Geological Time

Scale;
Numerical
Dates
 Age of Earth

To understand Earth, it is important to realize that our planet is very old. The two types of dates
used by geologists to interpret Earth history are

(1) Relative dates, which put events in their proper sequence of formation, and
(2) Numerical dates, which pinpoint the time years when an event occurred. By radiometric
dating, the Earth’s age is 4.5 billion years (4,500,000,000 years). The extinction of the dinosaurs
occurred about 65 million years ago.
 Basics of Radioactivity

● Accurately determination of numerical dates for rocks is based on radioactivity. Each atom
has a nucleus containing protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons (neutral
particles). Orbiting the nucleus are negatively charged electrons.

● The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the nucleus.

● The mass number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom’s nucleus.

● Isotopes are variants of the same atom, but with different number of neutrons, and hence a
different mass number.
 How old is old?

Radioactivity is the spontaneous breaking apart (decay) of certain unstable atomic

nuclei. Three common types of radioactive decay are

(1) Emission of alpha particles from the nucleus

(2) Emission of beta particles (or electrons) from

the nucleus

(3) Capture of electrons by the nucleus

 Radioactivity (cont)
An unstable radioactive isotope, called the parent, will
decay and form stable daughter products. The length of
time for half of the nuclei of a radioactive isotope to decay
is called the half life of the isotope.

If the half life of the isotope is known, and the

parent/daughter ratio can be measured, the age of a
sample can be calculated.
 Radioactivity (cont)

An accurate radiometric date can only be obtained if the mineral containing the radioactive isotope
remained a closed system during the entire period since its formation.
 Radioactivity (cont)
Dating with Carbon 14 (radiocarbon dating)
For dating very recent events.
The half life of carbon 14 is only 5730 years, it can be
used for dating events from historic past (back to 75,000
years) as well as those from very recent geologic history.

Carbon 14 is continuously produced in the upper

atmosphere as a consequence of cosmic ray
bombardment.

The carbon 14 isotope is incorporated into carbon

dioxide, and absorbed by living matter.
 Radioactivity (cont)
Dating with Carbon-14 (radiocarbon
dating)
- When an organism is alive, they decaying
radiocarbon is continually replaced, and the ratio
of carbon-14 and carbon-12 remains constant.
- Carbon-12 is the stable and most common
isotope of carbon.
- However, when any plant or animal dies, the
amount of carbon-14 gradually decreases as it
decays to nitrogen-14 by beta emission.

- By comparing the proportions of C-14 and C-12 in

a sample, radiocarbon dates can be determined.
 Application of Radioactivity for dating

● A significant problem is assigning numerical dates to units of time is not all rocks can be
radiometrically dated.
● Sedimentary rocks can seldom be dated directly by radiometric means because the particles
composing most sedimentary rocks come from rocks of diverse ages.
● By contrast, the crystals in an igneous rock all form at about at the same time.
● Numerical dates for sedimentary layers are usually determined by examining their relationship
to igneous rocks, such as dikes and volcanic ask beds.
 Geologic Time Scale

● Geologic time scale divides Earth’s history into units of varying magnitude – with the oldest
tome and event at the bottom and the youngest at the top in a chart.
● The principal subdivisions of the geologic time scale, called eons, include the Hadean,
Archean, Proterozoic (together, these three eons are commonly referred to as the
Precambrian), and beginning about 540 million years ago, the Phanerozoic.
● The Phanerozoic (meaning “visible life”) eon, which began about 540 million years ago, is
divided onto the following eras according to dominant life-forms: Paleozoic (“Old Life“),
Mesozoic (“middle life”), and Cenozoic (“New Life“).
 Geologic Time Scale (cont)

● Each era is subdivided into periods. The Paleozoic has 7, the Mesozoic
has 3, and the Cenozoic has 2.
● The changing fossil record played an important part in establishing
each of the periods.
● Each of the 12 periods is characterized by a somewhat less profound
change in life forms as compared with the eras.
● Periods are divided into still smaller units called epochs. 7 epochs have
been named for the periods of the Cenozoic.
● The Pleistocene epoch, which ended just 10,000 years ago, coincides
with a time span commonly known as the ice age.
Geological Time Scale;
Relative Dates &
Unconformities
Tim Dosen Ilmu Bumi 2024
 Age of Earth

To understand Earth, it is important to realize that our planet is very old. The two types of dates
used by geologists to interpret Earth history are

(1) Relative dates, which put events in their proper sequence of formation, and
(2) Numerical dates, which pinpoint the time years when an event occurred. By radiometric
dating, the Earth’s age is 4.5 billion years (4,500,000,000 years). The extinction of the dinosaurs
occurred about 65 million years ago.
 How old is old?

Guess about how long it would take just to count to 4.5 billion if you could
count one number per second without stopping?

a. 5 years
b. 10 years
c. 50 years
d. 100 years
e. 150 years

An appreciation for the magnitude of geologic time is important because many of Earth s
processes are so slow that vast spans of time are needed for significant changes to occur.
 Relative Dates

● Relative dates can be established using one or more than one of

(1) The law of superposition
(2) Principle of original horizontality
(3) Principle of cross-cutting relationships
(4) Inclusions
 Relative Dates
(1) The law of superposition
In undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks or surface-deposited igneous rocks, each bed is older
than the one above, and younger than the one below.
 Relative Dates

(2) Principle of original horizontality

Most layers are deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position. If rock
layers are essentially horizontal, they should have not been disturbed.

When strata are folded or inclined at a

steep angle, they must have been
moved into that position by crustal
disturbances sometime after their
deposition.
 Relative Dates

(3) Principle of cross cutting relationships

When a fault or intrusion cuts through another rock, the fault or intrusion is younger than the
rocks cut through.
 Relative Dates

(4) Inclusions
The rock mass containing the inclusion is younger
than the rock that provided the inclusion.

Think about chocolate chip cookies

 Unconformities

Unconformities are gaps in the rock record. Each represents a long period during which deposition
ceased, erosion removed previously formed rocks, and then deposition resumed.

Three basic types of unconformities

1. angular unconformities,
2. disconformities,
3. nonconformities.
 Unconformities

(1) Angular unconformity is a tilted or folded sedimentary

rocks that are overlain by younger, more flat lying
sedimentary strata
 (1) Angular Unconformities (cont)

http://bio‐geo‐terms.blogspot.com/2006_04_01_bio‐ http://bio‐geo‐terms.blogspot.com/2006_04_01_bio
geo‐terms_archive.html ‐ geo‐terms_archive.html
 Unconformities
(2) Disconformity
The sedimentary strata on either side of the disconformity are essentially parallel to each other.
Many disconformities are difficult to identify because the rocks above and below are similar and
there is little evidence of erosion.

(Trenton‐Black River contact ‐ Lebanon, TN)

http://web.eps.utk.edu/courses/Hi
storicalGeo/disconform.html
 Unconformities

(3) Nonconformity
Nonconformity is a break separating older igneous or metamorphic rocks from younger
sedimentary strata.

http://web.eps.utk.edu/courses/HistoricalGeo
/historicalimages/Nonconformity.jpg
Unconformities (summary 1)
Unconformities (summary 2)
Unconformities (summary 2)
 Correlation
Correlation

‐ matches rocks of similar age in different areas

‐ used to develop a geologic time scale that applies
to different regions of the entire Earth.

The method is not adequate for matching rocks

that are separated by great distances. When
correlation between widely separated areas or
between continents is the objective, geologists
must rely on fossils.
 Fossils
Fossils are the remains or traces of prehistoric life. The special conditions that favor preservation
are rapid burial and the possession of hard parts such as shells, bones, or teeth.

Other traces of prehistoric life:

1. Fossil Tracks or Ichnites – animal footprints made in soft sediment that was later lithified.
2. Burrows – tubes in sediment, wood, or rock made by an animal. These holes may later become
filled with mineral matter and preserved. Some of the oldest known fossils are believed to be
worm burrows.

Fossils are not simply animal

bones
 Fossils (cont)

● Fossils are used to correlate sedimentary rocks from different regions by using the rocks’
distinctive fossil content and applying the principle of fossil succession.

● It is based on the work of William Smith in the late 1700s and states that fossil organisms
succeed one another in a definite and determinable order, and therefore any time period can be
recognized by its fossil content.
The use of index fossils, those that are widespread geographically and are limited to a short
span of geologic time, provides an important method of matching rocks of the same age.
Rock formations, however, do not always contain a specific index fossil. In such situations, are
used to establish the age of the bed.

The figure illustrates how a group of fossils

can be used to date rocks more precisely than
could be accomplished by the use of only
one of the fossils.
Geological
Maps
 What are geological maps?

● A geological map shows the distribution of various type of rock and geologic structure in an
area.
● It usually consists of a (a map giving information about the
form of the earth’s surface), which is shaded or coloured to show where different rock units occur
at or just below the ground surface.
● Lines on the map are drawn to show the boundaries between each of the rock units.
● Usually accompanied by a based on geological interpretation (not always true
observation).
Example of a geological map

• Distribution of bedrocks and soil

deposits
• Topographic map shaded or
colored
• Boundaries between each of the
rock units
• Geological cross-section
 How is a geological map made?

● The geologist in the field firstly record the nature of rock where it is
visible at the surface.
● Rock outcrops are examined and characteristics such as rock
composition, internal structure and fossil content are recorded.
● By using theses details, different units can be distinguished and http://www.bgs.ac.uk/science/landUseAndDe
velopment/landslides/coastal.html

shown separately on the base map.

● Deducing the rock unit underlying areas of unexposed rock (soil
covered areas) involves making use of additional data – type of soil,
the land’s surface forms (geomorphology), borehole information and
geophysical methods.
http://geology.com/news/image
s/jmu‐field‐camp.jpg
Warning: there are always parts of the map where more exists about the nature of the bedrock,
and it is important for the reader of the map (you!!!) to realize that a good deal of
is used in the map making process.
 First Geological Map

● William Smith Geological Map of

England and Wales and Part of
Scotland, 1815-1817

● He was the first to discover that the

strata of England were in a definite
order and the first to show that their
fossil contents were in the same order

http://www.unh.edu/esci/mapexplan.html57
 Make use of surface contours
● Setting: This map shows that a layer of
limestone is found on top of the geological
succession. It is underlain by different beds of
sedimentary rocks.

● Task: The map is only partly completed.

Try to show all underground rock layers by
shading the blank area according to the keys.
Make use of surface contours (cont)

Key to shading widely used on

geological maps and text figures
Make use of surface contours (cont)
Make use of surface contours (cont)
Make use of surface contours (cont)

Key to shading widely used

on geological maps and
text figures
 The 3-point problem

Geological layers are not always

horizontal.

The 3 point problem is a special

mapping technique which deals with
slanting bedding planes or geologiical
contact planes.
In such a case, one must predict the
strike direction (dip direction+90o) and The concepts of dip
dip angle of an inclined underground bed direction and angle of dip
stratum.
 The 3-point problem (cont)

Concept of slope (gradient)

 True and Apparent Dip

Tangeant apparent dip = targent true dip x cos β

 Vertical thickness and True Thickness
● Since beds are commonly inclined, the vertical thickness
penetrated by a borehole is greater than the true
thickness measured perpendicular to the geological
boundaries (interfaces)

● The angle α between VT (vertical thickness) and T (true

thickness) is equal to the angle of dip

● Now cos α = T / VT
Therefore T + VT x cos α

● Where the dip is low (less than 5˚), the cosine is high (over
0.99) and true and vertical thickness are approximately the same.
 Width of Outcrop

If the ground surface is level, the width of

outcrop of a bed of constant thickness is a
function of:
Dip
Bed thickness
Slope of the ground
 Outcrop patterns of geological surfaces
exposed on the ground

● We have just seen how a geological surface can be represented by

contour maps.

● The next step is to determine if such a geological surface can be observed

on the ground.

● A rule to remember: A geological surface crops out at points where it has

the same height as the ground surface. (see worked example below)