Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

Manufacturing Technology II (MDB 4033)

Mohd Faizairi Mohd Nor / AP Ir Ts Dr Ahmad Rasdan Ismail

ASSESSMENT

• Course Work 50%

Quizzes: 5%
Individual Assignments: 5%
Group Project: 10%
Test 1 & 2: 30%
Final Examination : 50%
• Total : 100%

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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

Manufacturing Technology II (MDB 3073)

Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
1
Differentiate various techniques used in the processing of
metals, polymers, glass, ceramics and composites.

2
Appraise various surface treatments and coatings that can be
performed for technical and aesthetic reasons subsequent to
manufacturing a part.

3 Apply the quality control principles in manufacturing.

Students will be assessed using Bloom’s Taxonomy:
1. Cognitive/Knowledge
2. Affective/Attitude
3. Psychomotor/Skill
4
Analyze performance of manufacturing processes using the
available analytical techniques.

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Manufacturing Technology II (Lesson Plan)

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 - 12

Forming and shaping Forming and Shaping Forming and Shaping of Manufacturing Operation
Introduction process of metals of Ceramic, Glasses Plastics and Composite  Manufacturing industries and
 Rolling of metals and Metal Powder Materials products
 Fundamental of materials:
Behaviour and manufacturing  Forging of metals  Injection molding  Product / production relationships
properties  Shearing  Shaping ceramics  Extrusion  Production concepts and
WEEK 1  Bending and drawing  Forming and shaping  Processing of metal mathematical models
of glasses matrix composites  Cellular Manufacturing
WEEK 2 and 3  Strengthening and WEEK 5 and 6
annealing glasses WEEK 8 - 12
WEEK 4

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What is a Polymer?
Poly mer
many repeat unit
repeat repeat repeat
unit unit unit
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H Cl H Cl H Cl H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 Adapted from Fig. 14.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Polyethylene (PE) Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Polypropylene (PP)

Polymer Composition

Most polymers are hydrocarbons

– i.e., made up of H and C
• Saturated hydrocarbons
– Each carbon singly bonded to four other atoms
– Example:
• Ethane, C2H6

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MOLECULAR WEIGHT
• Molecular weight, M: Mass of a mole of chains.
Not all chains in a polymer are of the same length — i.e., there is a distribution of molecular weights

Low M high M

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CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMER Polymer

Thermoplastic Thermosetting Elastomers

Polyesters Polyurethanes

Rubbers (Natural)
Phenolic
Acrylics
Silicones (Synthetic)

Epoxy resins
Nylons

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CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMER Polymer

Thermoplastic Thermosetting Elastomers

Polyesters Polyurethanes
Acrylics

❑ Undergo a curing process during heating

and shaping, causing a permanent
❑ Chemical structure remains
change (called cross-linking) in Rubbers
unchanged during heating and
molecular structure
shaping
❑ Once cured, they cannot be re-melted
❑ More important commercially,
comprising more than 70% of
total plastics tonnage
❑ High Extensibility

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Polymer Additives
Improve mechanical properties, processability, durability, etc.
• Fillers
• Added to improve tensile strength & abrasion resistance, toughness & decrease cost
• ex: carbon black, silica gel, wood flour, glass, limestone, talc, etc.

• Plasticizers
Added to reduce the glass transition temperature Tg below room temperature
– Presence of plasticizer transforms brittle polymer to a ductile one
– Commonly added to PVC - otherwise it is brittle

• Stabilizers • Lubricants
• Antioxidants – Added to allow easier processing
• UV protectants – polymer “slides” through dies easier
– ex: sodium stearate

• Colorants • Flame Retardants

– Dyes and pigments – Substances containing chlorine, fluorine, and boron

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Plastic Shaping Processes:

• Almost unlimited variety of part geometries
• Plastic molding is a net shape process; further shaping is not needed
• Less energy is required than for metals because processing temperatures are
much lower
• Handling of product is simplified during production because of lower
temperatures
• Painting or plating is usually not required

Table 19.1 shows the general characteristics of forming and shaping

processes for plastics and composite materials.

• Plastics usually are shipped to manufacturing plants as pellets, granules,

or powders and are melted (for thermoplastics) just before the shaping
process.
• With increasing awareness of our environment, raw materials also may
consist of reground or chopped plastics obtained from recycling centers.

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Plastic Shaping Processes:

• Fig 19.1 shows the outline of forming and

shaping processes for plastics, elastomers, and
composite materials.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding:

Thermoplastics and some thermosets

• when ram retracts, plastic pellets drop from hopper into barrel
• ram forces plastic into the heating chamber (around the spreader) where the plastic melts as it
moves forward
• molten plastic is forced under pressure (injected) into the mold cavity where it assumes the shape
of the mold

Fig. 15.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

(Fig. 15.24 is from F.W. Billmeyer, Jr.,
Textbook of Polymer Science, 2nd
edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1971.)

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding:

• Injection molding is similar to hot-chamber die casting.
• The pellets or granules are fed into the heated cylinder, and the melt is forced into the mold either by a hydraulic plunger
or by the rotating screw system of an extruder.
• Fig 19.7 shows the schematic illustration of injection molding with (a) plunger and (b) reciprocating rotating screw.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding:

Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under high pressure into
a mold cavity where it solidifies; molded part is then removed from cavity
• Produces discrete components almost always to net shape
• Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of one minute or more are not uncommon
• Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple moldings are produced each cycle

• Complex and intricate shapes are possible

• Shape limitations:
• Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the same geometry as part
• Shape must allow for part removal from mold
• Part size from  50 g (2 oz) up to  25 kg (more than 50 lb), e.g., automobile bumpers
• Injection molding is economical only for large production quantities due to high cost of
mold

• Injection molding is the most widely used molding process for thermoplastics
• Some thermosets, elastomers, metals and ceramics are also injection molded
• Modifications in equipment and operating parameters must be made

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine:

• Two principal components:

• Injection unit – melts and delivers polymer melt, operates much like an extruder
• Clamping unit – opens and closes mold each injection cycle

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine:

Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 1 (mold is closed) Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 2 (melt is injected into cavity)

Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 3 (screw is retracted) Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 4 (mold opens and part is ejected)

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine:

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine (The Mold):

• After the part has cooled sufficiently (for thermoplastics) or cured (for thermosets), the molds are
opened and the part is removed from the mold using ejectors.
• Fig 19.10 shows the Illustration of mold features for injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold with
important features identified. (b) Schematic illustration of the features in a mold.

• Custom-designed and fabricated for the part to be

produced
• Various types of mold for injection molding:
• Two-plate mold
• Three-plate mold
• Hot-runner mold

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine (The Mold):

• There are three basic types of molds:

1. Cold-runner, two-plate mold: this design is the
simplest and most common, as shown in Fig. 19.11a.
2. Cold-runner, three-plate mold (Fig. 19.11b): the
runner system is separated from the part when the
mold is opened.
3. Hot-runner mold (Fig. 19.11c), also called
runnerless mold: the molten plastic is kept hot in a
heated runner plate.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding: Shrinkage

Reduction in linear size during cooling from molding to room temperature
• Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficients, so significant shrinkage occurs
during cooling in mold
• Typical shrinkage values for selected polymers:

Plastic Shrinkage, mm/mm (in/in)

Nylon-6,6 0.020
Polyethylene 0.025
Polystyrene 0.004
PVC 0.005

Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding: Compensation for Shrinkage

• Dimensions of mold cavity must be larger than specified part dimensions:

Dc = Dp + DpS + DpS2

where Dc = dimension of cavity;

Dp = molded part dimension, and
S = shrinkage value

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding: Shrinkage Compensation Factors

• Fillers in the plastic tend to reduce shrinkage
• Injection pressure – as pressure is increased, it forces more material into the mold cavity, and shrinkage is reduced
• Compaction time - similar effect - forces more material into cavity during shrinkage
• Molding temperature - higher temperature lowers the polymer melt viscosity, allowing more material to be packed into
mold and reducing shrinkage

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Extrusion

• In extrusion, which constitutes the largest volume of plastics produced, raw materials in the form of thermoplastic
pellets, granules, or powder are placed into a hopper and fed into the barrel of a screw extruder.
• Fig 19.2(a) shows the schematic illustration of a typical screw extruder. (b) Geometry of an extruder screw. Complex
shapes can be extruded with relatively simple and inexpensive dies.

• Screws have three distinct sections:

1. Feed section: Conveys the material from the hopper into the central region of the barrel.
2. Melt section (also called compression or transition section): Where the heat generated by the
viscous shearing of the plastic pellets and by the external heaters causes melting to begin.
3. Metering or pumping section: Where additional shearing (at a high rate) and melting occur
with pressure building up at the die.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Extrusion

• The control of processing parameters such as extruder-screw rotational speed, barrel-wall temperatures,
die design, and rate of cooling and drawing speeds are important in order to ensure product integrity and
uniform dimensional accuracy.
• Die shape is important, as it can induce high stresses in the product, causing it to develop surface
fractures (as also occur in metals).

• The molten plastic is in the shape of a helical ribbon,

with thickness H and width W, and is conveyed toward
the extruder outlet by rotating screw flights.
• The shape, pitch, and flight of angle of the helical screw
are important parameters, as they affect the flow of
polymer through the extruder.
• The ratio of barrel length, L, to its diameter D is also
important.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Extrusion

thermoplastics
• plastic pellets drop from hopper onto the turning screw
• plastic pellets melt as the turning screw pushes them forward by the heaters
• molten polymer is forced under pressure through the shaping die to form the final product (extrudate)

Divided into sections to serve several functions:

• Feed section - feedstock is moved from
hopper and preheated
• Melt Compression section - polymer is
transformed into fluid, air mixed with
pellets is extracted from melt, and
material is compressed
• Metering section - melt is homogenized
and sufficient pressure developed to
pump it through die opening

Fig. 15.25, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

(Fig. 15.25 is from Encyclopædia
Britannica, 1997.)

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Extrusion: Dies and Extruded Products

• The shape of the die orifice determines the cross-sectional shape of the extrudate
• Common die profiles and corresponding extruded shapes:
• Solid profiles
• Hollow profiles, such as tubes
• Wire and cable coating
• Sheet and film
• Filaments

Fig. 15.25, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.

15.25 is from Encyclopædia Britannica, 1997.)

• Fig 19.3 shows the common extrusion die geometries: (a) coat-
hanger die for extruding sheet; (b) round die for producing rods;
and (c) and (d) nonuniform recovery of the part after it exits the
die.
• The control of processing parameters such as extruder-screw rotational
speed, barrel-wall temperatures, die design, and rate of cooling and
drawing speeds are important in order to ensure product integrity and
uniform dimensional accuracy.
• Die shape is important, as it can induce high stresses in the product,
causing it to develop surface fractures (as also occur in metals).

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Extrusion

Plastic-coated electrical wire
• Electrical wire cable, and strips also are extruded and coated
with plastic by this process.
• The wire is fed into the die opening at a controlled rate with the
extruded plastic in order to produce a uniform coating.
• Plastic coated paper clips also are made by coextrusion.
• To ensure proper insulation, extruded electrical wires are
checked continuously for their resistance as they exit the die;
they also are marked automatically with a roller to identify the
specific type of wire.

Side view cross-section of die for coating of wire by extrusion

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Blown-Film Extrusion

Thin polymer films

• Common plastic bags and other thin polymer film products are made from blown film, which is made from a thin-walled
tube produced by an extruder.
• In this process, a tube is extruded continuously vertically upward and then expanded into a balloon shape by blowing
air through the center of the extrusion die until the desired film thickness is reached.
• This process is well developed, producing inexpensive and very large quantities of plastic film and shopping bags.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Thermoforming

• Thermoforming is a process for forming thermoplastic sheets or films over a mold by means of the application of heat and
pressure.
• In this process, a sheet is (a) clamped and heated to the sag point (above the glass-transition temperature, of the polymer),
usually by radiant heating, and (b) forced against the mold surfaces through the application of a vacuum or air pressure.
• Fig 19.18 shows the various thermoforming processes for a thermoplastic sheet. These processes commonly are used in
making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Thermoforming

Flat thermoplastic sheet or film is heated and deformed into desired shape using a mold
• Heating usually accomplished by radiant electric heaters located on one or both sides of starting plastic sheet or film
• Widely used in packaging of products and to fabricate large items such as bathtubs, contoured skylights, and internal door liners for
refrigerators

Vacuum thermoforming: (1) a flat plastic sheet is Vacuum thermoforming: (2) sheet is Vacuum thermoforming: (3) vacuum
softened placed over mold cavity draws sheet into the cavity

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Compressing Molding

In compression molding, the workpiece (pre-shaped part, volume of powder, mixture of liquid resin and fillers) is
placed in the heated mold and is formed under pressure.
• Compression molding is used mainly with thermosetting plastics with the original material being in a
partially polymerized state

Process Capabilities
• Three types of compression molds are available:
1. Flash type: for shallow or flat parts
2. Positive type: for high-density parts
3. Semipositive type: for quality production

Compression molding of thermosets: (1) charge is loaded, (2) charge is

compressed and cured, and (3) part is ejected and removed.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Compressing Molding

• In compression molding, a preshaped charge of material, premeasured volume of powder, or viscous mixture of liquid-resin and filler
material is placed directly into a heated mold cavity that typically is around 200°C but can be much higher.
• Fig 19.19 shows the types of compression molding—a process similar to forging: (a) positive, (b) semipositive, and (c) flash, which is
later trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a compression-molded part with external undercuts.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Transfer Molding

• Transfer molding represents a further development of the process of compression molding.
• The uncured thermosetting resin is placed in a heated transfer pot or chamber and after the material is heated, it is injected
into heated closed molds.
• Fig 19.20 shows the sequence of operations in transfer molding for thermosetting plastics. This process is suitable particularly
for intricate parts with varying wall thickness.
Transfer molding is a similar to
compression molding process, but the
charge is placed not in the die cavity but
into a chamber next to the die cavity.
Pressure is then applied to force the
material to flow into the heated mold
where curing occurs.
Process capabilities
• Typical parts made by transfer molding are
electrical connectors and electronic components,
rubber and silicone parts, and the encapsulation
of microelectronic devices.
• The process is suitable particularly for intricate
shapes with varying wall thicknesses.
• The molds tend to be more expensive than those
for compression molding, and some excess
material is left in the channels of the mold during
filling, which is later removed.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Blow Molding

• Blow molding is a modified extrusion- and injection-molding process.
• In extrusion blow molding, a tube or preform (usually oriented so that it is vertical) is first extruded.
• Fig 19.16(a) shows the schematic illustrations of (a) the extrusion blow-molding process for making plastic beverage bottles; (b) the
injection blow-molding process; and (c) a three-station injection blow-molding machine for making plastic bottles.

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Plastic Shaping Processes: Blow Molding

• In some operations, the extrusion is continuous, and the

molds move with the tubing.
• In injection blow molding, a short tubular piece
(parison) first is injection molded into cool dies
(parisons may be made and stored for later use).
• A related process is stretch blow molding, where the
parison is expanded and elongated simultaneously,
subjecting the polymer to biaxial stretching and thus
enhancing its properties.
• Multilayer blow molding involves the use of
coextruded tubes or parisons and thus permits the
production of a multilayer structure.

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COMPOSITES

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES Composites

Particle-reinforced Fibre reinforced Structural

Spheroidite steel
Matrix ferrite
(a) ductile Continuous Discontinuous Sandwich panels Laminates
Particle (aligned)
cementite
(Fe3C)
brittle

WC/Co cemented carbide

matrix: cobalt
(ductile, tough)

particles: WC
(brittle, hard)

Automobile tire rubber

matrix: rubber
(compliant)

particles:carbon
black (stiff) Aligned Random

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Terminology/Classification of Composites

• Composite:
Multiphase material that is artificially made. • Matrix phase:
-- Purposes are to:
• Phase types: - transfer stress to dispersed phase
-- Matrix - is continuous - protect dispersed phase from
-- Dispersed - is discontinuous and surrounded environment
by matrix -- Types: MMC, CMC, PMC

metal ceramic polymer

• Dispersed phase:
-- Purpose:
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase KIc
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.
Adapted from Fig. 16.1(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
-- Types: particle, fiber, structural
Reprinted with permission from
D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An Introduction to
Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge
University Press, New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.

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Composite Benefits

• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/r • MMCs: Increased creep resistance
Force 3 ceramics
particle-reinf 10
E(GPa) 2 PMCs
10
fiber-reinf 10 metal/
1 metal alloys
un-reinf
0.1 polymers
0.01
Bend displacement 0.1 0.3 1 3 10 30
Density, r [mg/m3]
Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a silicon-
carbide reinforced aluminum composite", Metall.
Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp. 139-146, 1984. Used with
permission.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES Composites

Fibre reinforced

• Fibers very strong in tension • Fiber Types

– Provide significant strength improvement to – Whiskers - thin single crystals - large length to diameter
the composite ratios
• graphite, silicon nitride, silicon carbide
– Ex: fiber-glass - continuous glass filaments
in a polymer matrix • high crystal perfection – extremely strong, strongest
known
• Glass fibers
• very expensive and difficult to disperse
– strength and stiffness
– Fibers
• Polymer matrix
• polycrystalline or amorphous
– holds fibers in place • generally polymers or ceramics
– protects fiber surfaces • Ex: alumina, aramid, E-glass, boron, UHMWPE
– transfers load to fibers
– Wires
• metals – steel, molybdenum, tungsten

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FIBER ALIGNMENT-FIBRE REINFORCED Composites

• Aligned Continuous fibers

Fibre reinforced
• Examples: -- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers
-- Metal: g'(Ni3Al)-a(Mo) formed by glass slurry
Continuous by eutectic solidification.
(aligned) Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.
matrix: a (Mo) (ductile)

(a) fracture
surface

From F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,

Composite Materials; Engineering and
Science, Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo
fibers: g ’ (Ni3Al) (brittle) (b) by J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S. Rodgers, and
From W. Funk and E. Blank, “Creep R.D. Rawlings). Used with permission of
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ composites", CRC
Metall. Trans. A Vol. 19(4), pp. 987-998, Press, Boca Raton, FL.
1988. Used with permission.

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FIBER ALIGNMENT-FIBRE REINFORCED Composites

Fibre reinforced • Discontinuous fibers, random in 2 dimensions

• Example: Carbon-Carbon C fibers:
Discontinuous
-- fabrication process: very stiff
- carbon fibers embedded very strong
in polymer resin matrix, (b)
C matrix:
500 m
- polymer resin pyrolyzed less stiff
at up to 2500ºC. view onto plane less strong
-- uses: disk brakes, gas
fibers lie
turbine exhaust flaps,
(a) in plane
missile nose cones.
• Other possibilities:
Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings, Composite
-- Discontinuous, random 3D Materials; Engineering and Science, Reprint ed., CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000. (a) Fig. 4.24(a), p. 151; (b)
Aligned Random -- Discontinuous, aligned Fig. 4.24(b) p. 151. (Courtesy I.J. Davies) Reproduced with
permission of CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

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THE INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH Composites

• Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:

Fibre reinforced
fiber ultimate tensile strength fiber diameter
Continuous sf d
(aligned) fiber length  shear strength of
2 c fiber-matrix interface
• Ex: For fiberglass, common fiber length > 15 mm needed
• For longer fibers, stress transference from matrix is more efficient
Short, thick fibers: Long, thin fibers:
sf d sf d
fiber length  fiber length 
2c 2 c

Low fiber efficiency High fiber efficiency

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THE INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH

Critical fibre length is necessary for effective strengthening and stiffening of the composite material.
fiber ultimate tensile strength

fiber diameter When a stress equal to s *f is applied

to a fibre having just the critical the
s *f d maximum fibre load is only achieved at
lc = shear strength of fiber-matrix interface the axial centre of fibre.
2 c

As fibre length increase l increase, the

fibre reinforcement becomes more
Stress-position profile
effective, where fibre length is greater
where fibre length is
than critical length.
less than critical length.

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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR-LONGITUDINAL LOADING

❑ Elastic behavior of a continuous and oriented fibrous composite that is loaded in the direction of fibre alignment.
❑ It is assumed that the fibre-matrix interfacial bond is very good, such that the deformation of both matrix and fibre is the same
(an isostrain situation)

Ecl = EmVm + E f V f
or

Ecl = Em (1 − V f ) + E f V f

Because the composite consists of only matrix and fibre

phases: that is
m V +V = 1
f

3. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES Composites

• Sandwich panels Structural

-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: light weight, large bending stiffness Sandwich panels Laminates

face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets

-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º or 0/45/90º
Adapted from Fig. 16.18,
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM
International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)

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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

COMPOSITES MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Polymer Matrix Composites Processes

Open faced moulding Pultrusion Matched Die Moulding

Hand lay up Automated lay up Fibre preform Prepreg

Tape lay up

Spray Moulding Filament Winding

Transfer
Moulding

Structural reaction Sheet Moulding

injection moulding Compound
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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

Open Mold Processes

Only one mold (male or female) is needed and may be made of any material such as wood,
reinforced plastic or , for longer runs, sheet metal or electroformed nickel. The final part is
usually very smooth.
Shaping. Steps that may be taken for high quality
1. Mold release agent (silicone, polyvinyl alcohol, fluorocarbon, or sometimes, plastic film) is
first applied.
2. Unreinforced surface layer (gel coat) may be deposited for best surface quality.

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Hand Lay-Up: The resin and fiber (or pieces cut from prepreg) are placed manually, air is expelled with squeegees and if
necessary, multiple layers are built up.
· Hardening is at room temperature but may be improved by heating.
· Void volume is typically 1%.
· Foam cores may be incorporated (and left in the part) for greater shape complexity. Thus essentially all shapes can
be produced.
· Process is slow (deposition rate around 1 kg/h) and labor-intensive
· Quality is highly dependent on operator skill.
· Extensively used for products such as airframe components, boats, truck bodies, tanks, swimming pools, and
ducts.

Hand lay–up, or contact molding, is the

oldest and simplest way of making
fiberglass–resin composites. Applications are
standard wind turbine blades, boats, etc.)

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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

SPRAY-UP MOLDING
A spray gun supplying resin in two converging streams into which roving is chopped
· Automation with robots results in highly reproducible production
· Labor costs are lower

In Spray–up process, chopped fibers and resins are sprayed

simultaneously into or onto the mold. Applications are lightly loaded
structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings, bathtubes, small
boats, etc.

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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

Tape-Laying Machines (Automated Lay-Up)

Cut and lay the ply or prepreg under

computer control and without tension; may
allow reentrant shapes to be made.
· Cost is about half of hand lay-up
· Extensively used for products such as
airframe components, boats, truck bodies,
tanks, swimming pools, and ducts.

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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

Filament Winding
❑ Continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately positioned in a predetermined pattern to form a
hollow (usually cylindrical) shape
❑ Fibers are fed through a resin bath to impregnate with thermosetting resin
❑ Impregnated fibers are continuously wound (typically automatically) onto a mandrel
❑ After appropriate number of layers added, curing is carried out either in an oven or at room
temperature
❑ The mandrel is removed to give the final product

Filament Winding Characteristics

▪ Because of the tension, reentrant shapes cannot be produced.
▪ CNC winding machines with several degrees of freedom (sometimes 7) are frequently
employed.
▪ The filament (or tape, tow, or band) is either precoated with the polymer or is drawn
through a polymer bath so that it picks up polymer on its way to the winder.
▪ Void volume can be higher (3%)
▪ The cost is about half that of tape laying
▪ Productivity is high (50 kg/h).
▪ Applications include: fabrication of composite pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels. Carbon
fiber reinforced rocket motor cases used for Space Shuttle and other rockets are made this
Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. [Fig. 16.15 is from
way. N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre Composite Hybrid Materials, The
Macmillan Company, New York, 1981.]

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Vacuum-Bag Molding
The vacuum–bag process was developed for making a variety of
components, including relatively large parts with complex shapes.
Applications are large cruising boats, racecar components, etc.
Pressure-Bag Molding

Pressure–bag process is virtually a mirror image of vacuum–bag

molding. Applications are sonar domes, antenna housings, aircraft
fairings, etc.

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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

Pultrusion
Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank, then preforming die & oven to cure
▪ Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank to impregnate fibers with thermosetting resin
▪ Impregnated fibers pass through steel die that preforms to the desired shape
▪ Preformed stock passes through a curing die that is
▪ precision machined to impart final shape
▪ heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix

▪ Production rates around 1 m/min.

▪ Applications are to sporting goods (golf club shafts), vehicle
drive shafts (because of the high damping capacity),
nonconductive ladder rails for electrical service, and structural
members for vehicle and aerospace applications.
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PREPREG PRODUCTION PROCESSES

▪ Prepreg is the composite industry’s term for continuous fiber reinforcement pre-impregnated with a polymer resin that is
only partially cured.
▪ Prepreg is delivered in tape form to the manufacturer who then molds and fully cures the product without having to add any
resin.
▪ This is the composite form most widely used for structural applications

▪ Manufacturing begins by collimating a series of spool-wound

continuous fiber tows.
▪ Tows are then sandwiched and pressed between sheets of release and
carrier paper using heated rollers (calendering).
▪ The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin film of heated
resin solution to provide for its thorough impregnation of the fibers.

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Manufacturing Technology II MEB 4033

PREPREG PRODUCTION PROCESSES

۰ The final prepreg product is a thin tape consisting of continuous
and aligned fibers embedded in a partially cured resin
۰ Prepared for packaging by winding onto a cardboard core.
۰ Typical tape thicknesses range between 0.08 and 0.25 mm
۰ Tape widths range between 25 and 1525 mm.
۰ Resin content lies between about 35 and 45 vol%

▪ The prepreg is stored at 0C (32 F) or lower because thermoset matrix undergoes curing reactions at room
temperature. Also the time in use at room temperature must be minimized. Life time is about 6 months if properly
handled.
▪ Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized: carbon, glass, and aramid fibers are the common
reinforcements.
▪ Actual fabrication begins with the lay-up. Normally a number of plies are laid up to provide the desired thickness.
▪ The lay-up can be by hand or automated.

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