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Problem-10

Problem-10 Solution

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Problem-11

The true stress-true strain curve is given by σ=1400ε0.33, where the

stress σ is in MPa. The true stress at maximum load (in MPa) is

At maximum load, take n=

Answer= 971 MPa

Problem-12

• A steel wire of length 100 m and diameter 12.214 mm is drawn

to a final diameter of 10 mm. Tensile tests of specimen made
before and after the drawing operation gave yield stress
as 200 MPa and 400 MPa respectively, The yield stress of the
steel at a true stain 0.2, by assuming linear strain hardening
law.
• Answer=300 Mpa
• The length of the drawn wire is Answer=150 m

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Problem-13
• A steel wire of 2 mm diameter is to be drawn from a wire of 5
mm diameter. The value of true strain developed is
_____________ (up to three decimal places)

Correct answer is between 1.80 and 1.85

Problem-14
• The true strain for a low carbon steel bar which is doubled in
length by forging is

Answer= 0.693

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Problem-15
• A test specimen is stressed slightly beyond the yield point and
then unloaded. Its yield strength ________________

Answer: Increases

Problem-16
• Engineering strain of a mild steel sample is recorded
as 0.100%. The true strain is ____________

Answer=0.099 %

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Problem-17

Correct answer is between 95.14 and 95.20 mm

Problem-18

𝝈𝑻 = 𝝈 𝟏 + 𝜺
𝜺𝑻 = 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝜺

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Yield Criteria-Example 1
If uniaxial yield strength of the material is 500 MPa, check whether
it will yield under the state of stress shown. If not, what is the
safety factor?
This equation will
give three roots,
which will be the
three principal
stresses.

𝜎 = 500

Online calculator for finding principal stresses available at

https://www.graniteng.com/mohr-3d?lang=en

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Yield Criteria-Example 1

von-Mises

1
𝜎 −𝜎 + 𝜎 −𝜎 + 𝜎 −𝜎 +6 𝜏 +𝜏 +𝜏 = 224 < 𝜎
2

=2.23

Tresca
𝜎 −𝜎 255.77 𝜎
= <
2 2 2

=1.95

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Metal Forming Processes-Rolling

Rolling

The rotating rolls perform two functions:

Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between work-part and rolls
Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section

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Rolling
• Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross section of a long
work piece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.

• Ingots are very large casting products (coarse-grained, brittle, and porous structure)
having rectangular/square cross section (need not be uniform through out). They are
hot rolled into blooms, billets or slabs.

• Bloom has a square cross section, with area more than 230 cm2. Blooms are used as
rolling material for I-sections, channels, rails etc.

• A billet has at least 40 mm X 40 mm cross-section. Billets are rolled into bars/rods for
further processing by extrusion, drawing, forging, machining etc.

• A slab has rectangular cross-section, with area of at least 100 cm2 and width at least
three times the thickness. Slabs are for rolling sheets, strips, plates etc.
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Ingots

An ingot is a piece of
relatively pure material,
usually metal, that is cast
into a shape suitable for
further processing. In
steelmaking, it is the first step
among semi-finished casting
products.

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Rolling

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Rolling

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Rolling

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Rolling

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Rolling

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Rolling

Types of Rolling
By geometry of work:
◦ Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross-section
◦ Shape rolling - a square cross-section is formed into a shape such as an
I-beam
By temperature of work:
◦ Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of deformation
required
◦ Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock

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Shape Rolling

Stages in the shape

rolling of an H-
section part

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Shape Rolling
The square work piece requires a gradual
transformation through several rolls to
achieve the final cross section.
Designing the sequence of intermediate
shapes and corresponding rolls is called roll-
pass design.
Roll pass design strives to achieve uniform
deformation throughout the cross section in
each reduction.
Non-uniform reduction causes warping and
cracking of the rolled product.
Stages in the shape rolling of an H-section part

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Rolling mill configurations

two-high rolling mill three-high rolling mill four-high rolling mill

cluster mill tandem rolling mill

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Rolling mill configurations

The two-high mill can be of two types.

Non-reversing mill: rolls always rotate in same direction, work always enters from same side.
Reversing mill - Direction of roll rotation is reversed, work passed through in both directions.
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Rolling mill configurations

The direction of material movement in three high mill is reversed after each pass, using
elevator mechanisms and various manipulators.
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Rolling mill configurations

Four-high rolling mill

• Small-diameter rolls lower roll forces and power requirements and reduce spreading.
• When worn or broken, small rolls can be replaced at lower cost than large ones.
• Small rolls deflect more under roll forces and have to be supported by large-diameter rolls.
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Rolling mill configurations Cluster (or Sendzimir) mill

• Sendzimir mill is costly but suitable for cold rolling thin sheets of high-strength metals.
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Tandem rolling mill

𝜎 𝜎

The strip is rolled continuously through a number of stands to thinner gages with each pass.

The uncoiler and windup reel not only feed the stock into the rolls and coil up the final product,
but also provide back tension and front tension to the strip .

The control of the strip thickness and the speed at which the strip travels through each roll gap is
critical.
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Tandem
rolling mill

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Tandem rolling mill

Each stand consists of a set of rolls with its own housing and controls.
A group of stands is called a train.

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Rolling mill configurations

Planetary mill

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Grain Structure During Hot Rolling

After hot rolling a wrought/cast work piece, the coarse grain structure becomes finer in size,
but elongated along the direction of rolling.
This type of textured grain structure results in anisotropy for the rolled product.
Heat treatment is performed immediately after rolling for grain refinement.

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Defects in flat rolling

• Wavy edges are caused by roll bending. The edges
elongate more than the center. The edges buckle as
they are constrained by the central region from
expanding freely in the longitudinal (rolling)
Wavy edges zipper cracks in the direction.
center of the strip

• Edge cracks and zipper cracks are usually the result

of poor material ductility at the rolling temperature.

edge cracks

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Defects in flat rolling

• Alligatoring is caused by non-uniform bulk

deformation of the billet during rolling or by the
presence of defects in the original cast material.

alligatoring

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Defects in flat rolling Roll forces bend the rolls elastically during rolling. As a
result, the rolled strip becomes thicker at its center
than at its edges (crown). To avoid this problem, we
grind the rolls so that their diameter at the center is
slightly larger than at their edges (camber). A particular
camber is correct only for a certain load and strip width.
Bending of straight cylindrical To reduce the effects of deflection, the rolls also can be
rolls caused by roll forces subjected to external bending at their bearings.

Because of the heat generated during rolling, rolls can

become slightly barrel shaped (thermal camber). This
condition can produce strips that are thinner at the
center than at the edges. This can be controlled by
Bending of rolls ground with camber, adjusting the location and the flow rate of the coolant
producing a strip with uniform thickness along the length of the rolls.

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Residual stresses in rolled products

small-
diameter large-
rolls diameter
rolls

Residual stresses developed in rolling with small- Residual stresses developed in rolling with large-
diameter rolls or at small reductions per pass. diameter rolls or at high reductions per pass. 38

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Residual stresses in rolled products

• Non-uniform deformation of the material in the roll gap causes residual

stresses in rolled plates and sheets, especially during cold rolling.

• Small-diameter rolls plastically deform the metal more at surfaces than

in the bulk. This causes compressive residual stresses on the surfaces
and tensile stresses in the bulk.

• Large-diameter rolls deform the bulk more than the surfaces due to the
higher frictional constraint at the surfaces. This causes tensile residual
stresses on the surfaces and compressive stresses in the bulk.

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Thread Rolling

start of cycle end of cycle

Threads on cylindrical work pieces can be cold formed using a pair of flat dies or
cylindrical rolls under reciprocating or rotary motion.

eg: Screws, bolts and other externally threaded fasteners

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Thread Rolling

(1) High productivity

(2) Better material utilization
(3) Stronger threads due to work hardening & Grain reorientation
(4) Good surface finish
(5) Better fatigue resistance due to compressive stresses introduced by rolling.

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Thread Rolling

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Gear
rolling

Gear rolling is a cold working process.

eg: Auto power transmission gears

Advantages of gear rolling compared to machining are similar to those of thread rolling:
higher production rates, better strength and fatigue resistance, and less material waste.
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Gear
rolling

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Ring rolling

Hot working for large

rings and cold working
for smaller rings

• Two circular rolls - one idler roll and one driven roll are used.
• A pair of edging rollers are used for maintaining the height constant.
• The ring is rotated and the rolls are moved closer to each other, thereby reducing the
thickness and increasing the diameter of the ring.
• High productivity, material saving, dimensional accuracy and advantageous grain flow.

eg: Large rings for turbines, roller bearing races, flanges and rings for pipes
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Ring rolling

Examples of cross sections that can

be formed by ring rolling

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Roll Piercing/ Rotary tube piercing/ Mannesmann process

Production of Seamless Pipe and Tubing

The process is based on the principle that when a solid cylindrical part is compressed on its
circumference, high tensile stresses are developed at its center. If compression is high
enough, an internal crack is formed.
Compressive stresses on a solid cylindrical billet are applied by two rolls, whose axes are
oriented at slight angles (~6°) from the axis of the billet. A mandrel is used to control the size
and finish of the hole created by the action.

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Skew rolling

• Round wire or rod is fed into

the roll gap, and roughly
spherical blanks are formed
continuously by the action of
the rotating rolls.
• The balls made are
subsequently ground and
polished for use in ball
bearings.

Production of steel balls by

the skew-rolling process
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Tube rolling

with a fixed mandrel

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Tube rolling

with a floating mandrel

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Tube rolling

without a mandrel Pilger rolling over a mandrel and

a pair of shaped rolls

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Roll forging (cross-rolling)

Two examples of the roll-forging operation

In this operation, the cross section of a round bar is shaped by passing it through a pair of
rolls with profiled grooves

Roll forging can produce tapered shafts and leaf springs, table knives, and hand tools; it also
may be used as a preliminary forming operation, to be followed by other forging processes.

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Rolling

In flat rolling, the work is

squeezed between two rolls
so that its thickness is
reduced by an amount called
the draft.

Draft, d = to- tf

Reduction, r = (to- tf)/to

r = d/to

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Spreading in Rolling

• In addition to thickness
reduction, rolling increases
work width. This is called
spreading
• Spreading is more
pronounced with low
width-to-thickness ratios
and low coefficients of
friction.

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Rolling
Conservation of matter is preserved,
Volume of metal exiting the rolls equals the volume entering the rolls

towoLo = tfwfLf
Similarly, before and after volume rates of material flow must be the same, so the
before and after velocities can be related

towovo = tfwfvf

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Rolling-Problem 1
A 2.0-in-thick slab is 10.0 in wide and 12.0 ft long. Thickness is to be reduced in three
steps in a hot rolling operation. Each step will reduce the slab to 75% of its previous
thickness. It is expected that the slab will widen by 3% in each step. If the entry speed
of the slab in the first step is 40 ft/min, and roll speed is the same for the three steps,
determine: (a) length and (b) exit velocity of the slab after the final reduction.

tf = (0.75)(0.75)(0.75)(2.0)

wf = (1.03)(1.03)(1.03)(10.0)
towoLo = tfwfLf

towovo = tfwfvf

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Rolling

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Rolling
The rolls contact the work along an arc defined by the angle θ.
The surface speed of the rolls (vr) is greater than the entering speed of the work (vo) and
less than the exiting speed of work (vf)
Since the metal flow is continuous, the velocity of the work gradually changes between
the rolls.
At one point (no-slip point or neutral point) along the arc the work velocity equals roll
velocity. To the left of this point, the roll moves faster than the strip, to the right, the
strip moves faster than the roll. Except at this point, slipping and friction occur between
roll and work.
The amount of slip between the rolls and the work is defined by
𝒗𝒇 𝒗𝒓
Forward slip,
𝒗𝒓
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Rolling
t 
True strain in rolling,   ln o 
t 
 f 

Average flow stress in rolling, Y f K
 m n
n 1

The average flow stress is used to compute estimates of force and power in rolling.

• Friction in rolling occurs with a certain coefficient of friction, and the compression
force of the rolls, multiplied by this coefficient of friction, results in a friction force
between the rolls and the work.
• On the two sides of the no-slip point, friction forces are in opposite directions.
• The friction force on the entrance side is greater, so that the net force pulls the work
through the rolls.
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Roll bite condition

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Rolling
There is a limit to the maximum possible draft that can be accomplished in flat rolling
with a given coefficient of friction, defined by

dmax = μ2R

dmax is maximum draft in mm

µ is coefficient of friction
R is roll radius in mm

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Rolling-Problem 2
A 42.0-mm-thick plate made of low carbon steel is to be reduced to 34.0 mm in one
pass in a rolling operation. As the thickness is reduced, the plate widens by 4%. The
yield strength of the steel plate is 174 MPa and the tensile strength is 290 MPa. The
entrance speed of the plate is 15.0 m/min. The roll radius is 325 mm and the rotational
speed is 49.0 rev/min. Determine (a) the minimum required coefficient of friction that
would make this rolling operation possible, (b) exit velocity of the plate, and (c)
forward slip.

dmax = μ2R vr = π r2N

v −v
towovo = tfwfvf s=
v
wf = 1.04 wo

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Rolling
Given a coefficient of friction sufficient to perform
rolling, roll force F required to maintain separation
between the two rolls can be computed by
integrating the unit roll pressure over the roll-work
contact area.

F is rolling force in N
w is the width of the work being rolled in mm
p is roll pressure in MPa
L is length of contact between rolls and work in mm

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Rolling
An approximation of the roll force can be calculated based on the average flow stress
experienced by the work material in the roll gap.

F  Y f wL
Contact length can be approximated by L  R(t0  t f )
The torque in rolling can be estimated by assuming that the roll force is centered on
the work as it passes between the rolls, and that it acts with a moment arm of one-half
the contact length L.
Torque for each roll, T = 0.5 F L
The power required to drive each roll = Torque x angular velocity = 𝑇 × 2𝜋𝑁
Power required for rolling - for two high rolling mill with both rolls driven, P = 2πN F L
P is power in Watts, N is rotational speed in 1/s, F is rolling force in N and L is contact
length in m

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Reducing Roll Force

Roll forces can cause significant deflection and flattening of the rolls. The columns of
the roll stand may deflect under high roll forces 
F  Y f wL
Roll forces can be reduced by the following means:
L  R (t0  t f )
• Reducing friction at the roll–work piece interface
• Using smaller diameter rolls to reduce the contact area dmax = μ2R

• Taking smaller reductions per pass to reduce the contact area

• Rolling at elevated temperatures to lower the strength of the material
• Applying front and/or back tensions to the strip

A longitudinal tension applied to the strip during rolling reduces the compressive
stresses required to plastically deform the material.
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Rolling-Problem 3
A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two powered rolls
each of radius 250 mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a
roll speed of 50 rpm. The work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and n =
0.15, and the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is assumed to be
0.12. Determine whether the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation to be
accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque, and horsepower.

Draft, d = to- tf t 
  ln o  F  Y f wL

dmax = μ2R tf 
T = 0.5 F L
L  R (t 0  t f )

Yf
 n
K m
n 1 P = 2πN F L

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Roll materials
• Hypo eutectoid steel
• Hyper eutectoid steel, ADAMITE
• Graphitic hyper eutectoid steel
• High alloyed materials like high chrome and high strength steels etc.
• Nodular iron
• Indefinite chill cast iron, ICDP
• Special materials such as sintered carbides and ceramics etc.

Rolls can be produced by - Casting, Forging, Sintering or other methods

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Friction in rolling
• In rolling, it is the frictional forces that transmit the power from the rolls to the work
piece, which causes the deformation.
• In the absence of friction in rolling, the rolls would simply skid or slide on stationary
strip.
• Hot rolling of steels and high-temperature alloys is often characterized by a condition
called sticking, in which the hot work surface adheres to the rolls over the contact arc.
• The surface layers are restricted to move at the roll speed vr; and, deformation below
the surface is more severe to allow passage of the piece through the roll gap.

Hot Rolling Ferrous alloys - None or Graphite

Lubricants Hot Rolling Non-Ferrous Alloys - Oils, emulsions and fatty acids
Cold Rolling - Oils, emulsions, paraffin and fatty oils

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