of resistance,
section classification, 111 36
single storey column, 118 load bearing stiffeners, 44, 61
slab base, 121 local buckling, 34, 38
slenderness, 107, 112 low shear, 46, 47, 58
slender sections, 109 moment capacity, 35, 39-41, 46-8, 57,
slenderness, 107 58, 70, 75
struts, 87, 90, 106-110, 112 plastic, 36-8, 41, 46, 47, 59, 75, 82
tension coefficients, 96 plastic hinges, 37
tension members, 86, 87, 96, 97, 99, plastic moment of resistance, 36
101, 103, 106, 107, 118, 123, 125, plastic section modulus, 37, 41
127, 128 plate girders, 34, 40, 198
trusses, 87 reduced moment capacity, 125
rigorous method, 48
Beams, 34 safe load tables, 48, 72, 73
aspect ratio, 36, 38-40 section classification, 35, 36, 41, 75,
bearing, 2, 34, 35, 44-5, 60-5, 68, 89, 99, 109
72-7, 84 semi-compact, 36, 3 8
bending, 34, 36, 37, 47-51, 53-6 shape factor, 46, 47
buckling, 34, 35, 38, 40, 41-6,48, 51, shear, 34, 39-41, 46, 53, 57-60, 68,
55-7, 59, 60-4,68, 72-7 72-5, 77, 82, 83, 78-80

272
 Index 273

shear area, 40, 59 joint coefficient, 259

shear buckling, 40 single storey columns, 256
shear capacity, 39, 40, 46 slab base plate, 258
shear flow, 39 tension members, 253
slender, 18 Axially loaded members with moments,
slenderness correction factor, 51 260-9
slenderness factor, 51 buckling resistance
span, 34, 43 compression and biaxial bending,
stiff bearing length, 61, 63, 73, 75, 76 263
torsional capacity, 35 compression and major axis
torsional index, 52, 55, 70 bending, 262
torsional restraint, 44 compression and minor axis
web, 35,36,39,40,60-4,68, 72, 73, bending, 263
75-7, 83, 84 low shear
web bearing, 35, 60, 62, 72, 73, 76, 77 conservative approach, 261
web buckling, 35, 60-3, 68, 72-5 more exact approach, 261
Beams, 236-51
British Standards bending strength, 249, 251
BS 5950:Part 1: 1990, 13 deflection,243,244,245
BS 6399:Part 1: 1984,6,15 equivalent slenderness, 246, 247,
BS 6399:Part.2: 1995, 7.18 250
BS 6399:Part 3: 1995, 7 full lateral restraint, 236
C-EC3, 230 lateral torsional buckling, 246
CP3: Chapter V Part 2: 1972, 6 web buckling, 240
Terminology, symbols and conventions,
Buckling, 2, 14, 34, 35, 38, 40-2, 44-6, 48, 231
51, 55-7, 59, 60-4,68,70-7, 107, 110 actions, 231
accidental loads, 232
Combined axial and flexural loads, 123 CEN, 230, 231
compression and bending, 127 DDENV, 230
eccentricity ofloading, 129 design values, 232
interaction diagram, 124, 127 EN, 230,231
interaction surface, 124, 125 materials, 235
local capacity, 127, 128, 132 NAD, 230, 231
more exact method, 13 3 partial safety factors, 232, 237, 252
simplified approach, 131, 135, 142 permanentloads,232,243,244
overall buckling, 125, 128, 133, 143 symbols, 231, 233
more exact approach, 128, 134, 128 variable loads, 232, 243, 245, 251
simplified approach, 128, 133 Normative annexes, 231
plastic neutral axis, 126 Principles, 231
reduced moment capacity, 125, 133 Resistance, 232, 240, 260-62, 267
simple multi-storey construction, 135- Rules, 231
40 Subscripts, 232
tension and bending, 123
Connections, 145
Concise Eurocode C-EC3 3, 230 beam splices, 146, 171, 178
Axially loaded members, 251-60 bearing capacity, 154, 155, 157, 175,
compression members, 255 182
concentration factor, 259 black bolts, 105, 145, 153
274 Index
bolted, 149, 151 Slenderness, 47, 48, 50,-53; 55, 57, 59, 70,
butt welds, 145, 161 72, 90, 104, 106-8, ll0-13
column splices, 178
combined shear and tension, 155, 158 Steel, 1, 2, 3, 5
cover plates, 146, 147, 171-82 alloy steels, 1, 3
design strength, 162, 163 annealling, 2
double angle web cleats, 164, 165, 166 austenite, 2
end/edge distances, 176 bolting, 2
fillet welds, 121, 145, 161 carbon steels, 1
fin plates, 165 coke, 1
flexible end plates, 164, 165 creep, 2
gusset plates, 89, Ill crushing, 2, 7
high strength friction grip bolts, 156 design strength, 14
leg length, 99, 106, 160-3, 166 elastic limit, 2,8
moment connections, 3, 146-8 ferrite, 1
plate bearing capacity, 155 iron ore, 1
proofload, 157 margin of safety, 2
rigid, 3, 145, 147 martensite, 2
shank tension, 156, 157 pearlite, 1
shear capacity, 154 plastic, 2, 8
simple connections, 145, 146, 158 slag, 1
slip factor, 156 stainless steels, 1
slip resistance, 157 tempering, 2
tension capacity, 37, 155, 158 tool steels, 1
throat thickness, 160 weathering, 3
welded, 150, 152 welding, 2, 3
yield, 2
Effective length, 44, 74, 108
Structural loading, 6
Limit State Design, 13 dead, 6, 15-17, 31
partial safety factors, 14 imposed, 6, 7, 15-17, 34
serviceability limit state, 14 load distribution, 8
ultimate limit state, 13, 14 secondary beams, 11
wind,3,6, 7, 8,18-27
Plate girders, 198 altitude factor, 19
critical shear stress, 202 basic wind speed, 19
deflection, 203 directional method, 18
initial sizing, 201 lateral wind loads, 3
intermediate stiffeners, 203 site wind speed, 20
load bearing stiffeners, 203 standard method, 18, 87
local buckling, 198, 202, 203, 207
moment capacity, 201, 209
shear buckling, 201-3
shear capacity, 201, 209
stiffeners, 198, 202, 203, 208,209

Section classification, 35, 36, 41, 75, 89,

99, 109, 111, 130