Satheesan MP

Lecturer in Mech. Engg. SNPTC

Diploma in Mechanical Engineering
SIXTH SEMESTER
Course Code: 6051A Course Title: Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
MODULE-1
GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
An Electric Vehicle (EV) is defined as a vehicle that can be powered by an electric
motor that draws electricity from a battery and is capable of being charged from an
external source. An EV includes both a vehicle that can only be powered by an electric
motor that draws electricity from a battery (all-electric vehicle) and a vehicle that can
be powered by an electric motor that draws electricity from a battery and by an internal
combustion engine (plug-in hybrid electric vehicle).
Electric road vehicles include electric passenger cars, electric buses, electric trucks and
personal transporters such as electric buggy, electric tricycles, electric bicycles and
electric motorcycles/scooters.
 All-electric vehicles, also referred to as battery electric vehicles (BEVs), have an
electric motor instead of an internal combustion engine. The vehicle uses a large
traction battery pack to power the electric motor and must be plugged in to a wall outlet
or charging equipment. Because it runs on electricity, the vehicle emits no exhaust from
a tailpipe and does not contain the typical liquid fuel components, such as a fuel pump,
fuel line, or fuel tank.
Historical background hybrid and electric vehicles:
• 1800s: Early experiments with battery-powered vehicles in Europe and the US.
• Late 1800s: Practical electric cars introduced in France and England.
• 1890: William Morrison's successful electric vehicle in the United States.
• Early 1900s: Electric cars gain popularity, accounting for a third of all vehicles.
• 1908: Henry Ford's Model T makes Petrol cars affordable, challenging electric cars.
• 1970s: Oil crises prompt renewed interest in electric vehicles.
• Late 20th Century: Limited performance and range hamper electric vehicles.
• 1990s: Environmental regulations boost electric vehicle development.
• Late 1990s: GM's EV1 and Toyota's Prius mark advancements.
• Early 21st Century: Tesla's announcement sparks electric vehicle revival.
• Late 2010: Commercially available plug-in hybrids and all-electric vehicles.
• Present: Growing electric vehicle popularity and infrastructure development.
Historical background of Hybrid vehicles:
1900: The Lohner-Porsche Elektromobil makes its debut at the Paris Exposition.
Although initially a purely electric vehicle, designer Ferdinand Porsche added an
internal combustion engine to recharge the batteries, making it the first hybrid electric
vehicle.
1916: Woods Motor Vehicle Company introduces the Woods Dual Power, a hybrid
electric vehicle with a 4-cylinder internal combustion engine.
1968: General Motors develops the GM XP 512, an experimental vehicle that can run
on electricity at low speeds and gasoline at high speeds.
1973: Electrical engineer Victor Wouk builds a prototype HEV
1989: Audi demonstrates the experimental Audi Duo. It combines a 12-horsepower
electric motor with a 139-horsepower internal combustion engine.
1997: Toyota introduces the Prius and begins marketing it in Japan
1999: Honda introduces the Insight.
2000: Toyota begins marketing the Prius (as a 2001 model) in the United States.
2002: Hybrids start to become common in the marketplace. Honda introduces the
Accord Hybrid. Many more hybrid cars follow over the next few years.
2004: Ford introduces the first hybrid SUV, the 2005 Ford Escape.
Need Electric vehicles (Advantages of EV)
1. Lower operating costs: EVs have lower fuel costs, maintenance costs, and energy
costs.
2. Environmentally friendly: EVs produce zero tailpipe (exhaust) emissions and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
3. Better performance: EVs have more horsepower and better torque.
4. Tax benefits: EVs may qualify for tax and financial benefits.
5. Convenience: EVs can be charged at home and can travel 300–500 km on a single
charge.
6. No fuel required
7. Reduced dependence on petroleum
8. Reduced health effects from air pollution
9. Very Silent.
10. Convenient cabin space
11. More storage.

Need of Hybrid vehicles: (Advantages of HEV)

1. Environment-friendly
2. Financial benefits due to lesser fuel cost incurred
3. Less dependence on fossil fuels
4. Regenerative braking system
5. Built from lightweight materials
6. Electric motor assistance
7. Smaller engines
8. Automatic start and stop
Social and environmental importance of hybrid and electric vehicles.
1. Less Emissions: Without relying solely on fossil fuels, these cars release fewer
emissions, which improves the air quality and keeps streets cleaner.
2. A car like this can emit 46% less greenhouse gas than traditional gas-powered
vehicles.
3. Cleaner Car: Electric cars stay cleaner because they do not contain a fuel tank
or tailpipe or exhaust pipe. They also do not use motor oil or gasoline to operate
the car, which eliminates residue and emissions.
 4. Self-Sustaining: Since you can convert energy from pressing the brake pedal into
a battery charge, known as regenerative braking, the electric car can be self-
sustaining
5. Less Noise: When you drive an electric or hybrid car, the car does not make a
lot of noise.
6. Fuel-Efficient and Cost-Effective: By using less gasoline or none at all, your car
provides more fuel efficiency.
Main components of electric vehicles.

Battery (all-electric auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery

provides electricity to power vehicle accessories.
Charge port: The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external power supply
in order to charge the traction battery pack.
DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction
battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and
recharge the auxiliary battery.
Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor drives
the vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the drive
and regeneration functions.
Onboard charger: Takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port and
converts it to DC power for charging the traction battery. It also communicates with
the charging equipment and monitors battery characteristics such as voltage, current,
temperature, and state of charge while charging the pack.
Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered
by the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the
torque it produces.
Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature range
of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.
Transmission (electric): The transmission transfers mechanical power from the electric
traction motor to drive the wheels.

WORKING PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

The Engine of a conventional IC Engine Car is replaced by an electrical Motor
and the fuel tank is replaced by the Battery Pack. Of all the components only the
Battery Pack and Motor alone contributes to about more than 50% of the total cars
weight and the price. As you can see the Battery Pack, Battery Management System
(BMS) Controller, Motor and the Transmission unit forms the major components in an
EV.
The Battery Pack is the fuel source of the car, since there are hundreds of cells
arranged to form a battery pack a special circuit is required to monitor these cells, this
circuit is called as the Battery Monitoring circuit. The DC voltage from battery cannot
be used to drive a motor so we need the controller which drives the motor, and the
Transmission system transfers the rotational energy from motor on to the wheels
through some gear arrangements.

Power is converted from the DC battery to AC for the electric motor. The accelerator
pedal sends a signal to the controller which adjusts the vehicle's speed by changing the
frequency of the AC power from the inverter to the motor The motor connects and turns
the wheels through a transmission system. When the brakes are pressed or the car is
decelerating, the motor becomes an alternator and produces power, which is sent back
to the battery.
Controller takes and regulates electrical energy from batteries and inverters. With the
controller set, the inverter then sends a certain amount of electrical energy to the motor
(according to the depth of pressure on the pedal) Electric motor converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy (rotation) Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the
transmission so the wheels turn and then the car moves.
WORKING PRINCIPLES OF HYBRID VEHICLES
Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine and one or more
electric motors, which uses energy stored in batteries. A hybrid electric vehicle cannot
be plugged in to charge the battery. Instead, the battery is charged through regenerative
braking and by the internal combustion engine.
DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
1) Pure Electric Vehicle (PE) or Battery Electric vehicles (BEV)
2) Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV)
3) Hybrid Electric vehicle (HEV)
4) Plug-in Hybrid Electric vehicle (PHEV)
5) Electric vehicles based on with and without differential.
1. Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
Vehicles powered solely by one or more electric batteries are known as BEVs. They
are more popularly called EVs. Chargeable batteries power them, and there is no IC
engine (petrol or diesel-powered). All the power comes from the battery pack, which
is chargeable from the electricity grid. The charged battery pack sends power to one or
more electric motors to move the vehicle.
Components of BEV
1) Battery pack 3) Inverter 5) Drive train
2) Electric motor(s) 4) Control module 6) Charge port

The battery pack sends power to one or more electric motors, which propels the
vehicle's wheels forward or backwards. Furthermore, when brakes are engaged, or the
vehicle decelerates, the motor acts as an alternator. It produces power, charges the
battery pack, and offers more driving range.
2. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV)
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are powered by hydrogen. They are more efficient
than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and produce no harmful
emissions—they only emit water vapor and warm air. FCEVs use a propulsion system
similar to that of electric vehicles, where energy stored as hydrogen is converted to
electricity by the fuel cell.
A hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle (HFCV for short) uses the same kind of electric motor to
turn the wheels that a battery-electric car does. But it's powered not by a large, heavy
battery but by a fuel-cell in which pure hydrogen (H2) passes through a membrane to
combine with oxygen (O2) from the air, producing the electricity that turns the wheels.
What this means is that a fuel-cell vehicle is technically a series hybrid, which is why
they are sometimes classified as fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEV).
3. Hybrid Electric vehicle (HEV)
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) use two power sources to propel the vehicle, one of
which is electrical energy. The electric powertrain can improve fuel efficiency, increase
performance, or independently propel the vehicle.
In simple words, an HEV is a vehicle that comprises a conventional fuel engine and an
electric powertrain, wherein the electric motor assists the engine to extract more
performance, and better fuel economy, depending on the type of the system.
The below points explain how an HEV works.
• Powering a hybrid electric vehicle is an IC engine and an electric motor.
• The electric motor utilises the electrical energy stored in the battery pack.
• The battery pack gets charged via regenerative braking or through a generator that
is run by the internal combustion engine.
• An HEV does not need to be plugged into a power source to charge the battery.
• The electric motor and IC engine work in conjunction to propel the vehicle.
• The additional power from the electric motor assists the engine, and it enhances
the performance and improves the fuel economy.
• The battery pack can also power other electrical components such as lights.
• The electric powertrain also saves fuel via the engine start/stop technology,
wherein the engine automatically shuts off when idle and starts automatically
when the driver presses the throttle pedal.

The three main types of hybrid vehicles are:

1. Mild hybrid 2. Full hybrid 3. Plug-in hybrid

1. Mild hybrid
Mild hybrids are the most basic type of electrified cars. This is a conventional petrol
or diesel engine with a low voltage (48V) battery and an electric motor which is
typically used to power electric components such as air conditioning and the radio.
Mild hybrids make conventional combustion engines significantly more efficient with
little effort. This involves recovering kinetic energy while the vehicle is braking. This
energy, otherwise lost, is stored in a 48V battery and then used to support the engine
and power a high-performance 48V on-board electrical system. In addition to other
benefits, this mild hybridization cuts fuel consumption by 15% or more – and thus
reduces CO2 emissions accordingly.
Most mild hybrids (also called MHEVs) run a conventional engine, but employ a small
generator (instead of a starter motor) and a lithium-ion battery (separate to the 12V).
Their job is to assist the engine, helping it to accelerate efficiently and make the start-
stop system work more smoothly.
2. Full hybrid
Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine and one or more
electric motors, which uses energy stored in batteries. These two power sources work
together to increase a vehicle’s fuel economy. A hybrid electric vehicle cannot be
plugged in to charge the battery. Instead, the battery is charged through regenerative
braking and by the internal combustion engine.
Types of Full Hybrid Electric Vehicles
There are three types of HEVs based on power delivery and distribution. Below are
more details on the same.
1. Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles 2. Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles 3. Series-Parallel
Hybrid Electric Vehicles.

2.1. Series hybrid

In a series hybrid system, the IC engine powers the electric generator, which drives the
electric motor and charges the battery. In this setup, the engine does not directly power
the wheels. Series hybrid is also called a range extender since the engine powers the
electric motor and the battery pack.
2.2. Parallel hybrid
In this system, both the engine and electric motor work parallel to propel the vehicle.
The engine and the electric motor deliver optimum power for the efficient functioning
of the car. The battery pack gets charged via regenerative braking. If you wonder what
regenerative braking is, here’s a brief explanation. Regenerative braking is a process
of utilising the kinetic energy produced while slowing the vehicle down to charge the
battery pack.

2.3. Series-parallel hybrid

A series-parallel is a flexible system wherein the IC engine, and electric motor can
work in conjunction or independently. The power delivery or the power distribution
helps the vehicle achieve maximum efficiency in terms of power output or fuel-
efficiency.
A series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a parallel hybrid that uses power-split
devices to allow for either mechanical or electrical power paths from the ICE to the
wheels. The main principle is to decouple the power supplied by the primary source
from the power demanded by the driver.
3. Plug-in Hybrid Electric vehicle (PHEV)
PHEVs use the electric motor to drive until the battery charge drains. Once the battery
power is depleted, the internal combustion engine takes over. The electric motor
derives power from the battery pack, which is chargeable, unlike HEVs.
The battery pack is charged through the conventional electricity grid, regenerative
braking, or the internal combustion engine.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a
petrol or diesel engine with an electric motor and a large battery. The battery can be
recharged by plugging into an electrical outlet or electric vehicle charging station.
PHEVs have a larger battery pack than standard hybrid electric vehicles. They can
provide all-electric power for short trips, and the option to gas up and drive for longer
distances.
Plug-in hybrid-electric cars combine two propulsion modes in one vehicle–a battery-
powered electric motor that is plugged in and recharged, and an internal combustion
engine that is fueled with gasoline. They offer all-electric power for short trips and the
opportunity to gas up and drive for as far as you desire.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) uses a battery to power an electric motor and
uses another fuel, such as petrol or diesel, to power an internal combustion engine. The
battery pack in a PHEV is generally larger than in a standard hybrid electric vehicle.
In a parallel plug-in hybrid, both the electric powertrain and the conventional engine
propel the vehicle in almost all driving conditions. Generally, the vehicle can only
operate in all-electric mode at slow speeds.
Electric vehicles based on with and without differential.
Electric vehicles (EVs) have differentials in their drive units. However, they don't have
a transmission because electric motors have maximum torque at start and can go to
18,000 RPM.
EVs use an electronic differential (ED) instead of a mechanical differential. The ED
drives the wheels based on the vehicle's turning angle and velocity. It provides the
required torque for each driving wheel and allows different wheel speeds electronically.
In instances where a motor drives a single wheel, there is no need for a differential
because motor speed can be managed electronically for optimal traction and cornering.
However, when one motor drives wheels on both ends of an axle a differential is
essential.
Individual-wheel drive (IWD) is a term for electric vehicles where each wheel is
powered by its own electric motor, instead of using conventional differentials.
Electric cars use a computer-controlled limited-slip differential (E-Diff) between the
two driveshafts. The E-Diff uses the steering wheel command signal, throttle position
signal, and motor speed signals to control the power sent to each wheel.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLE

1. Power Source: Hybrid vehicles use a combination of an internal combustion engine

and an electric motor, while electric vehicles are powered solely by electricity from a
battery.
2. Fuel Efficiency: Hybrid vehicles are generally more fuel-efficient than traditional
gasoline-powered vehicles, but they are not as efficient as electric vehicles, which can
be driven for longer distances on a single charge.
3. Emissions: Hybrid vehicles emit fewer pollutants and greenhouse gases compared
to traditional gasoline-powered vehicles, but they still emit some emissions from the
internal combustion engine. Electric vehicles, on the other hand, produce zero tailpipe
emissions and are considered one of the cleanest forms of transportation.
4. Recharging: Hybrid vehicles do not need to be recharged, as they use Petrol to
power the battery. However, the electric battery in a hybrid vehicle can be recharged
through regenerative braking and other methods. Electric vehicles must be plugged in
for recharging.
5. Maintenance: Hybrid vehicles require regular maintenance, including oil changes
and other routine maintenance tasks associated with internal combustion engines.
Electric vehicles have fewer moving parts and generally require less maintenance.
5. Cost: Hybrid vehicles are generally more affordable than electric vehicles, but the
cost of electric vehicles is decreasing as technology improves and production increases.
Additionally, electric vehicles may be more cost-effective in the long run, as they have
lower fuel and maintenance costs compared to hybrid and gasoline-powered vehicles.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) is a method to calculate and the environmental impact
of the vehicles' entire life cycle through the raw material procurement, manufacturing,
use, recycling, and disposal. The average lifetime mileage of an Internal Combustion
Engine (ICE) vehicle is about 200000 km. While experts estimate the average EV
battery will last around 300,000 km, some manufacturers already promise much more
than that. Most modern EVs use high-quality Lithium-Ion batteries, lasting between
2,000 to 3,000 cycles or more. However, after a significant number of charge cycles, a
lithium battery's maximum charge capacity will decrease. This degradation process
typically begins at around 1500–2000 cycles.
Most electric car batteries will last somewhere between 15–20 years before they need
to be replaced. However, some factors may reduce their lifespan. For example, if your
EV is regularly used in more extreme conditions, you can plan on a service life of
between 8 and 12 years.
 FAME: (FASTER ADOPTION AND MANUFACTURING OF
HYBRID AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES)
FAME-1, or Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid and) Electric Vehicles,
is India's flagship program for promoting electric mobility. The first phase of the
scheme was launched in April 2015 and ran for four years until 2019. The scheme's
goal was to encourage the purchase of electric and hybrid vehicles by providing
financial support.
The first phase of the scheme had four focus areas:
1. Technological development
2. Demand generation
3. Pilot project
4. Charging infrastructure components
Objectives of FAME India Scheme
1. To accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles by lessening the initial investment.
2. To encourage electric vehicle manufacturers, suppliers, and related providers to
produce a greater number of electric automobiles in the country.
3. To reduce the country’s vehicular emissions and bring down the levels of air
pollution.
4. To develop electric charging infrastructure across the country.
5. To convert 30% of overall transportation to electric vehicles by 2030.
How does the FAME India Scheme work?
The FAME India scheme will work through the following
1. Demand Incentive
2. Administration of the Scheme, which includes Information, education, and
awareness activities.
3. Setting up charging stations

Features of FAME India Scheme

Phase I of the scheme was launched to achieve national fuel security with the help of
the promotion of hybrid and electric vehicles (EVs) in the country.
• It was functional from 2015 to 2019.
• The budget outlay for Phase I was Rs 895 Crore.
• Phase I of the scheme supported 2.8 lakh with demand incentives.
• There were 425 electric and hybrid buses deployed across the country.
• There were about 520 Charging Stations and Infrastructure sanctioned in 4 years.
• Demand incentive is the direct subsidy that is provided to the buyer for the
generation demand for EVs.
• The eligible category of vehicles is – Electric buses, e-Four Wheeler, and e-Three
Wheelers, including e-rickshaws, e-carts, and e-Two Wheeler.
• All eligible vehicles under the FAME India Scheme should be registered under the
Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989.
• The subsidy to an individual will be provided on only one vehicle of a particular
category.
Working of FAME (example)
Suppose a two-wheeler Electric vehicle is available at an ex-showroom price of Rs
1,30,2000. After the subsidy under FAME India Scheme, it will be available at ₹
1,15,200. The original equipment manufacturer (OEM) will claim this subsidy from
the Department of Heavy Industry. The OEM has to fulfill minimum technical
eligibility criteria related to the performance and efficiency of vehicles.
Benefits of FAME India Scheme
1. Environmental pollution will be significantly reduced because of the reduction
of vehicular emissions.
2. By implementing such schemes, India will achieve the target of net zero
emission of carbon before 2070.
3. The electric charging infrastructure will be set up across the country.
4. The citizens will avail of the incentives on the purchase of electric vehicles for
personal use.
5. The dependence on oil imports will reduce the current account deficit and, hence
the capital expenditure.
6. It will provide eco-friendly public transportation for citizens.

Need for FAME India Scheme

Environmental Pollution – According to reports, air Pollution is single-handedly
responsible for more than 15 lakh deaths in India in 2019, i.e., 17.8% of all deaths.
Vehicular emissions are among one the primary sources of air pollution. Hence, it is
the need of the hour to bring down vehicular emissions.
Reduce Oil Import – The penetration of electric vehicles in society will help India to
reduce its oil dependency while solving the challenge of energy scarcity and also
reducing the Current Account Deficit (CAD).
Fulfil Global Commitments – Globally, India is the fourth highest emitter of carbon
dioxide. At the COP26 in Glasgow, it pledged to reduce its carbon emissions to net
zero by the year 2070. India has also committed to cutting its Green House Gases
emissions intensity by 33% to 35% by 2030
Self-Reliance in Manufacturing Component – Presently, India does not manufacture
most of the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery cells. To reduce India’s dependence on other
countries for its import of battery cells, it is required to implement a policy.
Low Maintenance Cost – Electric vehicles are assembled with less number of moving
parts. If the moving parts are fewer, then there will be less maintenance required.
Hence, it will bring down the maintenance cost of the vehicle.
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME II), is a
scheme launched by the Government of India to give a boost to development of Electric
Vehicles.

FAME-2
Government has approved Phase-II of FAME Scheme with an outlay of Rs. 10,000
Crore for a period of 3 years commencing from 1st April 2019. Out of total budgetary
support, about 86 percent of fund has been allocated for Demand Incentive so as to
create demand for EVs in the country. This phase aims to generate demand by way of
supporting 7000 e-Buses, 5 lakh e-3 Wheelers, 55000 e-4 Wheeler Passenger Cars
(including Strong Hybrid) and 10 lakh e-2 Wheelers.
Features of FAME 2: FAME India scheme Phase II was launched after the
successful outcomes of Phase I for the faster proliferation of EVs by cutting
down the upfront investment costs. It will be functional from April 2019 to
March 2024 for five years. Initially, it was launched for 3 years but later
extended to two more years. The budget outlay for Phase II is increased to Rs
10,000 Crore.
Under Phase II of the scheme, the following incentives will be granted –
1. Demand incentive of Rs 15,000/KWh with a maximum cap of 40% of the
cost of two-wheeler vehicles.
 2. Demand incentive of Rs 20,000/KWh for electric buses.
3. Demand incentive of Rs 10,000/KWh for the remaining category of
vehicles.
4. In addition, Phase II will promote the integration of renewable energy
sources with charging infrastructure by interlinking.
Charging stations will be established in metro cities, smart cities, hilly and
mountainous states, and million-plus population cities across the whole country.
Kerala EV Policy
Policy Status: Final, dated 10th March 2019.
Key Highlights:
• Target of 1 million EVs by 2022, with a pilot fleet in 2020 of
• 200,000 2-Wheelers
• 50,000 3-Wheelers
• 1000 goods carriers
• 3000 buses
• 100 Ferry boats
Capital Subsidy of 25% (Max subsidy of Rs. 10 lakhs) for DC chargers (100V and
above) for first 100 stations. For DC Chargers (below 100V) a subsidy of Rs 30,000
for the first 300 stations. Creation of eMobility Zones in tourist destinations,
Technology hubs, and CBD of Trivandrum/Kochi and Kozhikode. Demand side
subsidy of Rs. 30,000 or 25% of EV, whichever is lower for 3-Wheelers.

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