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02 Biological Classification

1. Introduction :
• There have been many attempts to classify living organisms. It was done instinctively not using
criteria that were scientific but borne out of a need to use organisms for our own use for food,
shelter and clothing.
• Initial classifications were done instinctively not using scientific but borne out of a need to use
organisms for own use.
• Classification systems for living organisms have hence undergone several changes over time.
• Though plant and animal kingdoms have been a constant under all different systems of
classifications.
• The understanding of what groups/organisms be included under these kingdoms have been
changing.
• The numbers and nature of other kingdoms have also been understood differently by different
scientists.
History of Taxonomy :
2.
(A) Aristotle :
Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for classification. He used simple
morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
Aristotle also divided animals into two groups, those which had red blood and those that did not.
Plants
(On the basis of Morphology)

Trees Shrubs Herbs

Animals

Anaima Enaima
(Invertebrates with no red blood) (Vertebrates with red blood)

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(B) Theophrastus :
He wrote first book of Botany i.e. “Historia Plantarum”. He is known as father of botany and father
of ancient plant taxonomy also. Theophrastus classified plants into four groups on the basis of
growth forms. (i) Herbs
(ii) Shrubs (iii) Undershrub (iv) Trees

(C) Carolus Linnaeus (Two Kingdom Classification) :

He is known as father of taxonomy, father of plant
taxonomy and father of animal taxonomy.
Linnaeus
system gave the two-kingdom
classification. He grouped plants and animals into
kingdom Plantae and kingdom Animalia respectively
on the basis of cell wall only.
He gave plant nomenclature in his book “Species
Plantarum”.
Linnaeus gave plant classification in his book “Genera Plantarum”.
He used mainly the character of male reproductive organ i.e. stamen (androecium) and made 24
classes of plant.

Demerits of two kingdom classification :

• In two kingdom classification prokaryotes (bacteria, blue green algae) and eukaryotes (fungi,
mosses/bryophytes, fern/pteridophytes, gymnosperm and angiosperm) are placed in same
kingdom. In two kingdom system unicellular organism (Chlamydomonas and Chlorella) and
• multicellular organism (Spirogyra) are placed together under algae in plant kingdom, because
they have cell wall. This classification did not differentiate between the heterotrophic fungi
and autotrophic green plants, though they also showed a characteristic difference in their cell
• wall composition - the fungi had chitin in their walls while the green plants had a cellulosic
cell wall. Position of Euglena is not fixed in this system. In two kingdom system Paramoecium
and Amoeba were placed in animalia kingdom, because cell
• wall is absent in them.
• Hence the two kingdom classification used for a long time was found inadequate. Besides, gross
morphology a need was also felt for including other characteristics like cell structure, nature of
• wall, mode of nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships, etc.
Classification systems for the living organisms have hence, undergone several changes over the
time.

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• Though plant and animal kingdoms have been a constant under all different systems, the
understanding of what groups/organisms be included under these kingdoms have been changing;
the number and nature of other kingdoms have also been understood differently by different
scientists over the time. Therefor three kingdom classification (Haeckel), four kingdom
classification (Copeland) also came into existence.

(D) George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker :

(i) Both Bentham and Hooker are related to Royal botanical garden.
(ii) Scientists working in botanical garden are known as curator.
(iii) They wrote the book "Genera plantarum".
(iv) In this book, Bentham and Hooker gave the biggest and natural classification of
spermatophyta (seeded plants)
Division – Spermatophyta (202 families)
3 Classes

Dicotyledonae Gymnospermae Monocotyledonae

(165 families) (3 families) (34 families)
Merits of Bentham and Hooker classification :-
• The classification of Bentham and Hooker was mainly based on the floral characters.
• The classification of Bentham and Hooker was natural.
• It is the simplest classification because this classification is based on actual observations.

Demerits of Bentham and Hooker :-

• In this classification the phylogeny of plants is not considered, because in it, gymnosperms are
placed in between dicots and monocots. The sequence of evolution is as follows :-
Phylogeny = Gymnosperm → Dicots → Monocots.

(E) R. H. Whittaker :
R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a five-kingdom classification. The
kingdoms defined by him were named as Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae
and Animalia. The main criteria used by him for making classification are:
(i) Cell structure (Complexity of cell)
(ii) Thallus organisation (complexity of organism)/Body organization
(iii) Mode of nutrition
(iv) Reproduction/Life style
(v) Phylogenetic relationship

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Five Kingdoms
Characters
Cell type Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Present
Noncellulosic Present (cellulose)
Cell wall (Polysaccharide + Present in some (without Absent
amino acid cellulose)
Absent Present
Nuclear Multicellular/
Present Present Present
membrane loose tissue
Tissue/ Tissue/organ/
Body Cellular Cellular organ organ system
organisation Heterotrophic
Autotrophic (Holozoic/
Saprophytic
Autotrophic etc.)
(chemosynthetic and (Photosynthetic) Heterotrophic
Mode of photosynthetic) and and (Saprophytic Autotrophic
nutrition Heterotrophic Heterotrophic /Parasitic) Photosynthetic
(saprophyte/parasite

FIVE KINGDOM
(i) Monera : All the prokaryotes (Eubacteria, Rickettsia, Actinomycetes, BGA, Archaebacteria,
Mycoplasma)
(ii) Protista : All the Unicellular eukaryotes (Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, Euglenoids, Slime moulds (false
fungi) and Protozoans)
(iii) Fungi : True fungi
(iv) Plantae : All the multicellular plants – Algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms.
(v) Animalia : All the multicellular animals

Note : (a) In five kingdom classification virus, viroids, prions and lichens are not mentioned.
(b) According to five kingdom classification. Chlamydomonas and Chlorella are placed in kingdom
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(F) Three Domain Classification (Carl Woese) :
• On the basis of r-RNA sequences three domains were created. In these
• three domains and six kingdoms are included. He suggested separate
• kingdom for Archaebacteria. Three - domain system has also been
• proposed that divides the kingdom
Monera into two domains and remaining eukaryotic kingdom in the third
domain and thereby a six kingdom classification.

Organisms
Domain On the basis of sequence of r-RNA

Archaea Bacteria Eukarya

Kingdom
Kingdom Kingdom

Archea Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

• Species is smallest taxonomic category and basic unit of classification.

• Each rank or taxon in fact represents a unit of classification. These taxonomic groups/categories
are distinct biological entities and are not merely morphological aggregates.
• Each genus may have one or more than one specific epithets representing different organisms,
but having morphological similarities.
• Genus comprises a group of related species which has more characters in common in comparison
to species of other genera.
• In museum insects are preserved in insect box after collecting, killing and pinning.
• Keys are generally analytical in nature.
• Classification proposed by Bentham and Hooker is natural non-phylogenetic.
• Whittaker gave the five kingdom (Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia) Classification.
• The three-domain system has also been proposed that divides the Kingdom Monera into two
domains, leaving the remaining eukaryotic kingdoms in the third domain and thereby a six
kingdom classification.

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BEGINNER’S BOX-1 TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES TO CARL WOESE

1. Family is placed between :-

(1) Genus and species (2) Order and class (3) Class and genus (4) Order and genus
2. Chemosynthesis is mode of nutrition is found in kingdom :-
(1) Monera (2) Protista (3) Fungi (4) Plantae
3. Monograph are useful in providing information for :-
(1) Identification of name of plant species
(2) Any one taxon
(3) Economic importance of plant species in a particular areas
(4) Habitat and distribution of plants
4. Smallest unit of classification is :-
(1) Genus (2) Species (3) Order (4) Kingdom
5. Biological concept of species is based on :-
(1) Morphology (2) Interbreeding (3) Physiology (4) All
6. According to five kingdom classification, multicellular heterotrophs are included in :
(1) Three kingdom (2) One kingdom (3) Two kingdom (4) Three domain
7. According to Carl Woese, archaebacteria belong to domain :-
(1) Monera (2) Protista (3) Plantae (4) Archaea
8. According to R.H. Whittaker which kingdom includes producer, decomposer and consumer is :
(1) Plantae (2) Fungi (3) Protista (4) Animalia
9. Basis of two kingdom system was :-
(1) Cell wall (2) Nucleus (3) Cell membrane (4) Pigments
10. Three domain system was given by :-
(1) Carl Woese (2) Bentham and Hooker
(3) Theophrastus (4) Linnaeus

3. Kingdom – Monera :
• • Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera.
•• They are the most abundant micro-organisms.
Bacteria occur almost everywhere. Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil.
They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans where very
few other life forms can survive.
• Many of them live in or on other organisms as parasites.

Main characteristic of prokaryotes:

(a) Cell wall: Cell wall of prokaryotes is made up of peptidoglycan or murein which is a type of
mucopeptide. Peptidoglycan is made of polysaccharides and amino acids.
(b) Cell membrane: Like eukaryotes the cell membrane of prokaryotes is made up of lipoprotein
[lipid + protein]
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The space between cell wall and cell membrane is known as periplasmic space.
This space, is analogous to lysosome because in this space the digestion of complex substance is
done.

Cell wall
Cell membrane
Periplasmic space
Cytoplasm
70S type ribosomes

Genophore/Nucleoid

(c) Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm of prokaryotes lacks membrane bound cell organelles.
In Prokaryotic cell, the nucleus is indistinct. The nucleus of prokaryotes is also known as incipient
nucleus, genophore, nucleoid or fibrillar nucleus. Nuclear membrane is absent around nucleus.
It also lacks nucleolus.

Prokaryotes also lack the true chromosome. Instead of it, a false chromosome is present, which is made up
of ds circular naked DNA + Non-histone protein like polyamines. This false chromosome coils and
forms the chromosomal region, which is known as nucleoid.
In prokaryotes ribosomes are of 70s type. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis
(A)
Eubacteria :
(i)
Shape of Bacteria :
• Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape:
(a) The spherical Coccus (pl.: cocci) e.g. Streptococcus
(b) The rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli) e.g. Escherichia coli
(c) The comma-shaped Vibrium (pl.: vibrio) e.g. Vibrio cholerae
(d) The spiral Spirillum (pl.: spirilla) e.g. Spirillum

(ii) Motility in Bacteria :

• • Bacteria are motile as well as non-motile. Movement in bacteria takes place by means of flagella.
• Number and arrangement of flagella is called flagellation.
Peritrichous – When flagella are found on the whole body of bacterium
e.g. E.coli., Salmonella typhi
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(iii) Structure of Bacterial Flagellum :
• A flagellum of bacteria is made up of three parts
(a) Basal body (b) Hook (c) Filament

(a) Basal body –It is the basal part of flagellum and rod shaped in structure.
It lies within the cell wall and cell membrane
This proteinaceous rod-shaped structure is surrounded by two pairs of rings
(i) Outer pair
(ii) Inner pair

Outer pair of ring lies within the cell wall. One ring of this pair is called L and the another called P.
Inner ring of inner pair lies within the cell membrane. One ring of this pair is called S and the
another is M.
In Gram (+) bacteria only one pair of rings (inner pair) is found.
(b) Hook –
It connects the basal body to filament.
It is the middle part of flagellum.
It's some part lies within the cell wall.
(c) Filament –
It is cylindrical hollow structure made up of protein monomers.
Each monomer is made up of flagellin protein. Flagellin is a contractile protein.

(iv) Pili (Sing. Pilus) :

• Bacterial cell wall is covered by numerous hair like structures called pili.
• Pili are smaller than the flagella.
• They are of two types (A) Longer pili, (B) Shorter pili.
• Longer pili are also known as 'F' pili or 'sex' pili. Longer pili occur in only donor (F+ or male)
bacteria and help in conjugation. These are absent in recipient bacteria or female.
• The shorter pili take part in attachment to rocks in streams and to the host tissue. These are also
known as 'infective' pili or Fimbriae. These are found only in pathogenic bacteria.

Structure –
• Every pilus is cylindrical hollow structure and composed of protein monomers.
• Each monomer is made up of 'pilin' protein. Pilin is non-contractile protein.
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(v) Structure of prokaryotic cell or a typical bacterial cell :

• Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very complex in behaviour
• Bacterial cell has a chemically complex cell envelope. The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound
three
• layered structure.
(a) Glycocalyx (b) Cell wall (c) Cell membrane
Although each layer of the envelope performs distinct function they act together as a single
protective unit.
Glycocalyx
(a)
Capsule - Thick, nonsticky, regular and smooth layer.
Slime layer - Thin, sticky, irregular and rough layer.
When bacteria are surrounded by capsule, called capsulated bacteria. Formation of capsule is
performed by cell membrane. Capsulated bacteria are mostly pathogenic.
Capsule is made up of polysaccharides and polypeptides.
When the molecules of polysaccharides are very loosely arranged they form a thin and sticky layer,
known as slime layer.
Glycocalyx protects the bacteria from W.B.C. and also helps in colony formation.
Cell Wall –
(b) Bacterial cell wall is rigid and made up of mainly peptidoglycan or murein which is a type of
muco-peptide.
Gram (+) and Gram (-) bacteria:
In Gram (+) bacteria cell wall is single layered and thick. It is made up of peptidoglycan. Lipids are
also present but in less quantity.
While in Gram (-) bacteria cell wall is double layered. Inner layer is thin and composed of
peptidoglycan while outer layer is thick and made up of lipopolysaccharide. Some quantity of
lipoproteins and phospholipids are also present in outer layer.

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(c) Cell membrane or Plasmalemma or Plasma membrane
This is the inner most layer.
Bacterial cell membrane is made up of lipoprotein like the eukaryotic membrane.
(d) Cytoplasm –
In bacterial cytoplasm membrane bound cell organelles viz. Mitochondria, Chloroplast
E.R., Lysosome, Golgi body, Microbodies are absent.
Bacterial cytoplasm does not show streaming or cyclosis.
(e) Cytoplasmic Structures –

• Mesosomes –
➢ Mesosome was discovered by F. James. Mesosome is a special membranous structure formed
by the extension or infoldings or invaginations of plasma membrane into the cell. These
extensions are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
➢ These are functionally mitochondria like structures. Oxidative enzyme are found in mesosome.

Functions
➢ They help in cell respiration and cell wall secretion processes to increase surface area of the
plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
➢ Help in DNA replication and distribution to daughter cells during cell division.

• Storage granules/Inclusion bodies –

➢ Glycogen granules –They store carbohydrate
➢ Volutin granules – These are also known as metachromatic granules or phosphate granule.

• Photosynthetic structure –
➢ Some eubacteria (purple bacteria and green sulphur bacteria) have capacity of photosynthesis.
➢ In bacterial cytoplasm many photosynthetic pigments are scattered.

Pigments –
➢ In purple bacteria (sulphur and non-sulphur) – Bacteriochlorophyll 'a' & 'b'.
➢ In green sulphur bacteria – Bacteriochlorophyll 'a', Chlorobium chlorophyll or

Bacterioviridin.
• Chromatin material (Nucleoid) –
➢ Nucleus of bacterial cell is called Nucleoid or Genophore or Incipient nucleus or fibrilar
nucleus. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are absent.
➢ True chromosomes are also absent in bacterial cells. Instead of true chromosome they contain
a single false chromosome or prochromosome. It consists of a double stranded circular
naked DNA (without histone) + Non-histone proteins. Non-histone proteins are polyamines.
Nucleoid is connected to mesosome.
➢ Beside this DNA another small and circular DNA is also present in bacterial cell, which is called
Plasmid. It is also known as extra chromosomal or extranuclear or extra genomic genetic
material.
(The term 'plasmid' was given by Lederberg).
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➢ Plasmids have the ability to replicate independently.
➢ Plasmids are of many types on the basis of their function or phenotypic character
• F-plasmid (fertility factor) – On the basis of presence or absence of 'F' plasmid, there are two
types of bacteria.
(a) F+ – Cells, carrying 'F' plasmid, act as donor and are called F+ or male.
(b) F– – Cells, lacking 'F' plasmid, act as recipient and are called F– or female.
• When 'F" plasmid is attached with main DNA, it is designated as Episome and this type of cell is
known as HFR cell. (HFR – Highly frequent recombinant cell)

Plasmid
Plasmid
(Episome)
F+or Donor Hfror Donor F-or Recipient

R-factor - Resistance to certain antibiotics.

Antibiotic Degraded
Antibiotic

R-Plasmid
Enzyme

(vi) Staining of Bacteria :

Gram Staining technique :
(a) First of all H.C. Gram differentiated bacteria on the basis of staining.
(b) In the first step of this method bacteria are stained with Crystal violet or gentian violet and
then KI solution.
(c) After staining, bacteria are washed with Acetone or Ethyl alcohol. After washing some
bacteria retain the stain and some bacteria are decolourised.
(d) Bacteria which retain stain (violet or purple) are called Gram(+) and bacteria which
decolourise are known as Gram(–). Gram(–) bacteria are counter stained by saffranine.
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Differences between Gram positive and Gram negative Bacteria

Gram positive Gram negative
1. The bacteria remain purple coloured with The bacteria do not retain the stain when washed
Gram staining even after washing with with alcohol.
alcohol.
2. Cell wall is single layered. Cell wall is bilayered.
3. Cell wall of peptidoglycan is 20–80 nm. Cell wall of peptidoglycan is 8–12 nm. thick.
thick.
4. Murein (Peptidoglycan) content is 70–80%. Murein (Peptidoglycan) content is 10–20%.
5. The wall is smooth. Wall is wavy and comes in contact with cell
membrane only at a few loci.
6. Basal body of the flagellum contains 2 rings Basal body of the flagellum has 4 rings (L, P, S & M).
(S & M).
7. Mesosomes are quite prominent. Mesosomes are less prominent.
8. A few pathogenic bacteria belong to Gram– Most of the pathogenic bacteria belong to Gram–
positive group. negative group.
9. Teichoic acid present in cell wall. Teichoic acid absent.

(vii) Bacterial Nutrition :

• Bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity. Most of the bacteria are
heterotrophic but some are autotrophic. On the basis of nutrition bacteria are classified into
following three categories.
Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic Symbiotic

CO2 + H2O Sugar

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(a) Autotrophs :
These bacteria use light or chemical energy for their own food synthesis. On the basis of source
of energy autotrophs are of following two types
(i) Photosynthetic autotrophs = Photoautotrophs = Phototrophs
These bacteria use light energy for food synthesis.
In bacterial photosynthesis H-donor is not water, so they do not release oxygen during
photosynthesis hence this is called Non-oxygenic photosynthesis e.g.- Rhodospirillum.

Autotrophic

Photosynthetic Chemosynthetic
Source of energy: Light Source of energy: Chemical
(ii) Chemosynthetic autotrophs = Chemoautotrophs = Chemotrophs
These are non-photosynthetic autotrophs i.e.; photosynthetic pigments are absent.
They use chemical energy instead of light energy for food synthesis.
These bacteria oxidise some chemical compounds and release energy which is used for food
synthesis.
e.g. Nitrifying bacteria – They oxidise nitrogenous compounds and obtain energy.

Nitrite bacteria – Convert ammonia into Nitrite (Nitrosomonas & Nitrococcus)

Nitrate bacteria – Convert nitrite into nitrates (Nitrobacter)

Note : Chemosynthetic bacteria play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus,
iron and sulphur.
Heterotrophs :
(b)
Most of the bacteria are heterotrophic i.e., they cannot manufacture their food.
They receive their own food from dead organic matter or living organism.
These are of following types
(i) Saprotrophic bacteria –
These bacteria obtain food from dead and decaying organic matter.
e.g. Bacillus vulgaris, Clostridium botulinum, Pseudomonas
(ii) Parasitic bacteria –
They obtain their food from living organism.
e.g. Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

(c) Symbiotic bacteria :

They form symbiotic relation with other organisms.
These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia and then into nitrogenous compounds
like Amino acids, NO3 or salts of ammonia.
e.g. Rhizobium
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(viii) Respiration :
On the basis of respiration bacteria are of two types
(1) Aerobic bacteria: They use oxygen in respiration. e.g. Azotobacter
(2) Anaerobic bacteria: They do not use oxygen in respiration. e.g. Clostridium

(ix) Reproduction :
•• Reproduction leads to increase in number of individuals.
Bacteria reproduce only by asexual reproduction but they also perform a primitive type of gene
transfer from one bacterial cell to the other which is called genetic recombination.

(a) Asexual Reproduction :

Following methods of asexual reproduction are found in bacteria.
(i) Binary fission:
This is the most common method of bacterial reproduction.
First of all, DNA replication takes place in bacterial cell.
Under favourable conditions bacterial cell divides into two cells due to formation of a septum
(partition) in the centre of the cell.
Each daughter cell grows into a new bacterium.
Thus, the bacterial cell divides by amitosis which is a faster process then mitosis or meiosis.

Adequate

Nutrients
Moisture
Temperature

(ii) By Endospore:
Endospore formation occurs under unfavourable conditions.
Only one endospore is formed in a bacterial cell.
It is a highly resistant structure. It is resistant to high
temperature, radiations, antibiotics and chemicals.
Endospore have maximum resistant power due to presence of Ca-dipicolinate in wall.

(b) Genetic Recombination :

(i) Conjugation:
Gene transfer by physical contact between two bacterial cells.
Conjugation between F+ and F–
(a) First of all, donor cell is attached to recipient cell with the help of sex pili. Sex pili help in
formation of conjugation tube.
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(b) The 'F' factor now replicates and the replica moves to F–. through conjugation tube.
(c) Both the cells are then separated. Due to transfer of 'F' factor F-cell now becomes F+ cell.
+ –
F F
F-factor
Bacterial
chromosome Recipient

Conjugating cells

– +
Fcell becomes F as it
obtains copy of F factor

+ +
Fcell +
Now both Fcells Fcell
separate apart

(ii) Transformation:
Transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another bacterium through surrounding is
called transformation.

Free DNA
DNA integrates with genomic DNA

(iii) Transduction:
When the gene transfer process between two different bacteria is carried out by virus
(bacteriophage) called transduction.

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(B) Economic Importance of Bacteria :
Harmful Activities :
(i) Disease in Human beings :
Disease Bacterium
Tuberculosis (T.B.) – Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Leprosy – Mycobacterium leprae
Tetanus – Clostridium tetani
Typhoid – Salmonella typhi
Cholera – Vibrio cholerae
(ii) Disease in Animals –
Anthrax – Bacillus anthracis
(iii) Disease in plants
Citrus canker – Xanthomonas citri
Crown gall in many plants – Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Note : Plant pathogenic bacteria are mostly gram negative and non-spore forming bacteria.

(iv) Denitrification – Denitrifying bacteria –

Some bacteria convert soil nitrates into nitrites and then nitrogen. These bacteria reduce the
fertility of soil.
e.g. Thiobacillus denitrificans, Pseudomonas denitrificans

(v) Food poisoning –

Botulism – Clostridium botulinum – It is most lethal type of food poisoning. These bacteria survive
in absence of O2. These bacteria multiply in canned food. Their toxins damage the parasympathetic
nervous system. It leads to paralysis of both smooth and striped muscles, resulting in immediate
death.

(vi) Water pollution –

Several bacterial forms cause water pollution. These bacteria spoil the water.
e.g. Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi.

Useful Activities :
(i) Ammonification - Ammonifying bacteria –
Some bacteria convert Protein (present in decaying plants & animals) into Ammonia.
e.g., Bacillus vulgaris
(ii) Nitrification - Nitrifying bacteria –
These bacteria convert Ammonia in to Nitrite and later into Nitrate.
NH3⎯N⎯itr⎯os⎯om⎯on⎯as⎯→NO2(Nitrite)⎯N⎯itr⎯ob⎯ac⎯ter⎯→NO3(Nitrate)
(iii) Nitrogen fixation - Nitrogen fixing bacteria –
These bacteria convert the atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia and then into nitrogenous
compounds like amino acids, nitrate or ammonium salts.
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Nitrogen fixation is done by two methods –
(a) Symbiotically – Some bacteria live symbiotically and exhibit nitrogen fixation.
Rhizobium – found in the root nodules of legumes
Frankia (Filamentous bacteria or actinomycetes) - It is found In root nodules of non-
leguminous plant Casuarina and Alnus plants.
(b) Asymbiotically – Some bacteria are found freely in soil and perform nitrogen fixation.
e.g. Clostridium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Beijernickia, Rhodospirillum

Note : Azotobacter and Beijernickia are aerobic Rhodospirillum is anaerobic bacteria. Both
Rhizobium and Frankia are free living in soil, but as symbionts, can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Dairy products –
(iv)
Dairy products are formed with the help of bacterial fermentation.

Milk Lactobacillus(LAB)⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Curd

Note : Lactobacillus lactis (LAB/Lactic acid bacteria) increase vitamin B12 in curd. LAB also help
in checking the disease causing microbes in stomach.
(v) Antibiotics –
For example, streptomycin is obtained from Streptomyces griseus (It is an actinomycetes)
Term antibiotic was given by S.A. Waksman
First discovered antibiotic from bacteria was streptomycin.
Many antibiotic medicines are obtained from the bacteria.
Some substances produced by microorganism which inhibit the growth of other micro-organism
are called antibiotic substances.
(vi) Industries –
Many bacteria are used in industries
(a) Vinegar formation (Acetic acid) –
Ethanol ⎯A⎯ce⎯tob⎯ac⎯te⎯ra⎯cet⎯i→ Acetic acid
(b) Retting of fibres – Separation of plant fibres by the help of bacteria
e.g. Clostridium, Butyric acid bacteria
(c) Flavouring /curing of tea leaves and processing of tobacco leaves –
e.g. Bacillus megatherium, Micrococcus condiscence
(d) Production of Vitamins –
Clostridium butylicum produces ⎯→ Riboflavin (Vit. B2) and Butyric acid
Propionibacterium and Bacillus megatherium produce – Vit. B12 Pollution indicating bacteria: -
(vii) Water in which E. coli bacteria are present known as polluted water. Quality of water depends on
number of E. coli. If E. coli are very much in no. the water will be highly polluted. So, the E. coli is
known as pollution indicating bacteria.
Bacteria for genetic engineering -
(viii)
e.g. E. coli and Agrobacterium ⎯→ These are Gram (–) bacteria
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(C) Archaebacteria (Group of Ancient Bacteria) :
• Evolutionary they are primitive. They were the first to be born on our planet and they are present
now days with their primitive characters. They are the "Oldest living fossils".
• Mostly archaebacteria are anaerobes.
• Their cell wall is not made up of peptidoglycan like that of eubacteria. Their cell wall is made up of
complex polysaccharides and complex polypeptide.
• Cell membrane of archaebacteria is highly complex because of branched lipid chain.
• Due to complex cell wall and cell membrane archaebacteria can survive in harsh habitat.

Archaebacteria includes following bacteria :

(i) Methanogens
"Methane producing bacteria"
(a) Methanogens are found in manshy area and gobar gas fermenter and produce methane.
e.g. Methanobacterium, Methanococcus, Methanomicrobium
(b) Methanogens is found in the rumen of cattle and responsible for the production of methane
(biogas).

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(ii) Halophiles (“Halo”- Salt and “Philos”- like)
These archaebacteria are found in extreme salty areas.
They have bacteriorhodopsin in their cell membrane, which absorbs suitable light radiations and
produces ATP e.g. Halobacterium. Found in extreme salty areas (20% w/v salt concentration).

(iii) Thermoacidophiles
These archaebacteria are found at those places where temperature is approx 80°C to 100°C and
medium is acidic. [pH = 2]
They are found in hot sulphur springs. Hot water sulphur springs are found in the Himalayan
region. e.g. Thermophilus, Sulfolobus

(D) Cyanobacteria (Blue Green Algae) :

•• They are included in Kingdom Monera, because blue green algae (B.G.A) are prokaryote.
The name cyanobacteria was suggested by ICNB [International Code of Nomenclature for Bacteria]
Cyanobacteria were the first organism that produced O2 on our earth.
• Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes; however, they are also found as symbiont with
some plants. e.g. Cycas
• In cyanobacteria membranous extensions into the cytoplasm are found called chromatophores.
• They have pigments for photosynthesis:
Chlorophyll 'a' – green, Carotenoids – yellow, C - Phycocyanin – blue, C - Phycoerythrin – red

Different forms of BGA or Cyanobacteria :

(a) Unicellular: Some B.G.A. are unicellular e.g. Spirulina (Spirulina is
an edible B.G.A. because it has large amount of proteins. It can
be grown artificially in water tanks. It is a fodder for cattle.)

(b) Colonial: Some B.G.A. are found in colony i.e. cell colonies.
e.g. Anabaena, Microcystis

(c) Filamentous: Some B.G.A. are filamentous. There are many

cells arranged in a row to form a filamentous body. The
filament of B.G.A. is known as trichome.
e.g. Oscillatoria, Nostoc
A Filamentous B.G.A.-Nostoc
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Structure of Cyanobacteria :

(a) The structure of B.G.A. is similar to Gram (–ve) eubacteria. Because the cell wall of B.G.A. is
bilayered. Outer layer is made up of lipopolysaccharides and the inner layer is made up of
peptidoglycan.
(b) B.G.A. are surrounded by a mucilaginous membrane or gelatinous sheath or envelope. This
envelope is made up of mucopolysaccharides.
(c) They do not produce flagellated structures in their life cycle.
(d) Inclusion bodies : a-granules and gas vacuoules.
(e) In B.G.A. reserve food material is cyanophycean starch, which is not starch actually, it has
similarities with glycogen. Cyanophycean starch is present is special granules known as
cyanophycean granules (-granules).

(f) Gas vacuoles are found in B.G.A. and purple and green photosynthetic eubacteria.

(g) Special type of cells are found for nitrogen fixation in Nostoc and Anabaena known as Heterocyst.
Heterocyst is a thick walled, non-green cell.

Note : Inclusion bodies are non-membranous structures.

• Nucleoid – ds circular naked DNA
• Ribosomes – 70s type

Nitrogen fixation :
(a) Some of the B.G.A., can perform nitrogen fixation. They convert atmospheric nitrogen in to ammonia
and then nitrogenous compounds like amino acids, nitrates. These nitrates increase the fertility of
soil. Hence B.G.A. improves the fertility of soil by nitrogen fixation. B.G.A. fix nitrogen in two forms
(b) :-
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Symbiotic form and Asymbiotic or free living form
Symbiotic form Free living form
e.g. Anabaena & Nostoc e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc
These B.G.A. form symbiotic association Some B.G.A. are found free living in
with many plants and performs nitrogen water and soil and perform nitrogen
fixation. fixation.
e.g. :-
 In the leaves of Azolla Aulosira → This.B.G.A. is found in
 In the coralloid roots of Cycas plenty in paddy fields. This B.G.A.
Azolla → If Azolla is grown with rice, performs nitrogen fixation due to
than the production increases up to 50% which the production of rice is
[because Anabaena are found in the increased.
leaves of Azolla] Oscillatoria = also fix N2 in paddy fields.

Note : Special type of cells are found for nitrogen fixation in Nostoc and Anabaena known as Heterocyst.
Heterocyst is a thick walled, non-green cell.
Heterocyst does not perform photosynthesis like other vegetative cells.

Reproduction :
BGA reproduce by two methods:

Useful activities:
• They provide fertility to soil by nitrogen fixation.
• Spirullina is a very good source of protein.
• Some BGA are used as green manure.
• Some species of Oscillatoria secrete toxins, which inhibits the growth of mosquito larva in
water
Water bloom

Harmful activities:
• Water bloom
• BGA which grow in water tanks, they damage them also.
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(E) Mycoplasmas :
• In 1898, two French scientists E. Nocard and R. Roux while studying pleural fluids of cattle
suffering from pleuropneumonia disease, discovered the organisms which are known as
mycoplasma and were designated as PPLO (i.e. Pleuropneumonia like organism).
• Nowak (1929) put these organisms under the genus Mycoplasma.
• Mycoplasmas are unicellular, smallest prokaryotic organisms. The diameter of cell varies from
0.1mm to 0.3mm.
• Cell membrane is made up of lipoprotein. Both DNA (double stranded DNA, mainly circular) and
RNA (ssRNA) are present.
• They are cell wall less hence, they exhibit pleomorphism and thus called "Joker of microbiology".
• Osmotrophic mode of nutrition (absorption of nutrients by osmosis) is found in Mycoplasma.
• They are resistant to penicillin antibiotics, as penicillin acts on cell wall.
• They are sensitive to tetracycline & chloramphenicol that act on metabolic activities.
• Most of the species of Mycoplasma can survive without oxygen.
• Species of Mycoplasma are saprophyte or parasite.

Reproduction in mycoplasma:
• Most common method of reproduction in Mycoplasma is Binary fission.

Parent cell or
Mother cell Daughter cells

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Plant disease: Aster yellow disease of sunflower.

Animal disease: Bovine pleuropneumonia

Bovine Pleuropneumonia

• The cytoplasm of prokaryotes lack membrane bounded cell organelles.

• Cyanobacteria are gram –ve, photosynthetic, oxygenic monera (prokaryotes).
• Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very complex in behaviour, because they
are both autotroph (Phototroph and Chemotrophs) and heterotrophs. (Parasites, Saprophytes
and Symbionts).
• As a group bacteria show most extensive metabolic diversity.
• Cell membrane of archaebacteria has branched lipid chain.
• In some bacteria their body is filament or fungi like (mycelium), so they are also called
filamentous bacteria or actinomycetes or mycobacteria. These bacteria are very important for
us, as they are used in making antibiotics. The cell wall of actinomycetes contains mycolic acid.
• e.g. Streptomyces, Mycobacterium, Beggiatoa, Frankia.
• Barophilic prokaryotes – Prokaryotes which grow and multiply in very deep marine ediments.
• The richest source of bacteria is soil. Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil.

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BEGINNER’S BOX-2 KINGDOM MONERA

1. The bacteria which are associated with some plant roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen are :-
(1) Azotobacter (2) E.coli
(3) Rhizobium (4) Pseudomonos
2. In paddy field blue green algae are grown :-
(1) For medicinal use (2) To increase soil fertility
(3) To serve as food for fishes (4) To conserve water
3. The digestive tracts of ruminants contain :-
(1) Halophilic bacteria (2) Methanogens
(3) Thermoacidophile bacteria (4) Mycoplasma
4. Archaebacteria differ from eubacteria in one of the following respect :-
(1) Their cell wall lack peptidoglycan
(2) They tolerate extreme environment
(3) They have unique cell membrane with branched lipid chain
(4) All of these
5. Crown galls in plants is caused by a bacterium which is most widely used in genetic engineering is :-
(1) E.coli (2) Agrobacterium
(3) Pseudomonas (4) Nitrosomonas
6. Which of the following may be used in the reclamation of soil :-
(1) Mycoplasma (2) Methanogen (3) Nostoc (4) E.coli
7. Murein is found in the cell wall of :-
(1) Diatoms (2) Cyanobacteria (3) Archaea (4) Mycoplasma
8. Which of the following is first oxygenic photosynthetic organism :-
(1) Green algae (2) Red algae
(3) Blue-green algae (4) Golden algae
9. Teichoic acid is present in :-
(1) Gram +ve bacteria (2) Gram –ve bacteria
(3) Mycoplasma (4) Blue green algae
10. Blue green algae can photosynthesize due to presence of :-
(1) Heterocyst (2) Chloroplast
(3) Chromatophore (4) Leghaemoglobin
11. Which of the following group consists of only ingestive organisms ?
(1) Monera (2) Protista (3) Fungi (4) Animalia
12. How many kingdoms were included in Domain Eukarya?
(1) Two (2) One (3) Four (4) Six

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4. Kingdom – Protista :

• All the organism included in Protista are unicellular eukaryotes. i.e. the structure of all protists is
similar to eukaryotic cell.
• Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
• Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains a well-defined nucleus and other membrane-
bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia.
• The members of Protista have characters of plants, animals and fungi also hence the boundary
lines of this kingdom are not well defined.
• Some protists have cell wall around them, which is made up of cellulose. Beneath cell wall, cell
membrane is present. Cell membrane is made up of lipoprotein.
e.g. Dinoflagellates, Diatoms
• Some protists do not have cell wall, they are surrounded by cell membrane, which surrounds all
the cell organelles.
e.g. Euglenoids, Slime moulds, Protozoa

Nutrition :
• Mode of nutrition in protists is of different types
(a) Holophytic or Photosynthetic: They prepare their own food by photosynthesis.
(b) Holozoic: Some protists have holozoic mode of nutrition, which is similar to animals i.e. food is
first ingested (intaken) and then digested.
(c) Osmotrophic or Absorptive: Food is first digested and then ingested in this mode of nutrition.
Some protists obtain their food from dead organic substances. These protists secrete some
extracellular enzymes.
These enzymes convert the complex organic substances into simpler substances.
Now these simple substances can be easily absorbed through the body surface. If food is absorbed
from livings, it is parasitic and if from dead organic matter it is saprophytic mode of nutrition.
(d) Mixotrophic: Some Protists have more than one type of nutrition e.g. Euglena.
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Reproduction :
• Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote formation.

(A) Division – Chrysophyta :

• This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids). They are found in fresh water as well
as in marine environment. Diatoms are also known as pearls of oceans. e.g. Navicula

Structure :

• They are found in different shapes such as circular, rectangular, triangular, elongated and boat
shaped.
• The cell wall(shell) of diatoms is made up of cellulose in which silica particles are embedded in at
many places. Due to which the cell wall appears to be made up of silica. This silicated cell wall is
called "shell" or "frustule".
• Their cell wall is made up of two halves, which are arranged like the lids of soap box.
• Their cell wall have silica in very large quantity. Due to this reason their cell wall is hard. The cell
wall does not get destroyed after their death so at the bottom of sea, very huge rocks of dead
diatoms are formed which are known as "diatomite" or "diatomaceous earth" or "keiselgurh".
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• Diploid nucleus is present in Diatom.
• Diatoms have pigments Chlorophyll 'a', Chl 'c', and xanthophyll (fucoxanthin). Due to these
pigments they appear golden coloured.
• They are chief, producers in the ocean due to very high number of them in oceans.
(i) Stored food – Leucosin (Chrysolaminarin) & fats (Oil).
(ii) Movement – They are immotile, because flagella are absent in them. They float passively on
the surface of water (Plankton) due to low molecular weight stored fats.

Reproduction :
(a) Mainly asexual – binary fission.

(b) Sexual reproduction – Very rare - by gametic meiosis.

(B) Dinoflagellates :
Division – Pyrophyta :
• Dinoflagellates are mainly marine.
• Dinoflagellates are haploid
• They are found on the surface of water.
• They appear yellow, green, brown blue or red depending on the main pigments present in their
cells.
• In Dinoflagellates, the nutrition is mainly photosynthetic.
e.g. Noctiluca, Gonyaulax
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Structure :
• Their cell wall is divided in to plates, which is made up of cellulose.
• Dinoflagellates have two flagella - one is transverse and other is longitudinal.
• Dinoflagellates show a special type of
Thecal plates
movement which is like whirling
whips, therefore they are called
"whirling whips". Transverse
• Dinoflagellates are yellow-brown or furrow
golden brown in colour. These
colours of Dinoflagellates are due to Transverse
flagellum Longitudinal
the pigments present in them - furrow
and
Chlorophyll 'a', Chl. 'c' Longitudinal
Xanthophylls.
flagellum
• They have starch as stored food.

Reproduction :
(a) Mainly Asexual – Binary fission.
(b) Sexual reproduction is very rare in them.

Some facts:
(a) Dinoflagellates (e.g. - Noctiluca, Gonyaulax show
'bioluminescence' due to presence of photogenic
granules in cytoplasm, so these dinoflagellates are also
known as 'night light'. Also, knowns "fire algae"
because they appear as glowing light due to
bioluminescence.

(b) Gonyaulax spreads on the

surface of sea water, through
rapid multiplication due to which
the sea water appears red. It is
called red tide. It is also
responsible for water bloom.

(c) Both Gymnodinium & Gonyaulax

secrete toxins, which can
cause paralysis in human
beings. Humans acquire these
toxins through food chain. These
toxins also affect the marine
animals.

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(C) Euglenoids :
Division – Euglenophyta :
• Previously euglenoids were placed in
plant kingdom due to their
photosynthetic ability. But due to the Structure
absence of cell wall and animals like Long Flagellum

nutrition some scientists placed Eye Spot

Reservoir
them in animal kingdom. But now Small Flagellum
Contractile
kingdom vacuole
according to five
classification they are included in
Protista.

• free-living
They are found as Nucleus
organisms in fresh water lakes,
ponds, etc. But sometimes they are Pellicle
also found in damp soil and brackish Chloroplast
water. Chla, b
Though they are photosynthetic in Zeaxanthin
e.g. Euglena
• when
presence of sun light,
deprived of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms.
e.g. Euglena

Structure :
• They are unicellular, cell wall is absent around them. They are surrounded by a cell membrane
which is made up of lipoprotein and this cell membrane is covered with pellicle. Pellicle is mainly
made up of protein and it is elastic in nature. At the anterior end of Euglenoids, a cavity is
• present, which is known as reservoir. Flagellum is
orginated from the base of reservoir. Euglenoids have only one functional flagellum and one
non-functional flagellum. One eye spot is present at anterior position. They have a contractile
• vacuole. These contractile vacuoles help in osmoregulation. Euglenoids have a haploid nucleus and
• chloroplast.

Chloroplast has following pigments :

Chl. 'a' , Chl. 'b' and Xanthophyll - These pigments are identical to higher plant
Stored food - Paramylum and fat.
Reproduction - Asexual reproduction by longitudinal binary fission.

(D) Slime Moulds :

• These organisms develop a slimy mass at the time of their vegetative phase therefore they are
called slime moulds. They are also called false fungi.
• Slime moulds are saprophytic found on decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material, so
they also show phagotrophic mode of nutrition.
• Under suitable conditions they form an aggregation which may grow and spread over several feet
called plasmodium. During unfavourable conditions plasmodium forms fruiting bodies, which
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bear spores at their tip. The spores posses true walls. They are extremely resistant and survive
for many years, even under adverse conditions. The spores are dispersed by air current.
e.g. Physarum

Sporangium Spore

Dispersal by
air current

Formation of

aggregate
Plasmodium
Spore germination

5. Kingdom – Fungi :
• • The fungi or mycota is a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms.
•• Members of this kingdom are also called fungi.
They show a great diversity in morphology and habitat.
They can be seen in from of moulds on bread, butter, leather, pickle, rotten fruits (orange rotting)
and vegetables or as parasites in plants (white spot on mustard leaves) and animals.

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• Fungi prefer to grow in warm and humid places so we keep food in refrigerator, which prevent
food from going
• bad due to bacterial or fungal infections. Fungi do not have chlorophyll and chloroplast.

On the basis of source of food fungi are of two types :

(a) Saprotrophic: These fungi obtain their food from dead organic matter such as bread, rottening
fruit, vegetable and dung.
(b) Parasitic: They obtain their food from living organism, such as plants, animals and human beings.
Nutrition is absorptive in fungi.
(c) Symbiontic– in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza.

• A very few fungi are unicellular or non-mycelial e.g. Yeasts and most of the fungi are mycelial i.e.
their body is made of mycelium. Which is composed of hyphae or filaments.
• Cell wall of fungi is mainly made of chitin which is also called fungal cellulose but actually it is
not cellulose.
• Cell wall also have some quantity of polysaccharides, proteins, lipid and cellulose.
(i) Cell wall of the members of class-oomycetes is mainly made up of cellulose.
(ii) In fungi the stored food is in the form of glycogen and oil.

Reproduction :
(a) Vegetative reproduction : It occurs by different processes.
(i) Fragmentation - Sometimes the fungal filament (mycelium) breaks into small pieces due to any
reason. Now these pieces form a new fungal filament and start working like normal filament.

(ii) Budding – Some times a bud is formed in non-

mycelial fungi. Now this bud, separates from the
mother cell and functions as young fungi. At the time
of separation of bud from its mother cell or fungi, the
nucleus of mother cell divides mitotically into two
e.g. Saccharomyes
parts. Out of these two nuclei, one remains with in the
(Yeast)
mother cell while the other migrates to the bud. e.g.
Saccharomyces (Yeast)

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(iii) Fission - Sometimes the fungal cell divides into two parts. Its nucleus also divides into two parts.
Each cell receives a nucleus and starts working as a new cell.
e.g. Schizosaccharomyces (Yeast)

Asexual reproduction :
(b)
Asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of different types of spores. Spores are of
following types
(i) Sporangiospores - They are formed in sporangia. Sporangium is formed at the tip of fungal
filament.
The fungal filament on which sporangium is formed is called as sporangiophore. Numerous spores
(sporangiospores) are present in the sporangium, they come out by rupturing of sporangia and
germinate to form fungal filaments. These spores are endogenously produced in sporangium.

Sporangium

Germinating
Spores
Branching
in hypha

Mycelium

Sporangiospores are of Two types :

1. Zoospore : When the sporangiospores formed in sporangia are flagellated and motile, then
they are called as zoospores. In this condition the sporangia are called zoosporangia.
2. Aplanospore : When sporangiospores are non-flagellated and non-motile then they are
called aplanospores.

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(ii) Conidia - The formation of conidia takes place exogenously. These conidia are formed at the tip
of Mycelium.

Sexual Reproduction :
• The cell in which gametes are formed is called gametangium.
• Sexual reproduction in fungi completes in three steps
(i) Plasmogamy - This is the first stage of sexual reproduction. In this stage two sex cells fuse with
each other but their nuclei do not fuse due to which a single cell has two nuclei.
In phycomycetes the fusion of two haploid cells immediately result in diploid cells (2n). However,
in other fungi (Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e.,
two nuclei per cell) occurs. Such a condition is called a dikaryon and phase is called dikaryophase
of fungus.

(ii) Karyogamy - In this stage the nuclei present in the cell fuse with each other to form a diploid
nucleus which is known as synkaryon.
(iii) Meiosis (Reduction division) - In this stage, meiosis takes place in the diploid nucleus due to which
again haploid nuclei or haploid cells are formed.

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In fungi, Sexual Fusion is of Many Types :
(A) Gametangial contact -
(a) In this process, first of all male and female sex organs are formed on two different hypha of
same mycelium. Male sex organ is called antheridium and female sex organ is called
oogonium. In mature antheridium & oogonium both have one – one nucleus. Antheridium
(b) and oogonium come close to each other and perform plasmogamy and karyagamy.

Oogonium Antheridium

Plasmogamy &
Oospore (2n) Haploid
Sexual Germination
Karyogamy Meiosis Spores Mycelium

(B) Gametangial copulation :-

(a) In this process, two identical gametangia directly fuse to perform plasmagamy and
karyogamy resulting in formation of diploid zygospore.
(b) Now meiotic division takes place in zygospore, as a result of which haploid spores are
formed. Now each spore germinates and gives rise to a new mycelium.

Gametangia
Plasmogany and karyogamy

(2n) Zygote
(Zygospore)

Meiosis
Haploid spores
Germination
Mycelium

(C) Spermatization :-
Some fungi form uninucleate thin walled non-motile spore like bodies. These spores are called
spermatia or Pycniospores (nonmotile male gametes).
(D) Somatogamy -
In it sex organs are not formed only two hyphae come close to each other and get fused.
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Biological Classification
Classification : TG: @Chalnaayaaar

• True fungi are divided into following

classes on the basis of morphology of
mycelium, mode of spore formation and
fruiting bodies during sexual
reproduction –

(A) Phycomycetes :

Habitat :
• All the fungi included in this class are called as lower fungi.
Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitat (members
of this class known as algal fungi) and on decaying wood in moist
and damp place or as obligate parasites on plants. Hypha
Mycelium :
• The fungal filament (mycelium) of the fungi included in this class are coenocytic, aseptate and
branched.
• Asexual reproduction = by zoospores, aplanospores and conidia.
• Sexual reproduction = may be isogamous, anisogamous and oogamous.
• Phycomycetes includes further groups like oomycetes, zygomycetes

Note : The mycelium of both oomycetes and zygomycetes is same in structure i.e. coenocytic & aseptate.
But they are dissimilar in their method of sexual reproduction.

(a) Oomycetes :
Asexual reproduction :- Conidium sporangium
By the formation of zoospores and
conidia.
Sexual reproduction :-
By Gametangial contact
Type of sexual reproduction
Oogamous - All the members
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e.g.: -
(i) Phytophthora infestans: - Causes late blight of potato. This disease is known as " Famine of
Ireland" - 1845
(ii) Pythium species: - Causes "Damping off" disease in tobacco & "vegetable crops".
(ii) Albugo candida or Cystopus candidus: - It causes "White rust or white spots disease" in
the members of cruciferae family.

(b) Zygomycetes :
• Asexual reproduction: - By the formation of aplanospores.

Rhizopus

• Sexual reproduction: - By Gametangial copulation.

Types of sexual reproduction :

Isogamous: - All the members
e.g.: -
(i) Pilobolus : -
(ii) Rhizopus & Mucor :- These are known as bread mold . They prefer to grow on bread.
Note : Rhizopus is common bread mold. The tip of mycelium of Rhizopus is black coloured. Therefore
this fungus looks black coloured.

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(B) Ascomycetes :
"The sac fungi" Septum with simple pore
Members of this class are mostly multicellular rarely
unicellular (e.g. yeast).

Habitat : Members of Ascomycetes are saprophytic

decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung) Uniucleated Hypha

Mycelium : Septate and branched. Septa are found in mycelium of ascomycetes. Pores are present in septa.
These pores allow cytoplasm to pass from one cell to other cell. Pores do not allow passing of nucleus.
Asexual reproduction : By Conidia

Sexual reproduction : By somatogamy and gametangial contact

Somatogamy :
• Ascospores are formed during sexual reproduction. On this basis they are named as Ascomycetes.
(a) There are three stages in sexual reproduction of Ascomycetes Plasmogamy → Karyogamy →
Meiosis.
(b) In it two fungal hypha of mycelium come close to each other and their cells fuse to form dikaryon.
(c) After this an outgrowth originates from dikaryon which is called ascogenous hypha. Ascogenous
hypha develops and form a sac like structure which is called ascus (Plural - Asci). Due to this sac
like ascus, ascomycetes are called as sac fungi.

Hypha

Germination

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(d) Now both the nuclei reach in ascus and fuse to form diploid nucleus. Now ascus is protected by
some fungal filaments to form a fruiting body, called as ascocarp in which reductional division
occurs leading to formation of haploid ascospores.
Note : Minimum four ascospores are formed in one ascus but generally '8' ascospores are formed
in one Ascus.
(e) By the rupturing of ascocarp & ascus, ascospores become free and each ascospore forms a new
mycelium.
e.g. Conidia
(i) Penicillium : - Branched
▪ Penicillin antibiotic was obtained from Penicillium Conidiophore
notatum.
▪ Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin while working
on Staphylococcus bacteria.

Penicillum

(ii) Aspergillus : -
▪ Different species of Aspergillus are related to "aspergillosis" disease and secretion of
"aflatoxins" (carcinogenic) substance.
▪ Aspergillus niger – Known as weed of laboratory and produce citric acid.

Conidia

Unbranched
Conidiophore
Aspergillus

(iii) Claviceps: -
▪ Claviceps purpurea – It causes "Ergot disease"
of Bajra and Rye.
▪ "Ergotin" (drug) is obtained from it.
▪ Narcotic drug (LSD)
LSD (Lysergic is also obtainedisfrom
acid diethylamide) a it.
▪ hallucinogenic drug.

(iv) Morchella: -
▪ The edible species of Morchella are commonly called
as morels.

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(v) Neurospora: -
▪ Red or Pink mold "Drosophila of plant Kingdom".
▪ It is used
Beadle forTatum
and the study of genetics
proposed "Oneand biochemical
gene studies
- one enzyme in Plant
theory" kingdom.by
in Genetics
▪ experimenting on Neurospora.

(vi) Truffles: -
▪ Some members of ascomycetes are known as Truffles. They
are also edible.

(vii) Yeast e.g. Saccharomyces, Schizosaccharomyces.

▪ Yeasts are unicellular fungi.
▪ Yeasts
Myceliumgrow on ripened
is absent fruits like grapes, sugarcane, date palm and flowers.
in yeasts.
▪

(C) Basidiomycetes (Club Fungi) :

•• Mycelium - Branched, Septate and uni or binucleate They grow in soil, on logs (thick wooden
pieces), and tree stumps (thin wooden branches) and in living plant bodies as parasites.
Main mycelium of basidiomycetes is dikaryotic and septate. In these fungi the monokaryotic
• mycelium is also found which is short living and soon converts into long living dikaryotic mycelium.
The conversion of monokaryotic mycelium into dikaryotic mycelium is Dikaryotisation.
• Asexual spores are generally not found in basidiomycetes but vegetative reproduction by
• fragmentation. The sex organs are absent because they perform sexual reproduction by two
methods i.e. Somatogamy and Spermatisation. Most of the members are heterothallic so fusion is
• found between different strains or genotypes.

Sexual reproduction :
Sexual reproduction is performed by two methods
(i) Somatogamy
(ii) Spermatization
(i) Somatogamy -This is the most common method of reproduction among the members of
Basidiomycetes.
e.g. Ustilago, Agaricus
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(a) First of all, the two-mycelium come close to each other.

(b) Now their apical ends fuse with each other (Plasmogamy), as a result of which dikaryon is formed.
(Dikaryon - The cell in which two nuclei are present)
(c) Now a club shaped structure is formed on every cell, which is known as basidium.
(d) Now both the nuclei of each cell fuse with each other (karyogamy) in basidium. Due to which each
becomes diploid.
(e) After that diploid nucleus of the basidium divides by meiosis, as a result of which four haploid
spores are formed on basidium, which are known as basidiospores.
(f) Now the Basidiospores become free from basidium and produce a new monokaryotic mycelium on
germination.

Examples:
(a) Bracket or Shelf fungi :–
(b) Puff balls – e.g. Clavatia

(c) Mushrooms - It is a fleshy, spore bearing fruiting body of basidiomycetes fungi.

Most delicious, edible mushroom - Agaricus bisporus

Agaricus bisporus

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World's most poisonous mushroom - Amanita muscaria (It is also
hallucinogenic) (Poisonous mushrooms are known as Toad - stool)
Note : Agaricus – It is called gill fungi.

(d) Rust Fungi: - Puccinia graminis (black rust of wheat)

(e) Smut fungi - They cause smut disease and

produce black spores, which are known as
smut spores.
e.g. Ustilago nuda or Ustilago tritici - Loose
smut of wheat.
Note : Basidiomycetes - Also known as
shaped
"Club fungi" because a club
basidium is formed in them.
Deuteromycetes :
(D) It is also called "fungi Imperfecti", because perfect stage or
sexual reproduction is absent in this class of fungi. Those
•
fungi are included in this class in which sexual reproduction
is absent or is not discovered at yet. When the sexual forms
of this class of fungi were discovered they were moved into
from

right class ascomycetes or basidiomycetes Branched, septate Hypha

deuteromycetes.

Mycelium : Septate and branched

Asexual reproduction : Takes place with the help of conidia.
Some members are saprophytic or parasitic.
A large number of members of this class are decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.
e.g. Trichoderma
The fungi included in this class cause many diseases.

Alternaria solani : Early blight of Potato

Colletotrichum falcatum : Red rot of sugarcane

Trichoderma : It produces "Ringworm" in humans

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• Mode of nutrition is absorptive in fungi

• All the unicellular eukaryotes are placed in Kingdom Protista.
• Pigments present in dinoflagellates are Chl 'a' and Chl 'c'.
• Stored food of dinoflagellates is starch.
• Cell wall of diatoms is made up of cellulose + silica.
• Pigments present in diatoms are Chl 'a' and Chl 'c'.
• Stored food of diatom is leucosin and fats.
• Mixotrophic nutrition is present in Euglenoids.
• Stored food of Euglenoids is paramylum and fat.
• Slime moulds are also called fungus animal.
• At the time of reproduction slime moulds have cell wall.
• Cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin.
• In fungi the stored food remains in the form of glycogen and oil.
• Mycelium of class phycomycetes is coenocytic aseptate.
• Phytophthora infestans causes late blight disease in potato. This disease is known as "Famine of
Ireland".
Mycelium of class - ascomycetes is uninucleate septate.
•
Class ascomycetes is known as "Sac fungi".
•
A. Flemming obtained the antibiotic penicillin from Penicillium notatum.
•
Fungus Neurospora is known as "Drosophila of Plant Kingdom".
•
Yeast is unicellular or non mycelial fungi.
•
Mycelium of class - basidiomycetes is septate and uni or binucleate.
•
Basidiomycetes is known as club fungi.
•
Special type of septa are found in mycelium of class basidiomycetes which are known as dolipore
•
septum.
Clamp connection are formed during reproduction in basidiomycetes.
•
Puccinia is rust fungus, it causes rust disease in wheat.
•
Starting of rust disease (Primary infection) on wheat plants takes place through aeciospores.
•
Deuteromycetes is known as Fungi Imperfecti.
•
Trichophyton, Microsporum and Epidermophyton cause "Ringworm" in human.
•
Tinea pedis (Athelete foot disease) is also known as "Ringworm of foot".
•

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BEGINNER’S BOX-3 KINGDOM PROTISTA & FUNGI

1. Dinoflagellates can be considered as connecting link between monera and protista because :-
(1) They spin while they move
(2) They have flagella in grooves
(3) They show bioluminescence
(4) They have condense chromosome lacking histone protein
2. Kingdom protista includes organisms like :-
(1) Amoeba, Euglena and Diatoms (2) Amoeba, Euglena and Penicillium
(3) Amoeba, Spirogyra and Penicillium (4) Euglena, Spirogyra and Albugo
3. In Gonyaulax meiosis occurs in :-
(1) Gamete (2) Zygote (3) Sporangium (4) Zoospores
4. The famous Irish (Ireland) famine is related to a disease of potato known as :-
(1) Late blight (2) Early blight (3) Dry rot of potato (4) Red rot
5. Cellulose is the major component of cell wall of :-
(1) Albugo (2) Puccinia (3) Morchella (4) Saccharomyces
6. Among rust, smut and mushroom all the three :-
(1) are pathogen (2) are saprobes (3) bear ascocarp (4) are basidiomycetes
7. Ethanol is commercially produced through a particular species of :-
(1) Aspergillus (2) Saccharomyces (3) Clostridium (4) Trichoderma
8. The dominant part in the life cycle of protista and fungi is mostly :-
(1) Haplontic (2) Diploid (3) Haplodiplontic (4) Diplohaplontic
9. Taxonomy of fungi is mainly based on :-
(1) Sexual reproduction (2) Nutrition
(3) Shape of fruiting body (4) Cell wall
10. Which of the following fungus can cause disease in Human ?
(1) Aspergillus (2) Ustilago (3) Mushroom (4) Puccinia
11. Which of the following pair belongs to basidiomycetes :-
(1) Puff ball and Claviceps (2) Morchella and mushroom
(3) Morchella and Aspergillus (4) Shelf fungi and puffball
12. Asexual reproduction in fungi occurs by :-
(1) Aeciospores (2) Basidiospores (3) Conidia (4) Oospores
13. Clamp connection are abserved in :-
(1) Basidiomycetes (2) Zygomycetes (3) Ascomycetes (4) Oomycetes
14. Which of the following is a harmful event performed by bacteria?
(1) Nitrogen fixation (2) Ammonification (3) Nitrification (4) Denitrification
15. Which of the following statement is not true for Methanogens?
(1) They are methane producers (2) They are symbiont in cattle
(3) They all are aerobic (4) They all are anaerobic
16. Archaebacteria differ from eubacteria in?
(1) Cell wall (2) Cell membrane
(3) Type of genetic material (4) Both cell wall and cell membrane

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6. Viruses, Viroids, Prions, Lichens and Mycorrhiza :
(A) Virus :
•• Latin word, which means "poisonous fluid" or "venom" or "secretion" (According to Pasture).
Ivanowsky separated a microorganism from the sap of infected tobacco plant and named "TMV". He
reported that viruses are smaller than bacteria and they can pass through the bacterial proof filters.
• Beijerineck demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants of tobacco could cause infection
in healthy plants and called the fluid as "contagium vivum fluidum (Infectious living fluid)".
• Stanley crystallized TMV first time and Nobel prize was awarded to him.

Characteristic features of viruses :

(a) These are sub microscopic & non-cellular organisms.

(b) They are obligate intracellular parasites.
(c) They have either RNA or DNA. No virus contains both DNA and RNA.
(d) They are inert outside their specific host cell in crystalline form.
(e) They contain nucleic acid so they are capable of protein synthesis by the help of ribosomes
of host cell.
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Morphology and structure of
viruses :

Size of Viruses:
TMV - 300 m × 20 m or 300 nm × 20 nm
SHAPE
Spherical - Influenza virus, HIV
Rod shaped –
TMV l Tadpole like – Bacteriophage

Chemical composition :
(a) Nucleic acid:
Either RNA or DNA
Generally, in plant viruses, ssRNA is present, but in Cauliflower mosaic virus dsDNA is present and
in Gemini virus ss-DNA is present.
Generally, in animal viruses, double stranded DNA is present but in some animal viruses, RNA is
present, which is single or double stranded.
(b) Protein coat:
It is known as capsid and made up of small sub unit called capsomeres.
Central core & Capsid are collectively known as nucleocapsid.
An additional covering is also present in some viruses around the capsid, called envelope. Such type
of virus are called enveloped virus. Viral envelope is made of lipid and protein.
Symmetry of viruses:
(i) Helical symmetry: Capsomeres are arranged in helical manner in the capsid,
e.g. TMV and Mumps virus etc.
(ii) Icosahedral: It is a type of polyhedral e.g., Herpes virus, Adeno virus,  × 174 bacteriophage

TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus) :

• It is the most thoroughly studied virus and was discovered by the Russian worker
D. Ivanowsky (1892).
• It has helical symmetry.
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• Having single stranded RNA
• In its capsid number of capsomeres is 2130.
• 5% RNA and 95% protein are present in TMV.

Bacteriophage Virus :
• The Virus which infect the bacteria are called bacteriophage.
• Bacteriophage was discovered by F.W. Twort and Named by Felix d' Herelle
• Bacteriophages are generally double stranded DNA virus.
• In QB - bacteriophage - ss RNA is present.
• In  × 174 bacteriophage - ss DNA is present.

Transduction :
• When a bacteriophage transfers
genetic material from one
bacterium (Donor cell) to
another bacterium (receptor
cell) called transduction.
• &
Discovered by - Zinder
Lederberg (1952) in Salmonella
typhimurium.

Plant Diseases caused by viruses: -

1. Tobacco mosaic disease. 2. Leaf curl of papaya and tomato
3. Vein clearing 4. Potato leaf roll 6. Dwarfing 8.
5. Bunchy top of banana. Chlorosis
7. Stuntings
9. Necrosis

Human disease caused by virus: -

1. Influenza 2. Mumps 3. Small pox
4. Herpes disease 5. AIDS

(B) Viroids :
(Free infectious RNA) T.O. Diener (1971)
• discovered some new infectious agents,
which are smaller than viruses, called
viroids.
• Viroids contain only very low mol. wt. RNA
(ss RNA) and not the protein coat.
• Viroids cause Potato spindle tuber disease.

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(C) Prions:
(Slow viruses or Smallest Proteinaceous
infectious agent)
• infections
In modern medicine certain
neurological diseases were found to be
transmitted by an agent consisted of
abnormally folded protein.
• The agent was similar in size to viruses. These
agents were called prions.
• The most notable diseases caused by prions
are bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
commonly called mad cow disease in cattle
and its analogous variant Cr-Jacob disease
(CJD) in humans.

Viruses Viroid Prion

Nucleic acid DNA or RNA ss-RNA absent
Presence of capsid Present Absent Absent
Presence of protein Present Absent Present
Host Bacteria, Plants, Animals Plants Mammals

(D) Lichens :
Nature :
• Lichen is composed of algae and fungi or Lichen is a composite thalloid structure of algae & fungi.
• The algal part of lichen is called phycobiont (photobiont) and the fungal part is called mycobiont.
• Both algae & fungi remain in symbiotic association i.e. they are beneficial for each other.
• The algal part makes carbohydrates through photosynthesis and provides nutrition to fungus &
itself. The fungal partner absorbs water and minerals and provides them to algal partner also.

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Habitat :
• Lichens are found at those places where normal plants do not grow such as on rocks, cold Arctic
regions, on walls etc. Lichens are also found on dead and decaying wooden pieces, leaves, soil etc.
• Lichens are not found in polluted areas.

(E) Mycorrhiza :
•• The symbiotic association of fungus and the roots of higher plants is known as mycorrhiza.
This symbiotic association is beneficial for both of them because fungus absorbs minerals like
P, Cu, Zn, K, N and water from soil and provide them to higher plants while higher plants provide
food and habitat to fungus. Fungus protects the roots from many diseases also.
• Mycorrhiza mainly perform phosphorus absorption.
• Fungi which make mycorrhiza are Amanita and Glomus.

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Mycorrhiza are of two types
(a) Ectomycorrhiza - In this type the fungus forms a covering around the plant roots, so a thick layer
of fungal mycelium is formed on the surface of the roots, which is known as pseudoparenchymatous
sheath.

(b) Endomycorrhiza - In this type the fungi do not form thick layer on the roots of plant. They enter
intracellularly in the roots. e.g. Glomus

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BEGINNER’S BOX-4 VIRUS, LICHEN, MYCORRHIZA

1. Viruses are made up of

(1) Only nucleic acid (2) Only proteins
(3) Proteins and nucleic acid (4) Lipid and Proteins
2. Lichens are association of :-
(1) Algae & Virus (2) Algae & Bryophytes
(3) Algae & Fungi (4) Fungi & Roots of plants
3. Disease causing abnormally folded proteins are
(1) Viroids (2) Prions
(3) Viruses (4) Bacteriophages
4. Viruses are made up of ?
(1) Protein only (2) Protein and Nucleic Acid
(3) Nucleic Acid only (4) Protein and Phospholipids
5. Which of the following virus is a rod shaped virus ?
(1) Phi X 174 (2) TMV (3) Adenovirus (4) HIV
6. In which one of the following pairs of diseases both are caused by viruses?
(1) Tetanus and typhoid (2) Whooping cough and sleeping sickness
(3) Syphilis and AIDS (4) Measles and Rabies

BEGINNER’S BOX ANSWERS KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BEGINNER'S BOX-1
Ans. 4 1 2 2 2 3 4 3 1 1

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 3 2 2 4 2 3 2 3 1 3
BEGINNER'S BOX-2
Que. 11 12
Ans. 4 3

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 4 1 2 1 1 4 2 1 1 1
BEGINNER'S BOX-3
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 4 3 1 4 3 4

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6
BEGINNER'S BOX-4
Ans. 3 3 2 2 2 4

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Two kingdom classification : Carolus Linnaeus Living organism

•
(On the basis of cell wall)
• Five kingdom classification: R. H. Whittaker
Plantae Animalia
Cell wall present Cell wall Absent
Basis:
1. Cell structure Monera: All prokaryotes
2. Body organisation Protista: Unicellular eukaryotes
3. Mode of nutrition Fungi: Heterotrophic, cell walled multicellular eukaryotes
4. Reproduction Plantae: Autotrophic, cell walled multicellular eukaryotes
5. Phylogeny Animalia: Heterotrophic, cell wall less multicellular eukaryotes

Monera : Eubacteria, Blue green algae, archaebacteria, Mycoplasma etc.

• All prokaryotes
• Non-cellulosic cell wall (Peptidoglycan)
• True nucleus absent
• Membrane bound cell organelle absent
• 70 s ribosome present
• Membrane less inclusion bodies present (Glycogen granules, phosphate granule)
• Autotrophic and heterotrophic (Mainly)
• Heterocyst is present in nitrogen fixing BGA
• Archaebacteria can survive in adverse environmental condition due to complex cell wall and cell
membrane
• Mycoplasma are the smallest living cells, cell wall less prokaryotes can survive without oxygen.

Protista: Dinoflagellates, diatoms, euglenoids, slime mould, protozoa

• Unicellular eukaryotes
• Boundaries are not defined
• Mainly aquatic (Marine and fresh water)
• Producer, consumer and decomposers
• Cell walled and cell wall less both
Characters Dinoflagellates Diatoms Euglenoids Slime Moulds
Producer, Consumer,
decomposer
Producer protists Producer protists consumer protists protists
Cellulosic,
Cellulosic present in
Made up of stiff Absent spore only
Cell wall cellulosic plate embedded with Pellicle is present
Holophytic silica Mixotrophic Osmotrophic

Nutrition Red tide Holophytic Pigments similar to

Special Bioluminescence Diatomaceous earth higher plants
characters or keiselguhr
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Fungi :
• Unique kingdom of heterotrophs (Osmotrophic or absorptive mode of nutrition)
• Chitinous and polysaccharide cell wall
• Mycelium branched, septate or aseptate
• Fungi can be parasites, saprophytes and symbiotic
• Fungi lives as symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants as
mycorrhiza
• Asexual reproduction by zoospore, aplanospore or by conidia formation
• Sexual reproduction in three steps: Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis
• Sexual reproduction by the formation of zygospore/oospore, ascospore and basidiospore

Characters Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycetes

Mycelium Branched
aseptate Branched
septateand Branched
septateand Branched
septateand
Conidia Usually, no
formationspore conidia
Sporangiospore
Asexual (Zoospore and
spores aplanospore)
Oospore (2n)
or zygospore 4 or 8
Sexual
spores (2n) 4 basidiospore(n)
Exogenous
Absent Ascospore (n) Absent
Sexual Endogenous
Ascocarp
Fruiting
body Basidiocarp Absent

Viruses :
• Non-cellular
• Obligate intra cellular parasites
• Nucleoprotein particles (Nucleic acid and proteins)
• Protein capsid is made up of capsomeres
• Cause infection in plants, animals and prokaryotes
• Viroids are low molecular infectious RNA particles cause disease in plants (PSTD)
• Prions are infectious protein particles cause disease in animals and humans (CFJ disease, mad
cow disease)

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