Basics of Earthquake

Engineering
Why should a civil engineer study earthquakes?
Why not others?
• Most of our The ground motion generated during an earthquake contains
wide range of frequencies from 0-50 Hz.

• Most of our engineering structures have resonant vibration frequencies in

0.1 Hz – 10 Hz range.

• NATURAL FREQUENCY = 1/(0.1N), N=number of stories

• A structure is most sensitive to ground motions with frequencies near its

natural resonant frequency
Why there is so much of craze about Earthquake
Engineering now a days ?
INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION
 The economic losses estimated for the period 1929-1950 due to earthquakes
are in excess of US$10 billion.
 In the past 3 centuries over 3 million people have died due to earthquakes and
earthquake related disasters.
2008 China earthquake – US $75 Billion
2005 Kashmir earthquake - US $5.2 billion
2001 Bhuj earthquake – US$ 5 Billion
 The next great earthquake in a major metropolitan region can cause damage at
the multi-trillion dollar level
 Elements of Earthquake Engineering:
• Earthquake
• Causes of Earthquakes
• Effects of Earthquakes
• Characteristics of Earthquakes
1. Magnitude
2. Intensity
3. Focus
4. Epicenter
• Seismic zone mapping
FUNDAMENTALS OF EARTHQUAKES
• What are earthquakes ?

• Why do earthquakes occur ?

• Where do earthquakes occur ?

• How do we describe earthquakes ?

• How often do earthquakes occur ?

• How do we record earthquakes ?

• Can we predict earthquakes ? 6

Earthquake?
An earthquake is a sudden movement of the ground that releases
elastic energy stored in the rocks and generates seismic waves.
After the initial ground movement along the fault, seismic waves
propagate outward and vibrate the ground.
Earthquakes occur when two rock masses slide past each
other.

http://www.iris.edu/gifs/animations/faults.htm
Why Do Earthquakes Occur?
• Most earthquakes occur naturally as a consequence of the cooling
of the Earth. Earth was very hot when it formed 4.5 billion years
ago.
• involves plate tectonics and mantle convection, which we will
thoroughly discuss later in the class.
• Some earthquakes are actually induced by human activity.
• These earthquakes are very rare and quite small.
• The most common type of induced seismicity has to do with the
injection of high pressure waste fluid into the Earth.
• Nuclear Explosions.
Koyna Region (Reservoir Induced Seismicity)
Mantle - 2900 Km
Core – 2200+1250 km
Convection

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Cretaceous
earth
PLATE TECTONICS AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT
 Three Types of Faults

Thrust
Strike-Slip

Normal
NORTHWARD
MOVEMENT OF
INDIA
Inter- and Intraplate Earthquakes
 Most earthquakes occur along plate margins because plate margins are
relatively weak, but about 10% of earthquakes occur within the interior
of plates.

 We classify earthquakes depending on where they are located

 Interplate - between plates
 Intraplate - within plates

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How are Earthquakes Described?
• By Location:
• We use two numbers to describe where an earthquake has occurred:
latitude and longitude
• Latitude varies from 90˚ S to 90˚ N, or -90 to +90
• Longitude varies from 180˚ W to 180˚ E, or
-180˚ to + 180˚
• These two numbers together are known as the earthquake’s epicentre.
• By Time:
• The time when an earthquake starts is known as the origin time
• Origin times are reported in terms of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

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How Medium responds to earthquakes?
Seismic waves are also called elastic waves, because they deform the
Earth elastically - the rock returns to its original shape and position after
the seismic wave passes through.
An example of a non-elastic wave is a shock wave. This type of wave
fundamentally changes the medium thru which it propagates.
Surface Waves:
Love Waves
Rayleigh Waves
Body Waves:
P waves
S waves
Elastic Wave Types/Seismic Wave Types:
 Surface Waves A second way we distinguish between
 Large amplitude waves is by the type of deformation
 Long wavelength (strain) they induce:
 Wide range of
frequencies (large • Compressional waves cause
bandwidth) changes in volume:
 Travel slowly
– Rayleigh wave (compressional
 Surface Boundary
condition (Free surface) surface wave)
 Body Waves – P wave (compressional body
wave)
 Small amplitude • Shear waves cause changes in
 Short wavelength shape:
 Narrow frequency band – Love wave (shear surface wave)
 Travel more quickly – S wave (shear body wave)
Sources of Elastic Waves:
• Earthquakes
• Volcanic eruptions
• Explosions
• Wind
• Sonic Booms (planes, shuttle, meteorites)
• Humans
Characteristics of Earthquake:
• Magnitude: Magnitude is the size of the earthquake.
• Intensity : The measure of shaking at each location.
• Focus : Origin of an earthquake.
• Epicenter : The location directly above the origin of an earthquake
on surface of the earth.
How is Earthquake Size Determined ?
Maximum Seismic Intensity
1.Outdated method
2.Does not use seismometers
3.Many problems
4.Modified Mercalli intensity scale.
Magnitudes
1. Modern method
2. Uses seismometers
3. Fewer problems
4. Ritcher Scale
How are Earthquakes Described?
• By size:

 Definition of modified Mercalli intensity V: Felt by nearly everyone,

many awakened.
 Some dishes, windows, and so on broken; cracked plaster in a few
places; unstable objects overturned.
 Disturbances of trees, poles, and other tall objects sometimes noticed.
Pendulum clocks may stop.

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EFFECTS OF GROUND RUPTURE NEAR EPICENTRE
BHUJ EARTHQUAKE
GROUND SHAKING
 LIQUEFACTION
BHUJ EARTHQUAKE ( 26th Jan 2001 )
How are Earthquakes Described?
• By size:
• The more modern method of describing earthquake size is by magnitude
• Magnitudes are related to the size of the waves that are recorded by
seismometers
• Magnitudes are much more accurate than maximum intensities in
describing earthquake size
• By size:
Magnitudes are defined with a logarithmic scale
That means that 1 unit is really a factor of ten
For instance, a magnitude 5.0 earthquake has 10 times larger seismic
waves than a magnitude 4.0 earthquake
In terms of energy (different than amplitude) a 5.0 is 30 times bigger than
a 4.0 10
How are Earthquakes Described?
• By size:
• There are four main magnitude scales used by seismologists.
• The Richter scale is hardly used anymore. It is strictly valid only
for earthquakes in southern California recorded on an outdated
type of seismometer.
• The four main magnitude scales are:
• ML (local magnitude)
• Mb (body wave magnitude)
• Ms (surface wave magnitude)
• Mw (moment magnitude)
• Each one has advantages and disadvantages

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How Do We Record Earthquakes?
• Seismogram − is the recording of the ground
shaking at the specific location of the instrument.
• Seismoscope – an instrument that documents the
occurrence of ground motion (but does not
record it over time).
• Seismometer – an instrument that senses ground
motion and converts the motion into some form
of signal.
• Accelerometer – a seismometer that records
acceleration, also known as strong ground
motion.
• Geophone – another name for a seismometer,
commonly used in active source seismology.
Why Study Earthquakes?
• Earthquakes are the dominant source of seismic waves.
• Analysis of seismic waves gives us the best view into the interior of the
Earth:
• Seismologists use seismic waves to image the Earth in the same
way that doctors use ultrasound to image unborn babies.
• Techniques used in studying earthquakes can be applied to studying nuclear
weapons tests.
• This is called verification seismology and aims to answer questions like:
 Did nation X test a nuclear device?
 How big was the weapon nation Y tested?
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What is the principle earthquake resistant design?
• The building shall withstand with almost no damage to moderate
earthquake which have probability of occurring several times during
life of a building.

• The building shall not collapse or harm human lives during severe
earthquake motions, which have a probability of occurring less than
once during the life of the building.
Rules for building design
• The configuration of the building (Plan and elevation) should be as simple as
possible.

• The formation should generally be based on hard and uniform ground.

• The members resisting horizontal forces should be arranged so that torsional

deformation is not produced.

• The structure of the building should be dynamically simple and definite.

• The frame of the building structure should have adequate ductility in addition to
required strength.
SEISMIC ZONE MAPPING
SEISMIC ZONE MAPPING:
• SEISMIC ZONING: To delineate regions of similar probable
intensity of ground motion.
• Complete collapse of a structure should be avoided.
• Hence forecast of the strongest intensity of likely ground motion at
a particular site during the service life of structure is required.
• Estimate on acceleration, velocity, displacement, frequency content
and duration of expected max ground motion is required.
• The maximum intensity is fixed in such a way that the
lifeline/critical structures will remain functional.
• Structural and non-structural damages happened can be repaired.
SEISMIC HAZARD MAP
1. Seismic zones of Indian subcontinent compiled by the Geological Survey of India in
1935.
2. Earthquake Damage Zone of India by West 1937.
3. Seismic Zoning Map of India by Jai Krishna [1958 & 1959].
4. Seismic Belts of India by Mithal and Srivastava (1959).
5. Seismic Zone Map of 1962.
6. Seismic Regionalisation Map by Guha (1962).
7. Seismic Zone Map of IS: 1893–1966.
8. Seismic Zoning Map of IS: 1893–1970.
9. Generalised tectonic unit of Indian subcontinent (Krishnaswamy (in Srivastava,
1969)).
10. Seismic Zone Map of IS:1893-2002.
11. 2023 Draft.
1. Seismic Zones of Indian subcontinent compiled by the
Geological Survey of India in 1935

SEVERE

 3 ZONES MODERATE

SLIGHT

• This map also showed areas,

which experienced damaging
Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity
VIII (Rossi-Forel intensity ‘higher
than VII’) in the past earthquakes.
2. Earthquake Damage Zone of India by West 1937.

DANGER ZONE (severe

damage)

3 ZONES MODERATE ZONE

SAFE ZONE (slight or no

damage)
• DANGER ZONE :Epicenters of all past
earthquakes causing severe damage since
1850.
• Both 1 & 2 maps relied on the epicentre
data but not included tectonic setting of
Indian subcontinent.
 3. Seismic Zoning Map of India by Jai Krishna [1958 &
1959]
• By evaluating peak horizontal ground acceleration based on
earthquake occurrence data from 1904 to 1950 Jai Krishna (1958
and 1959) developed four-zone seismic map.

Very heavy
damage(corresponding to
magnitude 8)

Heavy damage (maximum

accelerations of 0.3 g)
• These zones are
Moderate damage (accelerations
between 0.1–0.3 g)

Light damage (ground

accelerations less than 0.1 g)
4. Seismic Belts of India by Mithal and Srivastava (1959)
• Using geophysical data and past events.

Frequency earthquake zone

of continental (continental
shelf thickness of more than
1500m)
• 3 zones Occasional
earthquake zone(less than
1500 m)
Few or rare
earthquake zone (Shield
blocks of marginal over
burden)
5. SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF 1962
• The BIS constituted a multi-disciplinary
committee of Engineers, Geologist and
Seismologist in 1960 to prepare a code of
practice for earthquake resistant design of
structures.
• Broad seismo-tectonics framework of the
country was considered to be the basis of the
seismic zoning.
• This was augmented by preliminary tectonic
map prepared by GSI and map of epicenters of
past earthquakes prepared by the India
Meteorological Department (IMD).
• These maps were included in the Indian
Standard Recommendation for Earthquake
Resistant Design of Structure IS: 1893–1962.
• The committee utilized the average intensity attenuation (intensity-
magnitude distance) relationship to draw idealized isoseismal of
twenty-three major earthquakes that produced intensities ‘less than V’,
V, VI, VII, VIII, IX and ‘X and above’ in twelve point MM scale.
• Envelopes for various MM intensities stated as above were drawn.
These envelopes were modified to take into account of past seismic
activity of smaller magnitude earthquakes, the trend of principal
tectonic features and local ground condition (lithological groups).
• A seismic zoning map having seven zones, was adopted in IS: 1893–
1962. the zone corresponding to MM intensity of less than five is
termed as zone 0 (zero).
6. Seismic Regionalisation Map by Guha (1962)
• Guha (1962) prepared a seismic
regionalization map with the premise that
past earthquake data (epicenters) contains all
the information pertaining to seismo-tectonic
setup of the country.
MM intensity
Below V (no damage)
VI (moderate damage)
• Five seismic regions VII–VIII (damage)
IX-X (heavy damage)
XI (very heavy damage)
7. SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF IS: 1893–1966
• The BIS committee revised the
seismic zoning map to account
for new available information of
the historic data and to provide
additional emphasis on geology
and tectonics in demarcating
zones.
• The committee also decided that
the number of zones and
methodology need no changes.
• 7 zones- 0 to 6.
8. Seismic Zoning Map of IS: 1893–1970
• It was decided that the number of
seismic zones would be reduced to
five in the revised version instead of
seven.
• Epicenter location, steep geothermal
gradient, movement of crust,
geomorphic evidence of offset of
small landforms, stratigraphic
evidence, gravity anomalies were
utilized in demarcating seismo-
tectonic setup of India.
9. Generalised tectonic unit of Indian subcontinent
(Krishnaswamy (in Srivastava, 1969)).
• Krishna swamy (in
Srivastava, 1969) proposed
five principal seismo-
tectonic units based on
these.
10. SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF IS:1893-2002
• A four-zone seismic zoning map was
adopted in IS: 1893–2002.
• The recently available instrumental
seismic data were used in this study.

Zone II

Zone III
• Zones
Zone IV

Zone V
11. Earthquake zone map based on mean horizontal peak ground acceleration (pga) values expected at the ground surfac
estimated by psha corresponding to a return period of 2,475 years (2023 draft).