M. B.

V ROBERTS
2
M.A. Ph.D.
Formerly Head of Biology
at Marlborough College and Cheltenham College

Nelson-

A
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Delta Place may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save
with written permission or in accordance with the Experiment involving the use of micro¬
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limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing
where the pupil acts as a subject, may be
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EC1N 8TS. should be carried out under close
© M.B.V. Roberts 1981.1986 Any person who does any unauthorised act in supervision. Detailed advice is given in
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First published by Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd 1981 prosecution and civil claims for damages.
booklet entitled Safeguards in the School
Second edition 1986
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 - Preface -

to the second edition

Biology for Life has been substantially reorganised and explanations, especially of phenomena which impinge upon
rewritten to satisfy the National Criteria for Biology and the our daily lives.
various syllabuses which have been prepared for the General In the course of the book there are manv references to
Certificate of Secondary Education. 'persons' and 'people'. These are usually regarded as males. I
The relevance of biology to everyday life is still the apologise to any female readers who may find this offensive
pervading theme throughout the book, but there is now more and hasten to add that the reason is simply to avoid the
stress on the impact of biology on society. Thus the role of cumbersome use of he/she, his/her etc.
biology in agriculture and industry is given fuller treatment, Many people have helped in the production of Biology for
and there is more information on ecology and its implications. Life . They are listed below. To all of them I would like to
The section on life forms has been reduced and the extend my warmest thanks. For this second edition I am
comparative aspects spread through other parts of the book so particularly grateful to Dr June Mitchelmore, co-author of the
as to sharpen the contrast with humans. two tropical editions. Her advice and support have been
The new edition contains more material for higher ability invaluable. Despite the help which I have had, it is too much
pupils than did its predecessor. However, I have tried to make to hope that the book will be entirely free of errors. If such
the text as easy to read as it was before and to keep the remain, they are entirely my fault and I trust that teachers and
language as simple as possible. The book is divided into a students will not hesitate to point them out to me as they use
large number of short Topics which, within reason, can be the book.
taken in any order. Within each Topic the subject matter has Biology for Life was orginally written while I was holding a
been carefully arranged and structured so that it can be tackled Research Associateship at Chelsea College, University of
by pupils of varying abilities. London. I would like to thank Professor Paul Black, Director of
Each topic is normally followed by one or more investiga¬ the Centre for Science and Mathematics Education, for
tions and about six assignments. Some of the investigations providing me with facilities, and Professor Peter Kelly for his
can be carried out by students, either individually or in continual help and encouragement. I am also grateful to Ms
groups; others are best done as demonstrations by the teacher. Pat Stevens who typed the manuscript with patience and good
Most of the assignments are of the kind which occur in humour.
examinations. They are of graded difficulty with simple ones Finally I must thank my publishers, Thomas Nelson and
coming first and more difficult ones later. The simple ones Sons Ltd. It was they who first suggested that I should write
involve mainly factual recall, whereas the harder ones test this book, and their support has been a constant source of
more advanced skills such as formulating hypotheses and encouragement. I owe particular thanks to Donna Evans,
designing experiments. The majority can be done as home¬ Patrick McGuire and Antonia Murphy for their unfailing
work, but the more open-ended ones might be more suitable patience and efficiency, and to all those who have been
for class discussion. involved with the design and production of the book.
It is tempting at this level to be superficial, to give little more
than a string of facts. Of course, one cannot support every
statement with evidence, but I hope that the general depth of M. B. V. Roberts
treatment in Biology for Life is sufficient to provide satisfactory Kensington, 1986

People who advised on the text:

David Alford; Malcolm Ashby; John Barker; Dr Justine
Copeland; Dr Nikolas Copeland; Peter Fry; Aidan Hammill;
Dr John Land; Philippa Lee; Marshall Markey; Dr June
Mitchelmore; Dr James Parkyn; Dr Llywelyn Roberts; Anna
Roberts; Philip Roberts; Anne Roley; Barbara Rouan;
Christopher Rouan; Gill Williams; Dr Martin Woodward.
 Contents

The diversity of life

Studying living things 2 Useful microbes 106

The characteristics of living things 6 Food spoilage and its prevention 108

Classifying, naming and identifying 10 Microbes and disease 112

Collecting living things 12 Harmful protists 118

Who's who in the world of living things 14 Parasitic worms 122

Amoeba and other protists 22 Parasitic fungi 126

Bacteria 24 Insects, harmful and helpful 128

Viruses 26

Pin mould 28 Maintaining Life

Spirogyra 29
Cells, the bricks of the body 134
Hydra 30
Tissues, organs and organisation 138
The earthworm 31
Molecules in motion 142
Insects 32
The chemistry of life 146
Fish 34
Enzymes 148
Frogs and toads 36
Food and diet 150
Lizards 37
How are substances stored? 158
Birds 38
Getting energy from food 162
Mammals 40
How is energy released? 166
Flowering plants 42
How do we digest our food? 170

Teeth 176
Living things and their environment Feeding in other mammals 180

Feeding relationships 46 How do other organisms feed? 184

The wheel of life 50 How do we breathe? 188
The air around us 54 Breathing and health 194
Finding out where organisms live 56 How do other organisms breathe? 198
What controls where organisms live? 58 Living without oxygen 200
Adaptation and survival 64 Blood, the living fluid 204
A look at two habitats 68 More about blood 208
Changes through the year 72 How does blood move round the body? 212
Social insects 74 Tissue fluid and lymph 218
What is soil 78 What do plants need to live? 220
Life in the soil 84 How do plants feed? 224
Decay 88 Photosynthesis 226
Populations 90 What controls the rate of photosynthesis? 230
Our effects on the environment 94 Chlorophyll, the miracle molecule 234
More about photosynthesis 238
How organisms affect humans
The leaf: organ of photosynthesis 240
Organisms as food for humans 104 Uptake and transport in plants 244
How do plants support themselves? 250 Fruits and dispersal 376

The skin and temperature control 254 Vegetative reproduction 380

The liver 258 Chromosomes, genes and cell division 384

How do we get rid of waste substances? 260 Heredity 388

Water balance and waste removal in other organisms 264 More about genes 396

Adjustment and control 266 Variation 398

How do new kinds of organisms arise? 400

Responding to stimuli

The nervous system and reflex action 270

The brain and behaviour 274

Drugs and mental illness 278

Chemical messengers 280

Feeling, smelling and tasting 282

A look at the eye 286

How does the eye work? 290

The ear and hearing 294

How do we keep our balance? 298

Introducing the skeleton 302

How do we move? 306

Aches, pains and broken bones 310

How do other organisms move? 314

The continuity of life

Producing offspring 322

How do living things grow? 326

How is growth controlled? 330

Growth responses in plants 334

The human reproductive system 338

Eggs, sperms and sexual development 342

The menstrual cycle 346

Pregnancy and birth 348

Personal aspects of sex 354

Sexually transmitted diseases 358

How do insects reproduce? 360

How do amphibians reproduce? 364

How do birds reproduce? 366

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants 368

372
Seeds and germination
 Studying living
How do we find out about living things?
things Biology is split into many branches. Here are some of them:

Zoology: the study of animals

Biology is the study of the study of plants
Botany:
living things, or organisms as Anatomy: the study of the structure of living things
we call them. This Topic will show Physiology: the study of how the body works
you some of the ways we can Nutrition: the study of food and how living things feed
carry out this study. Heredity: the study of how characteristics are passed from parents to
offspring
Ecology: the study of where organisms live

Whatever branch a scientist is interested in, he observes things and asks

questions about them. What is that structure for? How does it work? Why is
the animal behaving like this? Why are weeds growing here but not there?

Testing hypotheses
Suppose we want to know why a certain type of plant grows well in place A
but badly in place B. The first thing to do is to put forward a possible reason.
Scientists call this a hypothesis. The next step is to test this hypothesis to find
out if it is true or not. This is done by carrying out an experiment.
Scientists often investigate things by first thinking of a hypothesis, and
Figure 1 A biologist at work in the laboratory. then testing it by doing experiments (Figure 1). This procedure is sometimes
called the scientific method.
Temperature Breathing rate
°C (cm3/kg)/h
Doing experiments
5 10
10 25 Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that light is needed for the leaves of a
15 50 young plant to become green.
20 100
We obtain a plant and put it in the dark. If the green colour fails to develop,
25 150
30 200 we will conclude that light is needed for it. However, there is something
35 215 more that we must do: we must obtain a second plant and put it in the light.
40 225 We need this second plant in order to provide a standard with which to
compare the first plant. The second plant is called the control.
Table 1 Table showing the rate of breathing of a
In carrying out this experiment it is essential that the two plants should be
goldfish at different temperatures. The breathing
rate is expressed as cubic centimetres of oxygen kept in exactly the same conditions, except for the light they receive. To put it
taken up by one kilogram of body mass in one hour. in a general way: we must keep all the variables constant except for the one whose
effect we want to investigate.
An experiment of this kind, in which the experimenter controls the
conditions, is called a controlled experiment.

Writing up experiments
You should write up your experiments under these headings:

Aim
Why did you do the experiment? What hypothesis were you testing?

Method
What did you do, and how did you do it? Give labelled diagrams where these
help to explain what you did. Remember to include details of the control.

Results
As you carried out your experiment, you observed things and perhaps made
measurements. These are your results. It's often convenient to put the results
together in a table, like the one in Table 1.
Sometimes it is useful to go a step further and present the results in the
Figure 2 Line graph of the results shown in Table 1. form of a graph. We will come back to this in a moment.
 Studying living things 3

Interpretation
Height groups Number of students
This is where you look carefully at your results and answer the question:
(cm) in each group
What do they mean?' Do they show any kind of pattern? Graphs and charts
are particularly good at showing up patterns. 120-124 2
125-129 7
Conclusions 130-134 10
135-139 11
Do your results answer your original question? Do they support your 140-144 6
hypothesis? 145-149- 4

Table 2 The number of students in each group of

heights.
Graphs
A graph is a diagram of a set of results. There are several different kinds of
graph, each suited to a particular situation.

Line graphs
A line graph helps us to see at a glance how two sets of numbers are related
to each other. As an example let's take the results in Table 1 and present them
as a line graph.
The graph is shown in Figure 2. It has two axes at right angles to each
other. The horizontal axis carries the numbers which you varied in the course
of the experiment, i.e. the temperature. We call this the independent
variable. The vertical axis carries the measurements which you made at each
temperature. This is called the dependent variable, because the readings
depend on something which you were varying, namely the temperature.
Notice that the axes begin at zero, and a suitable scale has been chosen so that
the graph fits neatly into the available space. The readings are recorded as
Figure 3 Bar chart of the data shown in Table 2.
dots which in this case are joined up by straight lines. Now compare the
graph in Figure 2 with Table 1. Can you see a pattern more clearly in the
graph?

Bar charts
Suppose we measure the heights of 40 students. Table 2 shows the measure¬
ments as a table. The heights are arranged in groups in the left-hand column, Part Percentage area
and the numbers of students falling into each group are on the right.
Results of this kind are best shown as a bar chart (Figure 3). The height Town 10
Farmland 18
groups are put on the horizontal axis, and the number of students on the
Forest 17
vertical axis. The number of students in each height group is shown by the Desert 33
length of the bars. Other 22
Can you see a pattern in Figure 3? What does the bar chart suggest about
Table 3 Table showing the relative amounts of town,
the way the students' heights vary? This kind of bar chart is called a
farmland, forest and desert in a certain country.
histogram, and it's very useful in biology.

Pie charts
Suppose we want to compare the amount of land in a certain country which is
taken up by towns, farmland, forests and desert. One way would be to
express them as percentages as in Table 3. But how much better it would be to
show them as a diagram. One way of doing this is to represent the whole
country as a circle, and the different parts by sectors. We call this a pie chart
(Figure 4).
How do you construct a pie chart? Well, the angle at the centre of a circle is
360°. We have to find what part of this corresponds to each sector. Now
suppose the amount of land taken up by towns is ten per cent. Ten per cent of
360° is ^ x 360 = 36°. So we draw a sector with an angle of 36° to show how
much of the country consists of towns.

Diagrams
A diagram shows how things relate to each other rather than what they
actually look like. For example, a diagram of the human blood system may
show the general plan of the circulation, but not the individual blood vessels Figure 4 Pie chart showing the information in Table 3.
4 Biology for life

and where each one goes.

In diagrams arrows are often used to show relationships, and colour may
be used to emphasise certain parts.
When you draw a diagram of a piece of apparatus, draw it as if you were
looking at a section of it (Figure 5). Diagrams must always have a title and be
fully labelled.

Drawings
A drawing differs from a diagram in that it must look like the real thing. The
idea is to produce an accurate record of the object exactly as you see it.
Always write down how many times larger your drawing is than the real
Figure 5 When you draw a diagram of a piece of specimen. If your drawing is twice as large as the specimen, the magnifica¬
apparatus, draw it in section as shown. tion is x 2. If you draw it life-size, it is x 1. A nice biological drawing is
shown in Figure 6. It was done by a pupil in a school.

Looking at small things

In biology we often have to look at small organisms or parts of organisms.
Sometimes a hand lens can help us. A typical hand lens has a magnifying
power of X 10: this means that we see the object ten times larger than it really
is.
What do we do if the object is too small to be seen with a hand lens? The
answer is that we use a light microscope (Figures 7 and 8). If you have not
used a microscope before, you should do Investigation 1 very carefully.
When looking at an object under the microscope it is important to appreciate
how much it has been magnified. Investigations 2 and 3 will help you with
this.
If you were to measure the width of a coin you would probably express it in
millimetres. However, for small objects seen down the microscope we use a
smaller unit called the micrometre (pm). A micrometre is one thousandth of a
millimetre. For really tiny objects we use an even smaller unit called a
nanometre (nm). A nanometre is one millionth of a millimetre.
Figure 6 A biological drawing should be realistic What about objects that are too small to be seen even with a light
but simple. There is no need to shade it. microscope? To see these we must use an electron microscope. This is
explained in the Topic on cells.

Figure 7 This kind of light microscope is used in

many schools and colleges.
 Studying living things 5

Investigation 1- -Investigation 2-
Learning to use the microscope tip of the objective lens is close to
The magnifying power of the
the slide.
1 Study your microscope carefully microscope
and compare it with Figure 8. Yours 10 Now look down the microscope
1 Place a transparent ruler on the
may be slightly different. Make sure again. Slowly turn the coarse
stage of your microscope. Arrange it
you understand it before you use it. adjustment knob in the other
so that a line on the millimetre scale
direction, so the tube gradually
2 Objects to be viewed under the is immediately below the low power
moves upwards. The specimen on
microscope are first placed on a objective lens.
the slide should eventually come
glass slide and covered with a thin into view. 2 Focus onto the line.
piece of glass called a coverslip.
Your teacher will give you a 11 Use the coarse and fine adjustment 3 Using the ruler, count how many
specimen which has been knobs to focus the object as millimetre divisions fit across the low
mounted in this way. sharply as possible. power field of view.

3 Place the slide on the stage of your 12 If necessary readjust the iris What is the diameter of the low
microscope: arrange it so the diaphragm so the specimen is power field of view (a) in millimetres
specimen is in the centre of the correctly illuminated. You will get a (mm) and (b) in micrometres (|xm)?
hole in the stage. much better picture if you don't
4 Now rotate the nosepiece so the
have too much light coming
4 Fix the slide in place with the two high power objective is immediately
through the microscope.
clips. above a line on the ruler.
You are now looking at the specimen
5 Rotate the nosepiece so the small What does the line look like now?
under low power, i.e. at low
objective lens is immediately above magnification. To look at it under high What is the approximate diameter of
the specimen: the nosepiece power, i.e. at a greater magnification, the high power field of view in (a)
should click into position. proceed as follows: millimetres and (b) micrometres?
6 Place a lamp in front of the 13 Rotate the nosepiece so the large 5 The magnifying power of your
microscope, and set the angle of objective lens is immediately above microscope is the magnifying power
the mirror so the light is directed up the specimen. The nosepiece of the eyepiece lens, multiplied by
through the microscope. should click into position, as the magnifying power of the
before. objective lens. The magnifying
7 Look down the microscope through
power of the eyepiece and
the eyepiece. Adjust the iris 14 If the specimen is not in focus,
diaphragm so the field of vision is focus it with the fine adjustment objectives is engraved on them.
bright but not dazzling. knob. Be careful that the tip of the Work out the low and high power
objective lens does not touch the magnifications of your microscope.
8 Look at the microscope from the
slide.
side. Turn the coarse adjustment
knob in the direction of the arrow in 15 Readjust the illumination if
Figure 8. This will make the tube necessary. -Assignments-
move downwards.
You are now looking at the specimen
1 Which branch or branches of
9 Continue turning the knob until the under high power. Do you agree that it
biology listed at the beginning of this
is now much more enlarged?
Topic must each of the following
Always treat the microscope with the greatest care: it is an expensive precision people know about:
instrument. Always carry it with both hands, and keep it covered when you are
a farmer, a gardener, a nurse, a
not using it. Make sure the lenses never get scratched or damaged: if they need
family doctor, a game warden, a
cleaning tell your teacher.
person who breeds dogs, a PE
teacher, a forester, a surgeon, a
Investigation 3 keeper in a zoo?

4 Look at the slide under low power. 2 Your teacher will give you some
Seeing is believing data. Illustrate the data as a line
What does the ‘e’ look like?
graph, bar chart or pie chart,
1 Cut the letter ‘e’ out of a newspaper.
What is its approximate width? whichever is best.
2 Place it on a slide in a drop of water.
If you drew the ‘e’ on a piece of 3 A certain specimen is 0.5 mm
3 Carefully lower a coverslip onto it. paper and gave it a width of one long. What is its length in (a)
Try not to trap any air bubbles under centimetre, what would the scale of micrometres, and (b) nanometres?
the coverslip. your drawing be?
r-The characteristics
Living things move
of living things This is obvious in the case of a human being (Figure 1). We move our arms
and legs by means of muscles, and they are controlled by our nerves. Most
If we examine the things animals can move in a similar way, at least at some period of their lives.

organisms do, and the processes However, movement is not so obvious in a plant. To see movement in a
plant you must look inside it, under a microscope. Then you may see things
which take place inside them, we find
moving about, though it is not always easy (Investigation 1).
certain features that are common
to them all.
Living things respond to stimuli
If you sit on a drawing pin, you jump up quickly. The pricking of your bottom
is called the stimulus (plural: stimuli). Your jumping is called the response.
Living things respond to different kinds of stimuli. The main ones are
touch, chemicals, heat, light and sound. For example, when we see some¬
thing, we are responding to light entering our eyes; and when we taste
things, we are responding to chemicals in the mouth. Structures such as eyes,
which detect stimuli, are called receptors.
At first sight you might think that plants are an exception to the rule that all
organisms respond to stimuli. After all, if you hit a tree, it doesn't move
away. However, plants do respond to certain stimuli, but much more slowly
than animals. They do not have muscles. Instead they respond by growing in
a particular direction. For example, most plants grow towards light (Figure 2).
There are a few plants which respond quickly to touch, like animals do. For
example, the leaves of certain sensitive plants close up when you touch them
(Investigation 2). However, there are no nerves or muscles in the leaves: the
response is brought about by the leaf cells changing shape.

Living things grow

As an animal or plant develops, it gets larger and heavier. In other words, it
grows. In this process its volume and mass increase.
Growth takes place by substances being taken into the organism from
Figure 1 This gymnast is showing one of the basic outside. These substances are then built up into the structures of the body:
properties of life, movement. they become part of the organism. This is called assimilation.

Figure 2 This potted houseplant is growing

towards the light from the window.

Figure 3 All organisms feed. This lizard, known as

the bearded dragon, is eating a grasshopper.
 The characteristics of living things 7

A plant, such as a tree, goes on growing throughout its life. Animals

usually stop growing when they reach a certain age. For example, humans
stop growing at about the age of eighteen.
Even when growth stops, the materials of the body are constantly replaced
by new substances coming in from outside. This process of renewal goes on
throughout life. It has been worked out that in about seven years all the
chemicals in the human body are replaced by new ones, so there is a
continual turnover of materials.

Living things feed

We have just seen that, in order to grow, an organism must take substances
into its body. This is achieved by feeding (nutrition).
Animals and plants feed in quite different ways. Animals feed on complex
organic substances which are often in solid form (Figure 3). In man the food is
taken into the mouth. We call this ingestion. It is then broken down into a
soluble form: this process is called digestion and is carried out in the gut.
Any food which cannot be digested passes out of the body through the
anus. This is called egestion. Meanwhile the digested food is absorbed and
used.
In contrast to animals, plants make their own food. They take in simple
things like carbon dioxide and water and build them up into complex organic
substances. Energy is needed for this: it comes from sunlight. The green
pigment chlorophyll enables the plant to use sunlight in this way: this is why
Figure 4 Plants feed by photosynthesis. The plant
plants are usually green. The process by which plants make food is called
takes up carbon dioxide and water, and turns them
photosynthesis (Figure 4). into complex food substances such as sugar. This
Organisms like green plants which make their own organic food are called process is carried out mainly in the leaves.
autotrophs. Organisms like animals which require ready-made organic food
are called heterotrophs.
Heterotrophs get their food from various sources. Those that feed on plants
are called herbivores. Those that feed on animals are called carnivores. And
those that feed on both plants and animals are called omnivores. Some
heterotrophs feed on living organisms, harming them in the process: they are
known as parasites. And finally some feed on dead material: we call them
saprotrophs1. You will meet all these different feeding types in later Topics.
Are there different kinds of autotrophic feeding too? Most autotrophs feed
by photosynthesis, getting their energy from sunlight. However, certain
bacteria can make organic food by using energy from special chemical
reactions: this is called chemosynthesis.

Living things produce energy

Living things need energy to move, grow, replace worn-out structures, and
so on. They obtain this energy by burning food. The food is not really
burned, but it comes to the same thing chemically: the food is broken down
into carbon dioxide gas and water. This process is called respiration.
Respiration normally requires oxygen. Organisms get this vital gas from
the air or water around them. We call this process breathing. For example, in
man air is sucked into a pair of lungs (Figure 5). In fish, water flows over the
surface of gills. As well as taking up oxygen into the body, lungs and gills get
rid of carbon dioxide. We refer to this process as gas exchange.
Not all organisms have lungs or gills. Some just let oxygen 'seep' into the
body across the surface or through small holes. This is called diffusion. It's a
slow process, but it's good enough for small or inactive organisms (including
plants) which don't need much energy.
Figure 5 An athlete breathing heavily after a race
Many animals are able to carry oxygen quickly round the body. In man this His muscles have done a lot of work and they need
job is done by the blood system: the blood is pumped by the heart through a plenty of oxygen.
system of blood vessels. The blood system is also used for transporting
dissolved food substances. 1 In older systems of classification these used to be
called saprophytes.
8 Biology for life

Living things get rid of poisonous waste

In many ways an organism is like a chemical factory. Substances are
constantly being broken down to produce energy, or built up to make
structures such as bones and muscles. This is called metabolism.
Some of the by-products of metabolism are poisonous. They must not be
allowed to pile up in the body, or they will kill the organism. So the body
must get rid of them. This is called excretion.
In animals one of the most poisonous waste substances is ammonia. It is so
poisonous that most animals quickly turn it into a less poisonous substance.
This is then expelled from the body in the form of a liquid called urine.
Plants get rid of waste substances in a different way. They turn them into
harmless substances which they store out of harm's way.

Living things produce offspring

Organisms produce offspring (Figure 6). This is known as reproduction.
Figure 6 Reproduction is one of the basic features
Usually it involves the union of two individuals, a male and a female. We call
of all living things. Here, a mother pig can be seen
suckling her young. this sexual reproduction.
In animals such as humans the male produces sperms, and the female
produces eggs. We call these gametes. Sperms are much smaller than eggs.
The male and female usually come into close contact, and the male's
sperms are put into the female's body. The sperms then unite with the eggs,
one sperm per egg. This is called fertilisation. The fertilised egg then
becomes an embryo which develops into a new individual. In flowering
plants the male gamete is inside the pollen.
Some organisms can reproduce on their own without the help of another
individual. This is called asexual reproduction. At its simplest, the organism
merely splits in two. In good conditions asexual reproduction may take place
very quickly and sometimes a very large number of offspring are produced.
The series of events which take place from the time an organism repro¬
duces to the time its offspring reproduce is called the life cycle.
Some animals have a free-living young stage in the course of the life cycle.
We call this a larva. An example is the tadpole of frogs and toads.

Living things are made of cells

A house is built of bricks. In the same kind of way living organisms are made
of cells. Some simple organisms consist of only one cell. Most organisms,
including humans, consist of many cells combined together.
Figure 7 A generalised cell showing its main parts. Most cells have certain basic features in common. These are shown in
Figure 7. The cell is surrounded by a thin cell membrane, and sometimes a
wall as well. The inside of the cell contains a material called cytoplasm.
Embedded in the cytoplasm is a ball-shaped nucleus. Plant cells often contain
little green bodies called chloroplasts: they have chlorophyll inside them.
Typical animal Typical plant Numerous chemical reactions take place in the cytoplasm. The nucleus
Feeds on ready-made Makes its own organic serves as a kind of control centre. It is essential for the life of the cell. A typical
organic food food by photosynthesis cell is about one fiftieth of a millimetre wide, that's twenty micrometres. So
(heterotrophic feeding) (autotrophic feeding)
you need a microscope to see cells.
Has feeding structures Lacks feeding That will do for the moment! You will learn a lot more about cells later.
such as mouth and gut structures
Lacks chlorophyll Has chlorophyll
Animals and plants compared
Lacks leaves Has leaves
How do you differ from a plant such as a tree? Table 1 summarises the
Lacks roots Has roots
differences between a typical animal and plant. The main difference is in their
Moves around Does not move around
methods of feeding, and all other differences stem from this. The tree can
Has nerves and muscles Lacks nerves and make its own organic food by photosynthesis, and so it does not need a
muscles
mouth and a gut. It does not need to move around and find food, so it does
Has receptors such as Lacks receptors not have nerves, muscles and receptors like eyes and a nose. On the other
eyes and ears
hand the tree needs chlorophyll in order to photosynthesise, and it must be
Table 1 The differences between a typical animal able to take up simple substances from its surroundings. These jobs are
and plant. carried out by its leaves and roots.
 The characteristics of living things 9

-Investigation 1- PInvestigation 2- rlnvestigation 3

Detecting movement inside a plant Getting a plant to respond to touch Recognising the characteristics of
Movement is difficult to see in most
life in organisms
Few plants respond quickly when you
plants, but here is an exception. touch them, but certain sensitive plants 1 Make a list of the characteristics of
do, for example Mimosa pudica. Tife given in this Topic, starting with
1 Obtain a sprig of the water plant
'living things move’ and finishing
Canadian pondweed (Elodea) which 1 Obtain a potted specimen of a
with 'living things are made of cells’.
has been kept in the light.for several sensitive plant.
hours. 2 Examine various organisms or
2 Gently touch the top side of a leaf
pictures of organisms, provided by
2 Cut off one of the leaves and put it in with a needle. What happens?
your teacher.
a drop of water on a microscope
3 Gently touch other parts of the plant,
slide. They might include the following: an
including the lower side of the
earthworm, a locust, a frog or toad, a
3 Cover the leaf with a coverslip (a thin leaves, and the stem.
green plant, a clam, a snail, a mould,
square of glass) so as to keep the
Describe what happens in each a lichen, yeast, and yourself.
leaf flat. Try not to get any air
case.
bubbles trapped under the 3 For each organism write down the
coverslip. 4 Pipette a drop of water onto one of particular characteristics of life
the leaves. What happens? which you can see it possesses. Do
4 Look at the leaf under a micro¬
not write down the characteristic
scope. (If you don’t know how to Of what use do you think this response
unless you can actually see it.
use a microscope, look up page is to the plant?
5.) After doing this, you will realise that
How do you think the response might
some of the characteristics of life are
Can you see lots of small green be brought about?
difficult to see in organisms.
objects inside the leaf?
How would a similar response be
How could you find out if an organism
These are chloroplasts. brought about in an animal?
possesses a characteristic of life which
If they are moving, describe their Can you think of an animal that shows you cannot actually see?
movement as fully as you can. this kind of response?

The chloroplasts don’t always move, so

don’t be disappointed if you see
nothing happening.

^Assignments-
1 Name three different activities for 3 Which of the following activities are Do you think it is correct to regard
which we need food. shown by all animals and plants? death as a characteristic of all living
things? Explain your answer.
2 Of all the characteristics of living Respiration, feeding, sexual
things mentioned in this Topic, reproduction, growth, escaping from 7 A visitor to our planet from outer
which ones are most important in enemies. space thinks motor cars are alive.
each of the following?
4 Explain in your own words what is In order to put him straight, make a
The number of characteristics which meant by a stimulus. list of ways in which a motor car is
you should mention in each case is similar to living organisms, and a
What sort of stimuli does a named
given in brackets. list of ways in which it is different.
potted plant respond to?
8 Table 1 shows the main differences
a) a person watching television (1) 5 If you blow up a balloon and then
between a typical animal and a
b) a footballer kicking a ball (2) hold it in front of the fire, it increases
typical plant.
c) a lion stalking a zebra (2) in size.
a) Explain the reason for each of the
d) germs spreading through your
Is the balloon growing in a biological differences listed in the table.
body when you are ill (1) b) Some of the features listed in the
sense?
e) a plant bending towards the table have exceptions. For
light (1) Give reasons for your answer.
instance, not all plants are rooted
f) a person panting after a race (1) to the ground. Write down as
6 What is the difference between an
g) a bean plant climbing up a
object which is dead and one which many exceptions as you can.
bamboo cane (2)
is non-living? c) Do the exceptions make the table
useless?
 —Classifying,—
How do we classify living things?
naming and Scientists classify living things by arranging them into groups. Each group is
then split into smaller groups, and these groups into even smaller groups and
identifying so on. The members of each group have certain features in common which
distinguish them from other groups.
Living things are first split into kingdoms, such as the animal and plant
About one and a half kingdoms. These kingdoms are then split up into a large number of smaller
million kinds of organisms groups called phyla (singular: phylum). All the members of a phylum have
have been described. With so many certain things in common. Each phylum is broken down into classes, classes
we must have some way of into orders, orders into families, families into genera (singular: genus), and
genera into species. Each of these groups contains progressively fewer and
classifying, naming and
fewer kinds of organisms. Thus a phylum contains a wide variety of
identifying them.
organisms: they all have certain basic features in common, but there are a lot
of differences between them. However, the organisms belonging to a genus
Name of The animals that belong to are all very similar, and those belonging to the same species are identical in
group each group general appearance. This is illustrated in Table 1, which shows how humans
are classified.
Kingdom All animals
ANIMAL

Phylum Animals with a backbone What's in a name?

CHORDATA
When naming animals and plants we often give them what are called
Class Backboned animals, with hair common names. These are the names we use in everyday language: cat, dog,
MAMMALIA rose and so on.
The trouble is that common names can be misleading. One reason is that
Order Mammals with grasping hands
they are often based on superficial resemblances between living things. For
PRIMATE and feet
example, there is an animal living in the sea called the sea mouse. But it isn't a
Family Ape-man and primitive man as mouse at all. It's a relative of the earthworm. It got its name simply because it
HOMINIDAE well as modern man looks hairy and reminded someone of a mouse!
Another problem is that an organism may have more than one common
Genus Primitive man and modern
name, and sometimes the same name is given to several different organisms.
HOMO man only
Take the plant in Figure 1 for example. Most people would probably call this
Species Modern man only the marsh marigold. However, it is also known as king cup, golden cup,
SAPIENS brave celandine, horse blob, may blob, Mary bud, soldier's button, and
publicans and sinners! To make matters worse, in parts of America it is called
Table 1 This table shows how humans are
classified. As we go downwards from top to bottom cowslip, a name which in Britain is given to a quite different plant.
the number of organisms in each group decreases
and the similarities between them increases. Ape-
man and primitive man are, of course, extinct and A standard system for naming organisms
are known only from their fossil remains.
Biologists use a standard system in which every organism is given two
names. The first is the name of the genus to which the organism belongs. It
shares this name with a number of other closely related organisms. The
organism's second name is the name of the species to which it belongs. This
name is possessed by only one kind of organism: it does not share it with any
other organisms in the genus.
It is customary to start the genus name with a capital letter, and the species
name with a small letter, and to print both names in italics.
Now for an example. The domestic cat's full name is Felis catus: Felis is the
genus name, and catus is its species name. This name applies to the family pet
which spends so much of its time curled up on the hearth-rug. However, the
genus Felis also includes several animals which would be less welcome in our
houses, the lion and tiger for example. The lion's proper name is Felis leo, and
the tiger's is Felis tigris.
This system of naming organisms was developed by the 18th-century
naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-78). Because it involves giving organisms two
names, it is known as the binomial system.
The names just described are called proper names or scientific names.
They are written in Latin. The trouble is that they are often long and difficult
to remember. For example, there is a certain kind of worm which is called
Haploscoloplos bustorusl To make things easier we often call animals and plants
Figure 1 What would you call this plant? by their simpler common names, provided we are sure that there won't be
 Classifying, naming and identifying 11

r Investigation--
Making a key for identifying organisms
1 Your teacher will give you a collection of
organisms, or pictures of organisms,
together with their names.

2 Make' a key, similar to the one in Figure 2,

which would enable a person to find out
the name of each organism.

To do this, write out a spider key first,

and then make a numbered key from the
spider key.

3 Ask a friend to identify the organisms

using your key.

4 If your friend runs into any difficulties,

improve the wording.of the key to make it
Spider key clearer.
flower like bell. bluebell
leaf narrow
Why is a numbered key better than a
X flower like trumpet. wild daffodil
-s
plants^
spider key?
top petal overhangs lower petal. deadnettle

leaf broad
top petal does not
leaf heart-shaped. .lesser
celandine r Assignments-
overhang lower petal
leaf club-shaped. .primrose 1 Find out the proper names of five
organisms (animals or plants) other
Numbered key than the ones mentioned in this
1 leaves narrow.go to 2 Topic.
leaves oroad.go to 3
2 The following questions are about
2 flowers like bells.bluebell
flower like trumpet.wild daffodil the key in Figure 2.
a) Why were bluebells
3 top petal overhangs lower petal.deadnettle
distinguished from daffodils by
top petal does not overhang lower petal.go to 4
their flowers rather than by their
4 leaf heart-shaped.lesser celandine leaves?
leaf club-shaped.primrose
b) If you were to distinguish
between the lesser celandine
Figure 2 Five flowering plants with two different kinds of key for finding their names
and primrose by their flowers
rather than by their leaves, what
would you say about them?
any confusion. Common names usually start with a small letter and are
printed in ordinary type, not italics. 3 A scientist visits an uninhabited
island and discovers the insects
shown in the illustration below. Make
How do we identify living things?
up a name for each insect, and
Suppose you have been out for a walk and you come back with the plants devise a key which would enable
shown in Figure 2. How can you find out their names?. One way might be to another visitor to the island to
compare each one with pictures in a book. This is all right if it's a short book, identify them.
but if it's a long one it can be a tedious business and it is difficult to know
where to start.
It is much better to use a key. Keys are widely used by biologists to identify
organisms quickly and accurately. Two kinds of key are shown beneath the
plants in Figure 2. Use them to identify the plants. Because of its shape the
top one is called a spider key. The trouble with spider keys is that they take
up a lot of room. So we usually use a numbered key like the one at the foot of
Figure 2.
Use keys to identify other organisms, and try making a key of your own.
To do this you split the organisms into successive pairs of groups. This gives
you a spider key like the one in Figure 2. You then make a numbered key
from the spider key (Investigation).
 Collecting living
Where can we find living things?
things Living things are found almost everywhere in the world: on land and in the
air, in water and underground. They are all around us in the soil, under logs
We are surrounded by and stones, in grass and in trees. Several household pests share our homes
with us, and there are also parasites which live on or in other living things.
living things. In this Topic
The place where an organism lives is called its habitat. An example of a
you will find out how to collect
habitat is a pond or a wood. Within a habitat organisms may live in a
them for examining in particular place such as under a stone or a log. We call such places
the laboratory. microhabitats. The conditions which exist in a habitat make up the environ¬
ment. Every organism is suited or adapted to live in its particular habitat. For
example, many animals are camouflaged, or can move very quickly so as to
escape from their enemies. Organisms can survive only if they are suitably
adapted, but this can sometimes make them difficult to find.

How to collect organisms

Figure 2 shows some of the things you need to take with you if you go on a
collecting trip. The method of collection depends on the kinds of organisms
which you are trying to find. Slow-moving animals like snails can be collected
by hand. However, most animals are obtained by capturing them in some
way. Some methods of capturing animals are shown in Figure 3. You can use
some of them to explore a habitat and find out which particular animals live
there (Investigation).
Figure 3 shows just a few ways of collecting organisms, but there are many
others. For some animals, such as those living in the soil, special methods
have to be used (see page 86). As you make your collections find out as much
as you can about each organism's way of life and try to see how it is adapted
to its environment.
Figure 1 Collecting organisms from a pond. *

Figure 2 Things you need to take with you when you go collecting living things.
 Collecting living things 13

Figure 3 Different ways of collecting animals.

■Investigation 1- Assignments-
Collecting and examining living things 1 If you were designing a net for
catching fish, mention two qualities
1 Use one or more of the methods When collecting organisms:
which it would need to have.
described in this Topic to collect
1 Take only the particular organisms
organisms from a habitat. Put the 2 What precautions should you take
that you need.
organisms in containers. Label the when
containers, noting where the 2 Pick them up and transport them a) using a sweep net,
organisms were collected. with care. b) scraping a limpet off a rock,
c) picking up a woodlouse with
2 Examine each organism, using a 3 Replace stones and logs where you
forceps,
hand lens or microscope if found them.
d) sucking up a small insect with a
necessary. Describe or draw the 4 Keep animals with the plants they pooter,
organism, indicating its size. were found on. e) setting a pitfall trap?
How does it move and feed?
How is it adapted to its environment? 5 Whenever possible put the 3 Many other methods can be used to
organisms back when you have collect animals besides the ones
3 Use the classification on pages finished with them. described in this Topic. Describe
14-19 to find out what group each
two such methods, one for
organism belongs to.
collecting water animals, the other
Does your collection tell you for collecting land insects.
anything about how numerous each
type of organism is in the habitat? 4 Devise a trap suitable for catching
small mammals, such as mice,
without harming them.
 -Who's who in the
Introduction
world of living There are several different ways of classifying living things. In this book we

things will divide them up into six kingdoms: the virus kingdom, the bacteria
kingdom, the protist kingdom, the fungus kingdom, the plant kingdom and
the animal kingdom. The first four kingdoms contain mainly very small
In this Topic we shall organisms which you can only see with a microscope. Such organisms are
described as microbes. They are very important because many of them cause
look at the main groups of
diseases.
living things. This will give Most living things belong to the plant and animal kingdoms. It is here that
you a glimpse of the variety we find the greatest number of species and the greatest variety of form. In the
that is found amongst lightning tour that follows we can only touch on the tremendous variety that
organisms. really exists.

Virus kingdom
On the borderline between living and non¬
living. Can only be seen with the electron
microscope. No cell structure. Reproduce
inside other organisms and cause diseases.
average width 100 nm

Bacteria kingdom
Can only be seen with the high power of the
light microscope. Consist of a single cell with
a wall; no proper nucleus. Occur in air, water,
soil or inside other organisms. Many of them
cause diseases.

Protist kingdom
Some can be seen with the low power of the
microscope. Consist of a single cell. Some are
plant-like and others are animal-like. Live
mainly in water or inside other organisms.

green plant-like Paramecium (causes sleeping

organisms 10/xm wide Amoeba 1 mm across 200/^.m long sickness)

Fungus kingdom
Consist of fine threads which may be inter¬
woven to form mushrooms or toadstools. Live
in soil or inside other organisms, especially
plants. Reproduce rapidly by spores.

pin mould mushroom yeast potato blight

5 cm wide each cell 5yu,m wide

Lichens
Consist of a fungus and a plant-like protist
combined together. Grow on rocks and tree
trunks. Very resistant to drying.

shrubby lichen leafy lichen

10 mm high (flat)
 Who's who in the world of living things 15

Plant kingdom
Many-celled organisms which contain the green substance chlorophyll and make their own food by photosynthesis.

Algae
seaweed
Simple plants which do not have roots, stems 50 cm long

or leaves. Usually green, but sometimes

brown or red. Live mainly in water.
Spirogyra (a thread-like alga)

Mosses and liverworts (Bryophytes)

high
Have simple leaves or leaf-like form. Found
mainly in damp places. Reproductive spores
are formed in capsule.

Ferns (Pteridophytes)
Have proper roots and stems, and leaf-like ?
fronds. Found mainly in damp places. Repro¬
ductive spores are formed on the undersides
of the fronds.
common fern
(has unbranched
fronds) bracken
(has branched fronds)

Conifers (Gymnosperms)
Large plants with seed-bearing cones for
reproduction. Good at surviving in dry or cold
climates. Most of them keep their leaves
throughout the year.

Flowering plants (Angiosperms)

Wide range of plants with seed-bearing flowers
for reproduction. Seeds protected inside fruits.
Range from small herbs to massive trees.
Divided into dicotyledons and monocotyledons.

Dicotyledons Monocotyledons
Seed contains an embryo with two seed-leaves Seed contains an embryo with one seed-leaf
(cotyledons). Broad leaves with branched veins (cotyledon). Narrow leaves with straight,
forming a network. parallel veins.

foxglove oak tree

10 m high
45 cm high 25 m high
16 Biology for life

Animal kingdom
Organisms that feed on other organisms and usually move around.

Animals without backbones (invertebrates)

Coelenterates
Simple body with tentacles and stinging cells.
Live singly or in colonies, either attached or
floating. May produce an external coating
(e.g. corals). Most live in the sea, a few in
Hydra
fresh water. (lives in ponds) jellyfish sea anemone coral
10 mm long 10 cm wide 5 cm tall

Flatworms (Platyhelminth.es)
Body longish and flat. Some live in fresh
water, but most are parasites of animals.

fresh-water flatworm tapeworm blood fluke

10 mm long 5 m long 15 mm long

Roundworms (Nematodes)
Body long and thread-like, round in cross-
section. Some live in soil but most are
parasites of plants or animals.
Ascaris 30 cm long
(human roundworm)

Ringed worms (Annelids)

Body long and divided by rings into a series of
earthworm
segments. Most are aquatic (live in water), but 15 cm long
some live in the soil. Some are external (burrows in soil)
parasites.

tube worm
leech ragworm 3 10 cm long
5 cm long 15 cm long (lives in a tube
(sucks blood) (swims in the sea) in the sea)

Molluscs
Body soft and unsegmented, in most cases
covered by a shell. Most are aquatic, some live
on the seashore and on land.

Echinoderms
Body based on a pattern of five parts and with
a tough skin, often with spines. All live in the
sea.
 Who's who in the world of living things 17

Arthropods
Have segmented body with a hard cuticle (exoskeleton) and jointed limbs.
Divided into four groups, mainly on the basis of the number of legs.

Crustaceans

Quite a lot of legs. Two pairs of antennae

(feelers). Front part of body usually protected
by a shield-like cover. Mainly aquatic.

Myriapods
Lots of legs. One pair of antennae. Body lohg
and clearly segmented. Live on land.

centipede millipede
25 mm long 2 cm long

Flattened, with one pair of jointed legs to each Rounded, with two pairs of jointed legs to each
segment. Carnivorous; poison glands for killing segment. Eat dead plant material. Curl up into
prey. a ball if disturbed.

Arachnids
Four pairs of legs.
No antennae.
Mouthparts with pincers.
Live on land; some are external parasites.

Insects
Three pairs of legs. One pair of antennae.
Body divided into three parts: head, thorax
and abdomen. Usually two pairs of wings.

INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS

(egg—> nymphs—> adult) (egg —> larva —> pupa —> adult)

grasshopper butterfly
5 cm wide

Also cockroaches, locusts, stick insects. Also moths, beetles, bees, wasps, ants, flies,
dragonflies, termites, earwigs, greenflies, lice. mosquitoes, fleas.
18 Biology for life

Animals with backbones (vertebrates)

Fishes Cartilaginous fish Bony fish

skeleton made of cartilage (gristle) skeleton made of bone
Have a covering of scales. Live in water and
have gills for breathing. Muscular body and
fins for swimming. Skeleton of cartilage or
bone. Shape varied. Eggs laid in the water.
Cold-blooded.
ray
30 cm wide

shark
maximum length
about 18 m

Amphibians \

Have a moist skin without scales. Tadpole

(larva) lives in water and has gills for brea¬
thing. Adult lives on land and has lungs for
breathing. Can swim, walk or hop. Eggs laid
in the water. Cold-blooded.

Reptiles
Have a dry, waterproof skin with scales. Most tortoise
20 cm wide
live on land and have lungs for breathing.
Most have four legs for walking and some can
swim. Others have reduced legs and slide
along the ground. Eggs have a soft shell and
are laid on land. Cold-blooded.

& common lizard

\ 12 cm long

snake
crocodile about 10 m
about 9 m long (python etc.)

Birds
Have a covering of feathers. Live on land and ostrich
in the air. Have lungs for breathing. Have 2.5 m tall
(does not fly)
wings for flying and a beak for feeding. Eggs
have a hard shell and are laid in nests.
sparrow
Warm-blooded. 15 cm long

owl vulture
30 cm high wingspan 1 m
 Who's who in the world of living things 19

Mammals
Have hair. The young usually develop inside the mother and
after birth are fed on milk produced by the mother's mammary
glands. Live on land, in water and in the air. Walk, swim or
fly. Have lungs. Warm-blooded.

Egg-laying mammals Pouch mammals Placental mammals

Young develop inside an egg which is Young born at an early stage and Young develop inside the mother,
laid by the mother. finish their development inside a attached to a placenta.
pouch, where they feed on the
mother's milk.

duck-billed platypus
40 cm long

The main groups of placental mammals

Name of group Main features Examples

Rodents
Small mammals with a pointed nose. Rats, mice, gerbils,
Have chisel-like front teeth for hamsters, squirrels,
gnawing at mainly plant food such as (Rabbits and hares are
nuts. close relatives but are put
in a separate group.)

Carnivores Meat-eaters. Have sharp claws for

Cats (including lions and
bringing down prey, and strong jaws
tigers), dogs, wolves, foxes,
and sharp teeth for eating it. Good
bears.
hunters.

Ungulates Cattle, sheep, pigs

Eat plants, particularly grass. Have
deer, camels, giraffes,

ft
Proboscideans
hooves on their feet. Cheek teeth have
a flat ridged surface for grinding food.

Very large, with legs like pillars. The

hippopdtamus, horses,
zebras, rhinoceroses.

two upper front teeth form a pair of Elephants. (Some

tusks and the nose is lengthened into specimens weigh over 10
a trunk. Have huge cheek teeth for tonnes.)
grinding up tough plant food.

Chiropterans
Have wings for flying and small Fruit-and insect-eating

U pointed teeth for feeding on insects,

fruit etc.
bats. The vampire bat sucks
blood.

Streamlined and fish-like in Whales, dolphins,

appearance for swimming. Have porpoises. (The Blue Whale
sharp pointed teeth for feeding on fish, can be over 30 m long and
squid etc. Some whales feed on plankton. weigh more than 150
tonnes.)

Primates

i
Eyes at front of head.
Grasping fingers and toes. Lemurs, monkeys,
Tend to stand on hind legs apes, humans.
and become upright.

Figure 1 This woodmouse is a typical rodent, a

group of mammals.
20 Biology for life

The main groups of living things at a glance

If you are feeling confused after our lightning tour of the world
of living things, the summary below may help you to see how
the various groups fit together.
 Who's who in the world of living things 21

-Investigation 1- -Investigation 2- ^Investigation 3-

Putting some familiar animals and Putting some unfamiliar animals and Collecting and naming organisms
plants into groups plants into groups
1 Collect organisms from a habitat
1 Examine various organisms, or 1 Examine various organisms which near your school or home.
pictures of organisms, provided by are not illustrated in the classification
2 If any of the organisms are small,
your teacher. All of them are on pages 14-19.
rapidly moving land animals such as
featured in the classification on
2 Write down the name of the group to insects, anaesthetise them by
pages 14-19
which you think each organism placing them in an ether bottle for a
2 Write down the name of the group to belongs. Do this by relating the few seconds.
which each organism belongs. Use characteristics of the organism to
the classification on pages 14-19 to the information given on pages
help you. 14-19.

3 Look carefully at each organism. 3 Look carefully at each organism.

Which particular feature or features, Which specific illustration on pages
enabled you to place each organism 14-19 does each organism
in its group? resemble most closely?

From its structure, what can you say What special features does each
about the sort of place where it lives, organism have?
and the kind of life it leads?
Do you have difficulty in placing
Give the results of this investigation as some of the organisms?
a table. Devise the table yourself so as If so, why?
to present all the information in the 3 Examine each organism, using a
Present the results of this investigation
ctearest possible way. hand lens or microscope if
as a table so as to show all the
necessary.
information clearly.
4 Use the classification on pages
14-19 to find out what group each
organism belongs to.

r Assignments-
1 What group does each of these b) lays eggs with a leathery shell, arthropods as well:
organisms belong to: moss, jellyfish, c) has a pouch in which the young a) hard cuticle,
turtle, tapeworm, whale, mushroom, develop, b) joints,
mould, tube worm, seaweed, newt? d) is shaped like a star, c) six legs,
e) has two pairs of wings, d) feelers,
2 What would be the easiest way of
f) lives on land but lays its eggs in e) two pairs of wings?
telling the difference between:
water,
a) an arthropod and a vertebrate, 7 The picture below is of a small insect
g) has long tentacles and belongs
b) an insect and an arachnid, which lives in the soil. Name two
to the same group as snails,
c) an amphibian and a reptile, important structures, typical of most
h) undergoes metamorphosis,
d) an alga and a fungus, insects, which it lacks. Why do you
i) has four pairs of legs,
e) a conifer and a flowering plant? think this insect does not need these
j) has scales and gills.
particular structures?
3 From books, try to find out the
5 Give the name of an organism
largest member of each of the
which:
following plant groups: algae, ferns,
a) reproduces by means of flowers,
conifers, flowering plants.
b) has frond-like leaves,
In each case give the proper name c) consists of only one cell and is
and common names of the coloured green,
organism, and state its approximate d) causes a disease,
size. e) has no chlorophyll.

4 Give the name of an animal which: 6 Which of the following features are
a) is shaped like an umbrella and possessed only by insects, and
has sting cells, which ones belong to other
|—Amoeba and other
Amoeba
protists This is one of the largest protists. It can be the size of a pinhead. This makes it
easy to see under the microscope.
If you take a drop of water Amoeba lives in ponds where it moves around on the surfaces of stones and
from a pond or ditch and look weeds. Some species live in damp soil.
at it under a microscope, you will With a microscope you can look either at live specimens, or at dead
see little organisms which consist of specimens which have been stained so as to show up the structures inside the
cell (Investigation 1). You really need to do both if you are to build up a
only one cell. These one-celled
complete picture of this little organism.
organisms are protists.
Amoeba is a single cell (Figure 1). It has a nucleus and cytoplasm. The
cytoplasm is bounded by a very thin cell membrane, and is divided into two
parts: the outer part is clear and jelly-like and is called the ectoplasm; the
inner part is granular and runny and is called the endoplasm. Various
structures float around in the endoplasm. These include food vacuoles which
contain tiny organisms which the amoeba has eaten, and a contractile
vacuole which collects unwanted water from inside the cell and every now
and again discharges it to the outside. The amoeba is small enough for gas
exchange and excretion to take place by simple diffusion.
The amoeba constantly changes shape. This is because the cell membrane
is thin and elastic, and the fluid endoplasm flows around inside it. If you
examine a live amoeba under the microscope, you will probably think its
food vacuole insides look chaotic. Linnaeus, the famous eighteenth-century naturalist,
nucleus pseudopod thought so too. When he first saw an amoeba, he named it Chaos chaosl
The amoeba's ability to change shape provides it with a special method of
locomotion: it simply oozes its way around. The runny endoplasm flows to
one end and forms a bulge called a pseudopod.
Amoeba reproduces by splitting in two; the two amoebas then grow to their
full size and may split again.
membrane

contractile
endoplasm Euglena
- cytoplasm
vacuole 'ectoplasm
Countless millions of green protists live in the surface waters of lakes, seas
and ponds where there is plenty of light for photosynthesis. These organisms
Figure 1 Diagram of an amoeba. The various
internal structures are not in fixed positions but are too tiny to be seen individually, but sometimes there are so many of them
move around as the organism changes shape. that the water looks green.
One such organism is Euglena which lives in fresh-water ponds. The largest
specimens are not more than a tenth of a millimetre long (100 /tcm). With a
microscope you can see them swimming about in the water (Investigation 2).
flagellum
The structure of Euglena is shown in Figure 2. The cell is bounded by a
pigment spot
tough, elastic 'skin' called the pellicle. Inside there is a nucleus and
light-sensitive
swelling
cytoplasm, just as in any other normal cell.
One of the most noticeable features of this little organism is its bright green
reservoir
colour. This is caused by the presence of chloroplasts in the cytoplasm. Its
contractile
vacuole
chloroplasts enable it to feed by photosynthesis, though it can absorb soluble
chloroplast
substances across is pellicle as well. The cytoplasm also contains food storage
granules similar to starch.
cytoplasm
At the front end there is a little reservoir into which opens the contractile
nucleus
vacuole. The contractile vacuole does the same job as the amoeba's. It collects
water from inside the cell and every now and again discharges it to the
outside via the reservoir.
stored food From the reservoir springs a long whip-like flagellum. This is used for
swimming. Waves pass along the flagellum, driving the organism through
pellicle (‘skin’) the water in a kind of corkscrew motion.
At the base of the flagellum there is a light-sensitive swelling, and to one
side of it a red pigment spot. These structures guide the organism towards
light when it is swimming.
If the water dries up, Euglena stops using its flagellum and wriggles around
Figure 2 Euglena showing its structure. In this like a little worm.
case the internal structures are in definite As with Amoeba, gas exchange and excretion take place by diffusion.
positions. Euglena reproduces by splitting into new individuals.
 Amoeba and other protists 23

Paramecium Stylonichia Vorticella

About 200 /xm long. Slipper-shaped. Has About 100 /Ltm long. Looks spiky. Groups of Can be 1 mm long. Shaped like a bell. Attached
two nuclei, one large, the other small. cilia are stuck together to form little 'legs’ to pieces of weed etc by flexible stalk which
Covered with beating cilia which ‘row’ the which are used for a rather jerky kind of can contract like a spring if the organism is
organism through the water. Feed on tiny movement. disturbed. The cilia are used for sweeping food
organisms which are swept into the gullet into the gullet.
by cilia.

Figure 3 Three common single-celled organisms which you might see under the
microscope. They are all found in ponds and ditches. The black objects are the nuclei.

Other protists
Many other one-celled organisms live in ponds and streams. Figure 3 shows
some of them. They vary in size and shape, and in the way they move and
feed (Investigation 2).
rAssignments-
Some of them swim by means of tiny hairs called cilia which beat like the 1 Make a list of those structures
oars of a boat. Others use a whip-like flagellum which lashes to and fro. A shown in the diagram of Amoeba in
few of them don't swim at all, but are attached to weeds or stones by a stalk. Figure 1 which are not found in a
Many of them feed by sweeping tiny organisms into a gullet by means of typical animal cell.
beating cilia. Others feed like plants: they contain the green pigment
2 Each word in the left-hand column
chlorophyll and feed by photosynthesis.
below is related to one of the words
Some protists live as parasites inside the bodies of animals and plants and
in the right-hand column. Write them
cause serious diseases (see page 118).
down in the correct pairs,
contractile vacuole runny

Investigation 1- Investigation 2- flagellum

food vacuole
reproduction
digestion
Looking at Amoeba Looking at Euglena and other endoplasm water
protists splitting movement
1 Examine a prepared slide of an
1 Obtain a jar of dirty pond water 3 What do each of the following pairs
amoeba under the microscope.
which has been standing in the of structures have in common:
2 Which of the structures shown in laboratory for some weeks. a) light-sensitive swelling and
Figure 1 can you see? pigment spot,
2 Suck up a little of the water into a
b) ectoplasm and endoplasm,
Draw a specimen, and label it as pipette and put a drop onto a slide. c) food vacuole and chloroplast,
fully as you can. d) cell membrane and pellicle?
3 Cover the drop with a coverslip.
3 Your teacher will give you a slide 4 What structures in an amoeba do
4 Examine your slide under the
with a live amoeba on it. the same job as:
microscope.
4 Examine it under the microscope: a) your lungs,
5 Look out for protists in the water. b) your skin,
use low power first, then high
power. c) your kidneys,
If you see any green ones they may
d) your legs,
be Euglena or one of its relatives.
5 Watch the amoeba moving. e) your intestine?
You may see the ones illustrated in
6 Make outline drawings of it at one 5 Write down five ways in which
Figure 3, and possibly some others
minute intervals to show its changes Amoeba is simpler than a human,
as well.
in shape. either in its structure or in the way it
6 How does each one move? carries out its life processes.
How would you describe the
process by which movement takes 7 If you see Paramecium, look for a 6 List two ways in which Euglena is
place? contractile vacuole: you may see it like a plant, and two ways in which it
filling up and collapsing. is like an animal.
 Bacteria
What are bacteria?
Bacteria are
Bacteria are among the smallest organisms. They were discovered in the
very small organisms
seventeenth century by a Dutch draper, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. He was
with a simple cell structure a skilful amateur biologist, and he saw them under a microscope which he
and remarkable powers had made himself.
of survival. Bacteria occur almost everywhere: in air, water, soil, and inside other
organisms. They like warmth, but some can survive at the tops of high
mountains such as the Alps where it is very cold. Others live in hot springs at
near-boiling temperatures. Many of them are saprotrophs, feeding on dead
animals and plants and making them decay. Others are parasites and cause
serious diseases.

How can we grow bacteria?

Scientists must be able to grow bacteria in the laboratory. This is necessary if
we are to investigate them, and find ways of fighting the diseases they cause.
To grow them, bacteria must be given moisture, warmth and plenty of
food. Many years ago it was discovered that they will grow on the surface of a
jelly-like material obtained from sea weed. This is called agar. Various food
substances are added to the agar: this makes it an ideal nutrient medium in
which to grow, or culture, bacteria (Investigation).
The agar is usually put in a shallow petri dish. This must be sterilised
Figure 1 Bacterial colonies growing on an agar
beforehand and kept covered, otherwise moulds may grow on the agar. To
plate.
speed up their growth the bacteria should be kept warm: this is best achieved
by putting the petri dish in an incubator, a warm box in which the
temperature can be kept constant.
Now suppose you put some bacteria on the surface of some nutrient agar.
In the course of the next day or two the bacteria multiply into colonies. Each
colony consists of thousands of bacteria clumped together. The individual
bacteria are too small to be seen with the naked eye, but the colonies are
clearly visible (Figure 1).
Bacterial colonies vary in size, shape and colour, according to the type of
bacteria present. How many types can you see in Figure 1?

What size are bacteria?

A typical bacterium is about a thousandth of a millimetre wide. This is far too
small to be seen with the naked eye.
Look at Figure 2. Both pictures show streptococcal bacteria, which can
cause sore throats. The top picture shows the bacteria as you would see them
under a good light microscope. They are enlarged about 500 times.
The bottom picture shows the same kind of bacteria as they appear in the
electron microscope. Here they are enlarged about 12 000 times. If a pinhead
was magnified to the same extent, it would easily cover a tennis court, with
plenty of room to spare.
Bacteria are small enough for gas exchange and excretion to be carried out
by diffusion.

The structure of bacteria

Bacteria vary in their shapes (Figure 3). In some cases they are linked together

sphere (Coccus) rod (Bacillus) bent rod (Vibrio) spiral (Spirillum)

O ( ) (
causes e.g. causes e.g. causes e.g. causes e.g.
sore throat typhoid cholera syphilis
Figure 2 A shows streptococcal bacteria as seen
with a light microscope. B shows the same kind of Figure 3 Different types of bacteria have different shapes. This is one way scientists can
bacteria as seen with an electron microscope. tell them apart.
 Bacteria 25

1/xm

cytoplasm
contains granules

Figure 4 The coccal bacteria often occur in pairs, chains or clumps. chromosome
no proper nucleus

in chains or small groups (Figure 4). Some have whip-like flagella which lash cell membrane
from side to side, propelling the body along.
Thanks to very careful work using the electron microscope, we now know
cell wall
that bacteria are single cells, but the cell is simpler than those of most other
organisms (Figure 5). The body is surrounded by a thin cell membrane.
Beyond this is a protective cell wall. In addition some bacteria are slimy capsule
not always present
surrounded by a slimy capsule. This gives them extra protection and
prevents them drying out. *

Figure 5 Diagram of a typical bacterial cell.

How do bacteria survive bad conditions?
Many bacteria are very good at surviving bad conditions such as poisons, dormant bacterial spore germinating spore
drought and heat. They do this by forming a thick protective coat round
themselves. They are then known as spores. Inside the spore the bacterial cell
becomes dormant and may remain so for a long time.
When conditions become satisfactory again, the spore burst open and the
bacterial cell is released (Figure 6). It then resumes its normal life. The spores
spore coat
of some bacteria can survive for more than 50 years.
In good conditions bacteria reproduce extremely quickly by splitting in two
Figure 6 On the left is a bacterial spore with a thick
again and again. Their spores and rapid reproduction can make the protective coat. On the right the coat has split open
disease-causing bacteria very difficult to get rid of. and the bacterial cell is coming out.

Investigation :Assignments-
Culturing bacteria 1 List two ways in which a bacterial cell
differs from a typical animal cell.

1 Obtain a petri dish containing sterile 2 How many bacteria could be fitted
nutrient agar. Keep the lid on side by side in a row the same
whenever possible. length as the second line of this
question? (Assume that the bacteria
2 Your teacher will give you a petri dish
are spherical with a diameter of one
containing a colony of bacteria.
6 Replace the lid on the petri dish and micrometre.)
3 Sterilise a wire loop by passing it fix it firmly with sellotape.
3 Give three ways by which a scientist
quickly through a small bunsen flame. can tell the difference between
7 Place the petri dish upside down in an
incubator at 37 °C. different kinds of bacteria.

8 After a day or two examine the dish. 4 Write down two ways in which
bacteria feed, and two ways by
Have the bacteria grown successfully? which they survive bad conditions.

5 In medical research it is important to

CARE Work with bacteria can be be able to grow particular kinds of
dangerous and should be carried bacteria on their own. Why do you
4 Scoop up a small piece of the colony
out under strict supervision by the think this is necessary? (Hint: use
on the end of the wire loop
teacher. the index!)
5 With the wire loop make a zig-zag Always wash your hands after
streak on the surface of the agar in the working with bacteria.
new petri dish.
 - V iruses -
How were viruses discovered?
It used to be
Towards the end of the nineteenth century a way was found of getting rid of
thought that bacteria were bacteria from a liquid. You filter the liquid by passing it through a very fine
the smallest organisms. We now sieve made of unglazed porcelain. The sieve holds back the bacteria, so the
know that there are even smaller ones. liquid is freed of them.
These are viruses. Viruses cause In 1900 a Dutch professor called Beijerinck did an experiment on some
many diseases such as tobacco plants. These plants had a disease in which the leaves became
spotted: it is called mosaic disease (Figure 1).
colds and influenza.
Beijerinck got some juice out of the leaves. He filtered the juice so as to
remove any bacteria present. He then rubbed the juice onto the leaves of a
healthy plant. Although the bacteria had been removed, the leaves soon went
spotty and developed the disease.
How can we explain this? One possible explanation is that the disease is
caused by organisms which are smaller than bacteria. Being smaller, they
pass through the sieve which holds back bacteria.
We now know that this is the correct explanation. But at the time no one
could actually see these organisms: the electron microscope had not yet been
invented, and there were no other microscopes powerful enough. In fact
Professor Beijerinck did not think the infection was caused by an organism at
all, but by an infectious fluid. He called this fluid virus, a Latin word which
means 'poison'. However, later experiments showed that the filtered fluid
definitely contained organisms of some kind.
In the early 1940s, the electron microscope started to be used. Juice
obtained from diseased tobacco plants was examined in this powerful
microscope. The fluid turned out to contain tiny objects like those in Figure 2.
For the first time viruses could actually be seen.

The structure of viruses

Viruses are so small that we have to express their size in a unit called the
nanometre (nm). A nanometre is one millionth of a millimetre. A typical virus
is about 100 nm wide. It is difficult to imagine anything so small, but you can
look at it this way: if you lined them up in a row across this page, there would
Figure 1 This tobacco plant is suffering from be over two million of them.
mosaic disease. Notice the spots on the lower Viruses have various shapes. Some are rod-shaped. Others look spherical,
leaves. Studies carried out on this disease led to
though on close examination they turn out to be many sided (Figure 3). Most
the discovery of viruses.
viruses have a simple shape. However, the last one in Figure 3 has quite a
complex body.

this type of virus

. -.P causes tobacco
this type of virus mosaic disease
causes sore throats

this picture shows

the inside of a virus

wall (protein)
strand of
nucleic acid
coiled up

Figure 2 These viruses, seen here in the electron

microscope, cause mosaic disease in tobacco
plants. In this picture they are magnified 85 000 Figure 3 These diagrams show the structure of viruses. They are not drawn to the same
times. scale.
 Viruses Y1

Viruses are simpler than any other organisms, including bacteria. There is
no nucleus or cytoplasm, so we cannot call them cells. There is a wall which
is made of protein; inside is a coiled up strand of nucleic acid.

How do viruses reproduce?

The way viruses reproduce is remarkable, and it explains why they are so
harmful. They can only reproduce inside the cells of a living organism.
One way in which they reproduce is shown in Figure 4. First the virus
attaches itself to the surface of the cell. Then it injects its strand of nucleic acid
into the inside, rather like a doctor injects a person with a hypodermic
needle. The nucleic acid then multiplies into lots of separate strands. Round
each strand a new virus is formed. The materials for making the new viruses
come from inside the cell. So the virus is a thief, robbing the cell of its
contents. Eventually, the cell burst open, and the new viruses are set free.
The whole process takes about half an hour. Thousands of new viruses
may be released from a single cell, and then they attack more cells. No
wonder we feel ill when we have got flu!
Different viruses attack different cells. For example, the common cold virus
attacks cells in the nose and throat. The much more serious poliomyelitis
virus attacks nerve cells in the spinal cord, which is why the disease often
leaves people paralysed.

Growing viruses
Scientists need to be able to grow (or culture) viruses in the laboratory. This is Figure 5 Infuenza viruses being injected into a
necessary for understanding them, and for developing ways of protecting chicken embryo for growing in the laboratory.
people against them (see page 115). Viruses can only be grown inside living cells.
Unfortunately, you cannot grow viruses on agar jelly as you can bacteria.
This is because they need living cells in order to multiply. So you have to
grow them on living tissue. Fertile hens' eggs are‘sometimes used for this -Assignments-
purpose. The virus which you want to cultivate is injected into the eggs,
1 Name four diseases of humans, and
where it proceeds to multiply (Figure 5).
one disease of plants, which are
Nowadays it is possible to take a few cells out of an animal or a plant, and
caused by viruses.
grow them on their own in the laboratory. This procedure is called tissue
culture. It provides a convenient source of cells for growing viruses. 2 What fraction of a millimetre is (a) a
micrometre, and (b) a nanometre?

Why is it better to express the size of

viruses in nanometres rather than
micrometres?
cell
virus 4
1 new viruses 3 What part did (a) tobacco plants and
the virus are formed round
approaches a cell each strand (b) unglazed porcelain play in the way
of nucleic acid viruses were discovered?

4 Why do you think viruses are always

2 harmful?
the virus
sticks to the cell
and injects its strand 5 5 The virus shown at the top of Figure 3
of nucleic acid the cell (the one which causes colds) is
into it bursts open and
approximately 70 nanometres wide.
the new viruses
are set free How many could be fitted side by side
in a row the same length as the fifth line
3
the strand of this assignment?
of nucleic acid
multiplies inside the cell 6 Your friend says that viruses are not
really living organisms. What do you
think?

Figure 4 Viruses can only reproduce inside a living cell. Here a virus attacks and
destroys a cell.
 Pin mould
Look at Figure 1. This is what a piece of damp bread looks like after it has
Pin mould is been left lying around for a few days. It looks as if it's covered with cotton
one of many moulds wool: this is pin mould. To understand how the bread got like this we must
which grow on food. study the life cycle of the mould.
Fungi produce spores. These are small and light, like specks of dust, and
It is a fungus.
they float through the air. For a spore of pin mould to develop, it must land
on a damp surface (Investigation 1).
After the spore has landed, it bursts open and a thread grows out (Figure
2). The thread grows over the surface of the bread, branching this way and
that. Eventually the bread becomes covered by a tangled mass of fine silvery
threads. These threads are called hyphae, and the whole mass of threads is
called a mycelium. You can see the way the threads branch by looking at
them under the microscope (Investigation 2).
After a time short branches grow upwards. The tip of each branch swells
up into a little knob. These knobs are spore cases. They are known as
sporangia (singular: sporangium). Inside each one hundreds of spores are
formed. Eventually the spore case opens, and the spores are released. They
are then carried away by wind or in some cases by people's fingers or small
animals such as insects. If one of the spores lands on a suitable surface, a new
mould develops and the cycle is repeated.
Figure 1 Pin mould growing on a piece of stale
bread. Scientists have looked at the inside of the threads under the microscope.
They contain cytoplasm and many nuclei, but they are not dividecl up into
separate cells. There is a vacuole in the centre.
The mould feeds on the bread, soaking up its goodness. The threads
produce digestive enzymes which break down the solid starch into liquid
sugar. This is then absorbed by the threads. Pin mould can live on many
other things besides bread: jam is a great favourite, and evep old football
boots will do. The threads always stay near the surface. This is because they
need oxygen for respiration. Oxygen diffuses into them, and carbon dioxide
diffuses out. You may have noticed that when jam goes mouldy the mould is
only at the surface; this is because of its need for oxygen.
Pin mould and many other fungi are saprotrophs and help to make things
decay. In a later Topic we shall see that some fungi are parasites, particularly
of plants.
Figure 2 The structure of pin mould. The threads
We have seen that pin mould can reproduce by means of spores. This is its
have grown from the spore on the left, and new
spores are being released from the spore case on asexual method. It can also reproduce sexually by a process called
the right. conjugation: the tips of two threads come together and their contents fuse.

Investigation 1- -Investigation 2- -Assignments-

To find out if pin mould needs Looking at pin mould 1 Pin mould is a saprotroph. What
moisture to grow does this mean?
1 Examine pin mould at various
1 Obtain two slices of dry bread. stages in its growth. 2 If a piece of bread is kept
completely dry it will not go mouldy.
2 Put one slice in a dish. Sprinkle a Can you see the structures shown in
Why?
little water on it. Put a lid on. Figure 2?
3 Fungi usually produce very large
3 Put the other slice in another dish. 2 With forceps pick up a few threads
numbers of spores. Why is this
Leave it dry. Cover as before. of pin mould.
necessary?
4 Place the two dishes side by side in 3 Put them on a slide with a drop of
a warm cupboard. 4 In some classifications fungi are
water. Put on a coverslip.
regarded as plants. Write a short
5 Look at the dishes a week later. 4 Look at the threads under the essay arguing for or against
microscope: low power first, then regarding pin mould as a plant.
Compare the two pieces of bread.
high power.
5 Draw a diagram of a short length of
Which piece has the most mould on it?
5 Make a drawing of a few threads to a hypha of pin mould on a very large
Is moisture needed for the mould? show how they branch. scale.
 Spirogyra 29

Spirogyra is a green alga. It is one of the simplest plants to be made up of

In a pond, you many cells (Investigation).
may see slender green threads The threads are long unbranched filaments, cylindrical in shape. They are
floating about. These are likely to be coated with a thin layer of slime which prevents them getting tangled. Each
Spirogyra or one of its filament is made up of a chain of cells. The cells are all identical, so this is an
example of an organism in which there is no division of labour between cells.
close relatives.
Figure 1 shows some filaments under the microscope.
The structure of one of the cells is shown in Figure 2. It is bounded by a
cellulose cell wall. There is a large vacuole, and the nucleus is suspended in
the centre by slender strands of cytoplasm. Spirogyra feeds entirely by
photosynthesis, for which purpose it has a chloroplast. This is shaped like a
ribbon, and runs in a spiral round the inside of the cell. Starch grains,
produced by photosynthesis, are stored in the chloroplast in special bodies
called pyrenoids. Gas exchange takes place by diffusion.
The filaments of Spirogyra often get broken up into fragments. In good
conditions these can grow into new filaments: the cells divide across the
middle. In this way the filaments gradually increase in length. This process is
called fragmentation and it is a form of asexual reproduction.
Spirogyra also reproduces sexually by a process of conjugation between
filaments that are lying alongside each other.

Figure 1 Spirogyra seen under the light Figure 2 Diagram showing the structure of a cell of Spirogyra.
microscope, magnified about 250 times,

-Investigation- - rAssignments
Looking at Spirogyra 5 Look at one cell in detail. 1 What do each of the following pairs
have in common:
1 Obtain a jar of water containing Which of the structures shown in
Spirogyra. Figure 2 can you see? a) chloroplasts and pyrenoids,
b) cell wall and cellulose,
What does Spirogyra look like? How many chloroplasts are there in c) gas exchange and diffusion,
each cell? d) fragmentation and reproduction?
2 With forceps lift a little Spirogyra out of
the jar, and put it on a slide with a little With a pipette put a drop of iodine to 2 Describe how you would measure
water. one side of the coverslip. It will the width of a Spirogyra filament.
immediately flow under it.
3 Cover it with a coverslip, then look at it 3 Make a plasticine model of a cell of
under the microscope: low power first, 7 Draw the iodine across by pulling Spirogyra showing the structures in
then high power. water from the other side of the Figure 2.
coverslip with a piece of filter paper.
4 Notice that Spirogyra consists of 4 In what ways is a cell of Spirogyra
slender filaments which are made 8 As the iodine moves across, it will a) similar to, and
up of cells. stain any starch blue-black. b) different from, the Euglena in
Figure 2, page 22.
Are all the cells identical? Where is starch located in Spirogyra?'

How do you think the starch gets there?

 X IV
Hydra lives in ponds and ditches (Figure 1). It gets its name from a legendary
Hydra is one of the simplest monster which had many heads: every time its heads were cut off, new ones
animals that is made of many cells. grew in their place. Hydra is similar: if you cut it into pieces, each piece can
In many respects its body works grow into a new hydra.
You can discover a lot about these animals by looking at them under a hand
like ours but more simply.
lens or low-powered microscope (Investigation).
The structure of Hydra is shown in Figure 1. Its body consists of a
cylindrical column. At the top of the column is the mouth, surrounded by
about six tentacles. At the bottom is the foot. The foot is sticky and is used for
attaching the hydra to stones or weeds.
The tentacles are armed with special sting cells. The tentacles wave around
and are used for catching water fleas and other small animals which are
unfortunate enough to swim into them. The sting cells contain a poison
which paralyses the prey. Hydra's sting cells could never hurt a human.
However, one of its relatives, the Arctic jellyfish, has tentacles ten metres
long with sting cells that can kill a human.
The mouth opens into a large digestive cavity. Here food is broken down.
The mouth is the only opening into this cavity.
The body is made of two layers of cells: the ectoderm towards the outside,
Figure 1 Hydra, one of the simplest many-celled
animals. This one has five tentacles. and the endoderm towards the inside. In between is a thin layer of jelly-like
material called the mesogloea. The endoderm lines the digestive cavity. As
the body wall is quite thin, gas exchange and excretion can take place by
diffusion.
The body wall is composed of seven different types of cells (Figure 2). Each
cell has a particular job to do. As well as the sting cells already mentioned,
there are sensory cells which react to touch, nerve cells which transmit
messages from one part of the body to another, and gland cells which shed
enzymes into the digestive cavity. The surface of the body is lined with
epithelial cells which fit together to form a protective skin. The inner ends of
these cells are drawn out into slender muscle tails which enable the hydra to
move. Finally packing cells fill the spaces between the other cells; they can
develop into the other kinds of cells if the hydra is damaged. It's largely
because of these remarkable cells that small pieces of a hydra can grow into
new individuals.
In a simple organism like Amoeba, all jobs have to be carried out by one
cell. But in Hydra different jobs are carried out by different types of cells. Each
type of cell is specialised to perform a particular task. In other words. Hydra
shows division of labour between its cells.
Hydra reproduces asexually by budding off new hydras from the side of its
body. It can also reproduce sexually by producing eggs and sperms. The
Figure 2 The body wall of Hydra, showing the hydra in Figure 1 is just beginning to form a bud from its side.
different kinds of cells.

-Investigation- -Assignments-
Looking at Hydra How do you think the response is 1 What job do Hydra’s epithelial cells
produced? do besides forming its ’skin’.
1 Obtain a watch glass containing a
hydra. Wait for the hydra to open out. 4 Put the watch glass on the stage of 2 Although most of Hydra's sensory
a microscope, supporting it under¬ cells are in its outer layer of cells,
2 Look at the hydra through a hand lens.
neath with a glass slide there are a few in the inner layer as
Can you see the parts of the body well. What do you think their job is
5 Look at it under low power. (Don’t try
shown in Figure 1? there?
using high power.)
Does the hydra change its shape? 3 Hydra’s packing cells are sometimes
Can you see the difference between
called ’reserve cells’. Why do you
3 Gently poke one of the tentacles with a the two layers of cells which make up
think they are given this name?
needle. the body wall?

How does the hydra respond? Can you see any sting cells in the
outer layer?
 The earthworm The earthworm 31

A full-grown earthworm is about 15 cm long. Its external structure suits it

You may come well to burrowing through the soil (Investigation). The body is elongated and
across earthworms if you has a streamlined shape. The skin is soft and covered in mucus (slime). There
are digging the garden. They are no sense organs or other structures sticking out which might get in the
live in burrows way as it pushes through the soil.
The outside of the body is marked by a series of rings (Figure 1). These
in the soil.
divide the body up into segments. Sticking out of each segment are four pairs
of stiff bristles called chaetae. The worm can push these out, or pull them in.
They enable the worm to grip the sides of its burrow as it moves along.
There is a mouth at the front end, and an anus at the back end. The head is
barely distinguishable from the rest of the body, except that it is rather darker
in colour. About a third of the way back there is a region where the skin is
thicker than in other places. This is called the saddle or clitellum. It plays an
important part in reproduction.
Figure 2 shows the internal structure of the earthworm, in simplified form.
Much of the inside is taken up by a large body cavity. This contains a watery
fluid. The body cavity is divided up into segments by a series of partitions,
called septa (singular: septum). They correspond to the rings on the outside
of the worm.
The body cavity is surrounded by the body wall. This is made of muscle:
when the muscles contract the worm changes its shape. Movement takes
place by means of 'bulges' which pass down the body from one end to the
Figure 1 The earthworm, a burrower. other.
Running down the centre of>the body cavity is the gut. Worms eat soil, and
the gut has a special region called the gizzard which grinds it up.
body cavity Beneath the gut is the nerve cord: this is continuous with a very small brain
filled with fluid
at the extreme front end. From the nerve cord, slender nerves pass out to the
body wall muscles in each segment.
Gas exchange takes place all over the moist body surface. Flowever, the
animal is too bulky for oxygen to diffuse to the innermost tissues quickly
enough and so the earthworm has a blood system which contains red blood
similar to man's. The main blood vessel lies above the gut: because of its
position on the top side of the body, it is called the dorsal blood vessel.
Nearly all the segments contain a pair of excretory organs. Each one is a
little tube which runs from the body cavity to the outside. It gets rid of
poisonous nitrogenous waste. The earthworm is too large for excretory waste
nerve bristles
cord (chaetae) septum excretory simply to diffuse across the surface as it does in smaller organisms.
organ In parts of Asia, Australia and South America there are huge 'giant
earthworms'. Some of them may be three or four metres long. They too live in
Figure 2 This diagram shows the main structures the soil, and people say that you can hear rumbling and gurgling sounds as
and organs inside the earthworm. they move through their burrows underground.

-Investigation- -Assignments
Looking at the earthworm 3 Put a coin in its way. 1 What does the earthworm use the
You will be given a live earthworm in a What does the worm do when its head following structures for:
dish. touches the coin?
chaetae, mucus
4 Tap the worm’s head with a blunt clitellum, body wall,
1 Observe the structure of the worm.
instrument such as a pencil. circular muscle?
Can you see the structures shown in
What does the worm do? 2 List five ways in which the earthworm
Figure 1?
is adapted for burrowing.
5 With a pipette place a drop of vinegar
2 Put the worm on a piece of paper.
(acetic acid) on the worm’s head. 3 The earthworm is much larger than
Let it crawl forward. an animal like Hydra. What effect
What does the worm do this time?
does this have on:
Can you hear a scratching noise?
What part do these responses play in the a) the way its organs get oxygen,
What is it caused by? normal life of the worm? b) the way it gets rid of waste
substances?
 - Insects -
The structure of an insect
Nearly a million
You can study a typical insect by examining a locust, grasshopper or
different species of insects
cockroach (Investigations 1 and 2).
have been discovered. They are one The body consists of three main regions: the head, thorax and abdomen
of the most successful (Figure 2). Each is divided into segments, which are clearly visible in the
groups of animals. abdomen. The whole body is covered with a tough cuticle.
All insects have three pairs of legs, one pair on each segment of the thorax.
Each leg has a series of joints where they bend. The foot or tarsus has claws
and sticky pads which enable insects like flies to walk on a smooth wall, or
upside down on a ceiling (Figure 3).
Most insects have two pairs of wings which are attached to the second and
third segments of the thorax. These wings are supported by a network of
tough veins, rather like a leaf.
On each side of the thorax and abdomen there is a row of tiny holes called
spiracles. These let air into a system of branching tubes through which
oxygen passes to all parts of the body. The head has various sense organs. A
pair of jointed feelers, called antennae, stick out in front. The insect sees with
a pair of large compound eyes. There are also several smaller simple eyes
which register changes in light intensity.
Round the mouth there are feeding structures called mouth parts. The
mouth parts of different insects are adapted for feeding on different kinds of
food. At the rear end of the abdomen is the anus through which undigested
food and excretory substances are passed.
Close to the anus is the reproductive opening. In the male there is a device
by which sperms are put into the female. In the female the reproductive
opening is flanked by various plates and valves which form an egg tube
Figure 1 This dragonfly illustrates the basic design (ovipositor). The eggs pass down this tube when they are laid.
of insects.
Insects are generally rather small. Why is this? One reason is their cuticle. If
insects got larger, the cuticle would be so heavy that they would have
difficulty holding themselves up and moving around.
Another thing that limits the size of insects is their method of breathing.
This depends mainly on diffusion which is a slow way of getting oxygen to
the tissues, and is effective only over short distances.

The cuticle
The insect's cuticle is made of a tough material called chitin. It consists of two
layers (Figure 4). The outer layer is hard and rigid; the inner layer is soft and
flexible. On the surface is a thin layer of wax which makes the cuticle
waterproof and enables insects to live in dry places.
In certain parts of the body the hard outer layer of the cuticle is absent,
leaving only the flexible inner layer. At these points the cuticle can bend.
These joints enable the insect to move: they work like the joints in a suit of
structure of a typical insect. armour. Muscles are attached to the inside of the cuticle, they bring about
movement.

where the hard layer

soft is absent the cuticle
inner layer can bend

thin layer
of wax hard
outer layer

Figure 3 The leg of an insect. This diagram is

based on the hind leg of a locust. Figure 4 The insect’s cuticle provides protection but is able to bend.
 Insects 33

nerve to brain

side of head_

surface of eye_

ommatidia

Figure 5 This picture, taken with a scanning electron microscope, shows the compound Figure 6 The insect’s compound eye is made up of
eyes and feelers on the head of a fly. numerous ommatidia.

The compound eye

The compound eye is composed of numerous little eyes called ommatidia
(Figures 5 and 6). Each ommatidium forms an image of the world
immediately in front of it. The whole eye forms an image which looks rather
like a picture made out of lots of dots. The insect's view of the world is
probably blurred and indistinct. However, it has a very large field of vision,
because the eyes cover a large area of the head. This makes them very good at
detecting movement.

-Investigation 1- -Investigation 2- -Assignments-

Looking at insects Looking at live insects 1 Give the common name, and briefly
explain the function, of each of the
1 Obtain a dead locust or 1 Look at live adult locusts or
fcilowing:
cockroach. cockroaches in a container with
a; ovipositor, c) tarsus
their usual food.
2 Look at its external structure. b) antenna, d) spiracle.
2 Watch them moving: observe the
Can you see all the structures 2 Write down five ways in which an
action of the legs.
shown in Figure 2? insect's body differs from yours.
3 Can your insect climb and hold onto
3 Examine the hind leg In detail, 3 An insect’s cuticle is described as
things?
an exoskeleton. Why?
Do your observations agree with the
How does it do it?
diagram in Figure 3? 4 How does a fly manage to walk
4 Watch your insect feeding. upside down on a ceiling?
4 Draw a side view of your insect.
What are its mouth parts doing? 5 Suggest two reasons why it is an
Label its parts as fully as you can, advantage to an insect to be small.
using Figures 2 and 3 to help you. Do the legs play any part in
feeding? 6 Three hundred million years ago
5 Obtain the following insects: beetle, there were some very large insects.
housefly, wasp, ant. 5 Look at the insect’s abdomen.
For example a certain dragonfly had
6 Examine them carefully. Can you see any pulsating a wing span of nearly a metre. Why
movements of the abdomen? do you think these large insects
7 In each case write down the main
died out?
ways the insect differs from the What might be the function of these
locust or cockroach. movements? 7 Why is it an advantage to an insect
to have eyes covering such a large
Make brief notes, with sketches, on
area of its head?
your observations.
 - Fish -

Many organisms live

in water, but the greatest
experts at this are fish. In order to
survive under water, they have
many special features.

Bony fish
As the name implies, these fish have a skeleton made of bone. They include
the herring of temperate seas and Tilapia of the tropics (Investigation).
Figure 2 The dace is a typical bony fish. Notice its
Figures 1 and 2 will help you to identify the parts of the body.
fins and scaly skin. The skin is covered with scales which overlap each other like the tiles on
the roof of a house. They protect the fish, and prevent water passing through
the skin. The body is streamlined, enabling the fish to move quickly and
smoothly through the water.
You can see the
gills by removing On either side of the head there is a flap of skin, which is stiffened by
the operculum. bones. This is called the operculum. Underneath the operculum there are
four feathery gills side by side - they are used for breathing (Figure 3).
At the posterior end of the body there is a tail. Underneath the skin there
cut edge of are muscles, which are arranged in a series of W-shaped blocks. These
operculum
muscles play an important part in swimming, and they are the part of the fish
gill rakers that people eat (Figure 4).
At various points there are fins. Each fin consists of a thin flap of skin
supported by slender spines. Some of the fins are arranged in pairs and stick
out from the sides of the body. We refer to them as paired fins: they include
the pectoral fins just behind the head, and the pelvic fins a little further back.
The fins help with movement and keep the body stable.
The other fins are single and are attached to the mid-line of the fish. We call
them the median fins. The median fins include the dorsal, ventral and tail
fins. Some fish have more than one dorsal fin, and there is a good deal of
Figure 3 The gills of a bony fish. The operculum
has been removed. variation in their exact positions.
Fish have good sense organs. The nostrils are used for smelling, but they
play no part in breathing. The eyes can see very well under water. Running
along each side of the body is a lateral line just beneath the surface of the
You can see
the muscles skin; it contains sense organs which detect movements of the water.
by removing Inside the mouth are rows of identical teeth. They are constantly falling out
the skin.
throughout life and are replaced by new ones which grow in their place. The
anus is on the ventral side of the body, about two thirds of the way back.
Most bony fish feed on small organisms such as worms, crabs and
plankton. As the food passes through the pharnyx, it is prevented from
getting between the gills by the gill rakers: these are slender bars which stick
out from the bases of the gills. You can see them in Figure 3.
flap of skin turned back Most bony fish possess a swim bladder. This is a bag of air, rather like a
balloon, which is found towards the upper side of the body cavity. It helps to
keep the fish floating in the water.
Figure 4 The muscles in the tail region of a bony Bony fish usually reproduce by the males and females letting out their
fish. sperms and eggs into the surrounding water where fertilisation takes place.
 Fish 35

rInvestigation-
Investigating the structure of a bony
fish

1 Obtain a preserved fish such as a

herring.

2 Examine its external structure and list

the main features.

3 Force open the mouth and look inside.

Flow do the teeth differ from yours?

What are the teeth used for?

4 Pull the operculum towards you. Can

Figure 5 Cartilaginous fish lack an operculum. In this photograph of a grey shark, notice
you see the gills underneath?
the five separate gill slits.
What are they for?
Cartilaginous fish ,
5 Strip off a piece of skin from the side of
These fish have a skeleton made of cartilage (gristle). They include dogfish, the tail.
sharks and rays.
Can you see the muscles underneath?
One of the main differences between bony and cartilaginous fish concerns
their gills. In bony fish the gills are covered by the operculum shown in What are they for?
Figure 1. However, in cartilaginous fish there is no operculum; instead a
6 Draw and label the fish from one side.
series of gill slits, five in all, open separately on either side of the head
(Figure 5). 7 List all the ways in which the fish is
Another difference is that in cartilaginous fish the male has a pair of suited for living in the water.
claspers for putting his sperms into the female's reproductive opening. The
eggs are fertilised inside the female and each one is enclosed inside a horny
case before it is laid.
Sharks and rays do not have a swim bladder, so their only way of staying
up in the water is by swimming. If they stop swimming they sink.
pAssignments-
The shapes and sizes offish 1 Each of the words in the left-hand
column is related to one of the
There is a lot of variation in the shape of fish. Some are long and thin, like the words in the right-hand column.
eel. Others are flat, like the plaice: it is flattened from side to side and lies on
the sand at the bottom of the sea. Some have strange shapes, such as the Write them down in the correct
sea-horse; and the mud-skipper has pectoral fins like little legs: it lives in pairs.
mangrove swamps (Figure 6). nostrils locomotion
Fish also vary greatly in size. The largest fish in the world is the whale gills breathing
shark, which can be twice as long as a bus. However, it feeds on plankton scales smelling
and is quite harmless. The largest flesh-eating fish is the great white shark tail fin floating
which lives in some of the warmer seas of the world. It can be over eleven swim bladder skin
metres long and is a menace to swimmers. At the other end of the scale,
certain tropical fish are a mere centimetre or two in length. 2 In plaice the eyes are on the same
side of the head.

Why do you think this is?

3 Certain fish live in extremely deep

water.
a) What difficulties do such fish
have to face?
b) What special features do you
think they have?

4 List all the ways in which the two fish

in Figure 6 differ from the fish in
Figure 1.
Figure 6 Two unusual fish. (Left) the mud-skipper; its leg-like pectoral fins enable it to
walk over the mud. (Right) the sea-horse; it swims by waving its dorsal fin, and it clings to
weeds with its tail.
 -x
You can learn a lot about these fascinating animals by looking at their external
Frogs and toads structure (Investigation).
are amphibians. The skin is moist. This is because it contains glands which produce slime
(mucus) all over the surface. The lungs aren't very efficient, so gas exchange
They live in two different
takes place across the skin as well. For this to be possible the skin must be
environments: in water
moist. The skin has patches of colour which camouflage the animal.
and on land. The front legs are short and stumpy. The hind legs are much longer and
there is skin between the toes; in other words the feet are webbed (Figure 2),
which makes them good for swimming.
Just above the mouth there is a pair of nostrils: these open into the mouth
cavity and air is drawn in through them when the animal breathes. The eyes
are high up on the head and bulge out: they give the animal good all-round
vision, enabling it to detect movement quickly and escape from danger. The
ear drum is on the surface of the head and there is no flap of skin behind the
ear as there is in us.
Between the back legs there is an opening which leads into a small chamber
inside the body. This chamber is called the cloaca. Urine, faeces and sex cells
(eggs and sperm) all pass out of the body via this chamber. Amphibians mate
in water and the eggs are fertilised by the male's sperms as they leave the
body. The fertilised egg develops into a tadpole (larva) which changes into
Figure 1 The common trog. the adult (metamorphosis).
If you look inside the mouth of a frog or toad you will see its tongue. This
differs from the human tongue in that it is attached at the front of the mouth
and points backwards. The tongue is used for feeding on insects. When an
insect flies past, the frog or toad flicks out its tongue and catches it (Figure 3).
The insect is carried to the back of the throat, then quickly swallowed.
Having to have a moist skin means that amphibians always run the risk of
drying out. For this reason they must live in damp places.
Amphibians are cold-blooded, that is, their body temperature is the same
as that of their surroundings. In cold weather they hibernate.

Figure 2 This diagram shows the external structure

of the common frog.

Figure 3 How a frog uses its tongue to catch a fly.

-Investigation- -Assignments -
Looking at a frog or toad 4 Watch a live frog or toad breathing 1 Amphibians tend to be restricted to
and moving. wet parts of the world. Why?
1 Obtain a preserved frog or toad.
How does it carry out these two 2 It has been suggested that
2 Look at its external structure.
functions? amphibians are so good at
Can you see the structures shown in breathing through their skin that
Figure 2? What does each structure they do not need to use their lungs.
do?
Can you think of some evidence that
Why are its back legs so much would support this statement?
longer than its front legs?
Note 3 In a dry atmosphere frogs and toads
3 Open the mouth and look inside. A typical frog has a smoother skin, a lose water very quickly.
smaller and lighter body, longer
How does the tongue differ from yours? a) Why is this so?
What part does the tongue play in hind legs and more fully webbed
feeding? Can you see, or feel, the feet than a typical toad. b) Suggest an experiment which you
teeth. What part do they play in could carry out to find out exactly
Explain why frogs are better at jumping
feeding? how quickly a frog or toad loses
and swimming than toads are.
water.
 - L iza rds -
Lizards 37

Although turtles and

crocodiles live in water, most
reptiles live entirely on land. We can
see how they are able to do this
by studying lizards.

Figure 1 A lizard. Notice the scaly skin.

As with amphibians, you can discover much about the lizard's life style by
examining its external structure (Investigation).
The skin is covered with scales rather like the tiles on the roof of a house,
and it is completely dry: there are no mucous glands opening onto the
surface. The scales are made of a tough protein called keratin and they help
to protect the body. The lizard's lungs are more efficient than the amphibian's
and it does not have to breathe across the skin. Like amphibians, reptiles are
well camouflaged, and some can actually change colour. For example the
chameleon can be yellow, green or brown, depending on its background.
Other features such as the eyes, nostrils and eardrums are similar to those
of amphibians. Although chameleons catch insects with their tongue, most
lizards grasp their prey with their jaws and then swallow it whole. Some
lizards can move their eyes independently, giving them a better view of their
surroundings. Some of them can climb up walls (Figure 2).
Lizards have a cloaca like the amphibian's. When they reproduce the male
puts his sperms into the female's cloaca and fertilisation takes place inside her
body. The fertilised eggs are coated with a shell before they are laid. The shell
is soft, rather like paper, and there is yolk inside to feed the embryo as it
develops. Eventually the shell breaks open and the young lizard clambers
out. Amphibians ignore their eggs, but lizards incubate their eggs and some
look after the young when they hatch out.
As well as protecting the embryo, the shell helps to prevent the eggs from
drying out, and it means that the eggs can be laid on land.
Like fishes and amphibians, reptiles are cold-blooded. However, they can
Figure 2 Hind foot of a gecko. The parallel grooves regulate their body temperature by their behaviour: they bask in the sun to
and ridges help it to climb up walls. raise their temperature and hide under stones when it gets too hot.

-Investigation-- -Assignments-
Looking at lizards
1 Give two good reasons why it is
1 Look at the external structure of a How do they move and breathe? useful for a lizard to have a good
lizard view of its surroundings. How do
If possible watch one feeding.
reptiles in general achieve this?
Make a list of ways it is (a) similar to, Describe its behaviour.
and (b) different from an amphibian 2 Reptiles tend to live mainly in warm
3 Observe their behaviour at different
such as a frog or toad. How do the parts of the world. Why is this?
times of the day.
differences relate to the places 3 Suggest five ways in which lizards
where they live? At what times are they most active
are better suited than frogs and
and least active? toads for living on dry land.
2 Watch live lizards out of doors or in
a vivarium. Explain your observations.
 - Birds -
The structure of birds
Apart from insects
The external structure of a typical bird is shown in Figure 2. Most of the
and bats, birds are the only body is covered with feathers. They are made of the protein keratin, the same
animals to have developed the power material that hair and reptiles' scales are made of. The legs are covered with
of active flight. It has made scales.
them one of the most successful The front limbs take the form of a pair of wings, which most birds use for
flying. The legs are quite different from the wings. The feet have four toes,
groups of animals.
each ending in a claw. Generally, three of the toes point forward and one
backwards. This enables the foot to grasp objects such as tree branches when
the bird is at rest.
All birds have a beak. Like the feathers, this is made of keratin. Towards
the base of the beak there is a pair of nostrils through which the bird
breathes. The nostrils open into a cavity rather like the inside of our nose.
This is used for smelling. However, birds' sense of smell is rather poor. Their
eyesight is much more acute. There is an ear drum as in amphibians and
reptiles.
The eyes have the usual upper and lower lids, plus a third eyelid. This
works like a transparent shutter: it slides over the eye from side to side and
protects it from dust without stopping it from seeing.
Some birds have special features which are related to the way they live.
Take the feet, for example. Most birds use their feet for standing, hopping
and holding onto branches of trees. However, in some cases they are adapted
to do other jobs (Figure 3). Birds have no teeth; they peck at their food, and
swallow the pieces whole. The beaks of different birds are adapted for
Figure 1 A gannet in flight. feeding on different kinds of food. In each case, the shape of the beak fits in
with the kind of food which the bird eats. This is particularly well shown by
the vulture, which uses its curved beak for tearing at flesh (Figure 4). Three
other examples are shown in Figure 5.
Because the food is unchewed, birds have a special stomach for breaking it
up, called the gizzard. Seed-eating birds such as pigeons keep small stones in
their gizzard: these rub against the seeds and help to grind them up.
Birds reproduce by the male putting his sperms into the cloaca of the
female. The egg shell is much harder and tougher than that of reptiles and the
adults take even more care of their young.
In keeping with their active life style, birds have very efficient lungs.
Leading off the lungs are a number of air sacs which make the body lighter
and help to cool it during active flight.

Feathers
Young birds are covered with small fluffy feathers. We call these down
feathers. As the bird grows, its down feathers fall out and their place is taken
by longer and straighter flight feathers. An adult bird may keep some of its
down feathers, particularly round the tops of the legs.
If you look at a flight feather you will see that there is more to it than
appears at first sight (Investigation). Running down the centre is the quill.
The base of the quill is rooted in the skin: muscles are attached to it so the
Figure 2 The external structure of a typical bird. feather can be moved. The flat part of the feather is called the vane. This is
composed of numerous hair-like structures called barbs. The barbs have
further branches which interlock with one another as shown in Figure 6.
If you put your finger between the barbs, you will find that it is easy to
Figure 3 In some birds, the feet are adapted for jobs
other than clinging to branches and hopping on the break the connections between them. They can be connected up again by
ground. gently stroking the feather with your finger. If the connections are broken in

J
The pigeon uses its feet for hopping and Ducks use their webbed feet for paddling Eagles use their feet for grasping hold of
clinging onto branches. themselves along on the water. prey.
 Birds 39

Figure 4 These vultures are feeding on a zebra, tearing at its flesh with their strong,
curved beaks.

real life, the bird puts them together again by rubbing its feathers with its
Figure 5 The beaks of different birds are adapted
beak. This is called preening. The bird also uses its beak to spread oil over the
for feeding on different kinds of food. Here are
feathers and to remove any parasites which might be crawling amongst them. some examples.
The oil is produced by a gland on the bird's back, close to the tail: the bird
rubs its beak in this oil before it preens itself.

What jobs do feathers do?

The feathers make up the bird's plumage. In many ways they are like a barb

person's clothes. They do four main jobs:

1 They are needed for flight.

Some of the largest feathers are attached to the wing. They give the wing a branch of
large surface area which helps keep the bird up in the air. barb with
hooks
2 They keep the bird warm.
They do this by trapping a layer of air against the skin. Air is a poor conductor
of heat, so this layer of air holds heat inside the body. Birds are therefore
warm-blooded and can control their body temperature.

3 They keep water out

vane made up
This is because they are oily. Water tends to run straight off an oily surface of barbs
without wetting it. This is particularly useful to water birds such as ducks.

4 They enable birds to recognise each other.

This is due to their characteristic colours. Birds are good at seeing colours,
particularly red. Plumage is especially important in enabling the males and Figure 6 A feather is more complicated than it
females to recognise one another. appears at first sight.

-Investigation- -Assignments-
Looking at feathers 1 Make a list of five ways a bird’s body
5 With a pipette add a drop of clove is adapted for flight.
1 Take a flight feather and put your
oil or olive oil and cover with a
finger between the barbs. 2 Name one feature of birds which is
coverslip.
important in each of the following:
Do the barbs separate from each
6 Look at it under the microscope. a) keeping warm,
other easily?
b) making the body lighter,
What can you see?
2 Put the feather between your thumb c) digesting food,
and forefinger and stroke it gently. How do your observations help to d) attracting the opposite sex,
explain what happened when you e) producing lots of energy.
Do the barbs join up again?
separated and rejoined the barbs?
3 Look at Figure 5. Choose two kinds
3 With scissors, cut a small piece of 7 Pipette a few drops of water onto the of food not mentioned in this
the vane from the flight feather. The flight feathers. illustration, give the name of a bird
piece should be about 5 mm which feeds on each one, and draw
Does the water run off the feather or
square. its beak.
pass through it?

4 Put the piece on a slide. Why is this important to the bird? Explain how each beak works.
 — Mammals —

The main features of mammals

Mammals can be found
Let's take the cat as a typical mammal (Figure 1). Other mammals will be
leading active lives almost mentioned as we go along.
everywhere, from tropical forests The slim, agile body is covered with hair, which is made of the protein
to frozen wastelands in the Arctic. keratin. The hair keeps the body warm, so mammals, like birds, are
This is the group of animals to warm-blooded and are able to keep their body temperature constant.
Like most mammals, the cat walks on four legs, so it is known as a
which humans belong.
quadruped. The feet have five digits (toes). Each digit has a claw at the end
and a pad underneath. We have nails instead of claws, and some mammals
have hooves.
The head contains the main sense organs and feeding structures. The
mouth is bounded above and below by lips which are muscular and can
move in various ways. The mouth is opened and closed by powerful jaws.
Just inside the mouth are the teeth. These are not all the same, as they are
in lower vertebrates, but are of different kinds with particular jobs to do.
The mouth opens into the buccal cavity. Attached to the floor of the buccal
cavity is the tongue which, like the lips, can be moved by muscles.
Just above the mouth is a pair of nostrils; most mammals have a very good
sense of smell and the cat is no exception. On either side of the nose are the
whiskers; these are sensitive to touch and enable the cat to prowl in total
darkness without bumping into things. The eyes are positioned high up on
the head. On each side of the head is an opening leading into the ear. Behind
this opening is a flap of skin called the pinna. The ear is used for hearing, and
the pinna directs sound waves into the opening.
At the hind end there is the tail. This helps with balance. The kangaroo
uses its tail to support itself when resting, rather like a 'shooting stick', and
certain monkeys use it for swinging from trees.
Just below the tail is the anus, and below that are the genital organs. The
male genital organs consist of a penis and a pair of testes which make sperms.
Figure 1 Which structures in bold print on this page
can you see in this picture of a cat? The testes hang from the body in a bag called the scrotal sac. The female has a
reproductive opening which leads, via a tube called the vagina, to the uterus
(womb).
On her underside the female cat has two rows of teats. After the young
have been born, they suck the mother's teats and obtain milk from them. This
is called suckling, and it nourishes the young until they are able to eat solid
food i.e. until they are weaned. The milk is produced by special mammary
glands from which mammals get their name.
A characteristic feature of mammals is that the parents take great care of
their young. This reaches its peak in the human species. The young learn
quickly. The brain is better developed in mammals than in any other group.

The human as a mammal

A human differs from the mammal just described in three main ways.
Firstly, humans learn to stand upright on their hind legs: they are bipedal.
The front legs take the form of arms, with hands and fingers at the ends. The
hands are used for grasping and holding things. Monkeys and apes are
similar.
Secondly, humans have very little hair. In consequence our ability to keep
warm in cold weather is very poor compared with other mammals, and this is
why we wear clothes.
Thirdly, in the human female there are only two teats: they are called
nipples and are located on the breasts. The breasts contain mammary glands
which, as in other mammals, produce milk for feeding the young.
Figures 2 and 3 show the inside of the body of a mammal. You can see the
various organs by dissecting a dead mammal such as a rat or guinea pig
(Investigation). Dissection is one of the main ways of finding out about the
Figure 2 A rabbit dissected from the belly (ventral) anatomy of animals. Students training to become vets dissect all manner of
side. Try to identify the organs using the diagram in animals such as dogs, cats, sheep and even horses; and medical students
Figure 3. dissect the human body.
 Mammals 41

gullet backbone diaphragm stomach kidney ureter rectum

ung

anus

trachea
(windpipe)

heart liver ileum caecum colon pelvis

Figure 3 This illustration shows some of the main structures found inside the body of a rabbit, as seen from the side.

-Investigation -Assignments-
1 Make a list of five characteristics
Dissecting a mammal Your teacher will probably do this as a demonstration.
of mammals, not possessed by
1 Obtain a mammal such as a rat 5 Now do the same with the body other animals, which have
or guinea pig which has been wall so you can see into the helped make them so
killed with chloroform. abdomen. successful.
2 Pm the animal through its legs to a 2 Make a list of all the functions you
board so that its belly side is upwards. can think of which are performed
by your lips.
3 With scissors cut through the skin in a
line running up the middle of the body In each case, say whether or not
the lips perform the same
function in other mammals.

Do you think lips have helped to

make mammals successful?

3 Choose one mammal. Find out

6 With scissors carefully remove as much about it as you can, and
the rib cage so you can see into then write a short essay on it.
the thorax.
4 Write down as many ways as you
can think of in which mammals
4 Free the skin from the underlying care for their young.

body wall and pin it back. 5 What functions, if any, are

performed by the following
structures?
a) the pinna of a cat
b) the tail of a dog
c) the tongue of a human
d) the nipples of a human male
7 Study the internal anatomy of the e) the tail of a horse.
animal, pushing the organs this
way and that to see everything.
—Flowering plants-
External structure of a flowering plant
Of all the kinds of
The plant is made up of two main parts: the shoot and the roots. Figure 1
plants which have been
shows the shoot of a typical dicotyledon like foxglove or willow herb.
described, well over two thirds At the top of the shoot is an apical bud where growth takes place. The
are flowering plants main part of the shoot is the stem. Leaves stick out from the sides of the stem.
They are flat and green and their job is to make food by photosynthesis. The
green colour of the leaves and the stem is due to the presence of chlorophyll.
The leaves have a network of veins which stiffen them and help to prevent
them drooping. In some plants the leaves and stem are hairy or have spines
which help to protect them from attack by insects and other animals.
Each leaf is attached to the stem by a short leaf stalk. The leaves are
positioned at regular points along the stem: we refer to these points as nodes.
The length of stem between one node and the next is called an internode. At
each node you can usually see a small bud: this is called an axillary bud
because it is at an angle, or axil, between the leaf stalk and the stem.
The plant shown in Figure 1 is in flower. You will notice that there is a clear
sequence from the top downwards. Right at the top there is a cluster of
unopened flower buds with the apical bud in the middle. Further back you
can see the flowers. Further back still fruits are visible. This sequence reflects
how the plant develops: as the stem grows upward new buds are formed,
they open into flowers, and the flowers give rise to fruits. The fruits contain
the seeds which will give rise to new plants.
Eventually, the apical bud develops into a flower. When this happens the
main stem stops growing. Axillary buds are either dormant, or they may
sprout into side branches, giving rise to a bushy kind of plant.
Figure 2 shows a typical monocotyledenous plant such as a grass. It has
long, slender leaves with parallel veins.
Roots are shown in Figure 3. Some plants have a main taproot which gives
off shorter side roots. Others have a bunch of thin fibrous roots.
Each root has a root cap at the tip, and further back a covering of fine root
hairs. The roots anchor the plant and absorb water and mineral salts from the
soil. The root hairs increase the surface area for absorption.

Herbs, shrubs and trees

We can divide flowering plants into three kinds: herbs, shrubs and trees.
Herbs do not contain much wood; they generally range in height from a
few centimetres to about a metre. They include plants such as mint and
Figure 2 A typical monocotyledon, based on a thyme whose leaves are used for flavouring food, as well as many weeds and
grass. In many monocotyledons the bases of the
leafy plants such as cabbage and lettuce.
leaves are.wrapped around the stem, as shown
here. Not all monocotyledons have clusters of Shrubs are larger. They contain a good deal of wood and may reach several
flowers like this; some have a single flower, for metres in height. They branch close to the ground and so usually have a
example lilies, bushy appearance. Examples are hibiscus and forsythia.
 Flowering plants 43

Trees are larger still. They have an extremely woody main stem or trunk,
which is very strong and can hold up a tremendous mass. The trunks of
-Investigation 1 -

certain trees provide us with timber for furniture and building. Looking at a flowering plant
1 Obtain a typical dicotyledon.
Annuals, biennials and perennials
2 Examine it carefully.
Some plants get through their life cycle - that is, they grow, produce seeds,
then die - within one year. Such plants are called annuals. Many garden Which of the structures in Figure 1
plants are annuals, for example sunflowers, peas and beans, and so are many can you see?
weeds and also cereals such as wheat, barley and rice. How does your plant differ from the one
Some plants complete their life cycle so quickly that three or four shown in Figure 1?
generations are produced within one year. Such is the case with groundsel
and spurge, tiresome weeds which reproduce and spread very quickly. We 3 Make a diagram to show the
call them ephemerals. Many desert plants grow up and complete their life position of the leaves, flowers and
cycle in a few days during the brief rainy season. buds on the stem of your plant.
Some plants take two years to complete their life cycle. They are called
4 Examine several other dicotyledons.
biennials. In the first year they send up a leafy shoot, but they do not
produce flowers and seeds until the second year, after which they die.
In each case observe how the leaves,
Examples are carrots, wallflowers and foxgloves.
flowers and buds are arranged.
Some plants go on and flower year after year. They are called perennials.
There are two kinds: in herbaceous perennials the shoot produces flowers
and seeds, then dies down. However, the underground part of the plant lives
through the winter or dry season and sends up new shoots the following year PInvestigation 2-

(Figure 4). Examples include Michaelmas daisies and plants with under¬
Comparing ‘dicots’ and ‘monocots’
ground storage organs, such as daffodils and crocuses.
In shrubs and trees the shoot contains much wood. It does not die down 1 Obtain two plants, one a dicotyledon
but continues to live, producing flowers and fruits every year. We call these and the other a monocotyledon.
plants woody perennials.
2 Compare their leaves, looking
carefully at the pattern of the veins.
Deciduous and evergreen plants
In cooler countries before winter comes many plants drop their leaves and How do they differ?
new ones are formed the following spring. Such plants are known as
3 In what other ways do the two plants
deciduous. The best known examples are trees like beech and elm. Other
differ?
plants hold on to their leaves throughout the winter. We call them
evergreens. Holly is an example. Make labelled drawings to illustrate
Being evergreen does not mean that the plant never drops its leaves. your answers.
Eventually the leaves do die and fall off and are replaced by new ones, but
not all at the same time. If you look under an evergreen tree you will see
plenty of dead leaves lying on the ground.
P Assignments -

1 What jobs are done by each of

these structures: leaves, flowers,
roots, stem and buds?
2 How can you tell the difference
between:
a) a monocotyledon and dicotyledon,
b) a herb and a shrub,
c) a shrub and a tree,
d) a deciduous and evergreen tree?

3 Normally, trimming a hedge does

not kill it. Why is this? Are there any
circumstances in which cutting a
hedge might kill it?
4 What is the difference between
annual and perennial plants?
Give one example of each.
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 - Feeding -

relationships
In the natural world, animals
feed on plants and on other animals.
This is an essential part of the
balance of nature.

Figure 1 The larva of the great diving beetle,

Dytiscus marginalis. is one of the most savage
carnivores found In ponds. It sinks its fang-like
teeth into Its prey and then sucks up Its juices.

Food chains
Suppose we put some weeds, tadpoles and a couple of water beetles into a jar
and watch what happens. We find that the tadpoles nibble at the weeds, and
the water beetles eat the tadpoles. We can sum up the feeding relationship
between the three organisms like this:

weeds —» tadpoles —» water beetles

We call this a food chain, and it is a basic feature of most habitats. Tadpoles
feed only on plants and are therefore herbivores. In contrast, water beetles
feed on other animals and are carnivores. In fact, some species of water
beetles (and their larvae) are extremely voracious: I have seen a larva of the
great diving beetle get through over twenty tadpoles in an hour (Figure 1).
There are only three links in the food chain shown above. However, in a
lake there might be some pike. These fish feed on water beetles amongst
other things, so in the lake the food chain would be:

weeds —» tadpoles —> water beetles —> pike

The pike has been called a 'water wolf': it is one of the most savage
fresh-water fishes. The animal that comes at the end of a food chain like this
is called the top carnivore.

Producers and consumers

Let's think about this food chain in a bit more detail. The weeds make their
own food by photosynthesis, and they get the necessary energy for doing this
Figure 2 The main steps in a typical food chain. from the sun. Because they make food (i.e. manufacture organic substances),
The plants are the producers of food, by using we call them producers. In contrast, the animals in the chain get their food by
energy from the sun. They are eaten by the eating other organisms. For this reason we call them consumers. In this
tadpoles, the first consumers. These in turn are
particular chain there are three consumers. The tadpoles are the first
eaten by the water beetles, the second consumers;
and they are eaten by the pike, the third consumer. consumers, the water beetles are the second consumers, and the pike is the
The first, second and third consumers are known third consumer (Figure 2). These are also known as primary, secondary and
as the primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. tertiary consumers.
 Feeding relationships 47

Energy and pyramids

In the food chain shown in Figure 2 the weeds use the sun's light energy to
make their own food. But only a very small fraction of the sun's energy that
falls upon the weeds ends up in their food stores. These food stores are in the
leaves which the tadpoles eat. When a tadpole eats the weed only about one
tenth of the energy in the plant becomes built up into the body of the tadpole.
The rest is released in the tadpole's respiration, much of it as heat. The same
is true when the tadpoles are eaten by the water beetles, and again when the
water beetles are eaten by the pike. In other words at each step of the food
chain a lot of energy is lost.
The result of this is that, as you go along the food chain, the number of
organisms which can be supported at each level gets less and less. Thus a
given number of tadpoles will feed a relatively smaller number of beetles, and
these beetles will feed a relatively smaller number of fish (Figure 3). This drop
in numbers at each level in a food chain is called the pyramid of numbers.
For the same reason there is also a drop in the total mass of living material
at each level of a food chain. This is called the pyramid of biomass. On the
other hand the size of the individual animals at each level tends to increase. Figure 3 This diagram shows how the numbers of
This is because carnivores, being predators, are usually larger than their prey. organisms decreases as you go along a food
chain. It is called a pyramid of numbers. The total
We have seen that energy is lost when carbon compounds are transferred
mass of living material also decreases at each
from one step of a food chain to the next. The chemical compounds can be level, and so does the amount of energy contained
recycled and used again by organisms, as we shall see in the next Topic. in the bodies of the organisms. The bars which
However, the energy which is given out as heat in respiration can't be make up this pyramid are not drawn to scale.
recycled and used again. Note: The decrease in energy which occurs at each
level of a food chain is important in growing food
crops and raising livestock. This is dealt with in a
Food webs separate Topic on pages 104-5.

Let's go back to the jar with which we started this Topic. Suppose we remove
the tadpoles; what will happen to the beetles? They will die, because we have
taken away their only source of food.
However, if the tadpoles were to disappear from a pond or lake, the beetles
would probably survive. This is because there would be other sources of food
available to them. For example, it's quite likely that there would be some
small fish such as minnows which the water beetles could eat.
Similarly, if the beetles were to disappear, the pike would still survive.
They will eat all sorts of things, including other fish, such as perch, and even
water birds.
By finding out what all the organisms in a habitat feed on, you can build up
a diagram summarising their feeding relationships (Investigation 1). This is
called a food web (Figure 4). In a natural habitat such as a pond, it would be
unusual for the organisms to be linked together in a simple chain. Food webs
are much more common, and if the habitat contains a large number of
different species, the web may be very complex. The food web in Figure 4 is
relatively simple. A more complicated one is shown in Figure 5.

Food chains in the service of humans

Food chains provide us with food. Look at Figure 2 again. The pike that ate
the water beetles that ate the tadpoles that ate the weeds might be caught by a
fisherman for his supper. The food chain would then be:

weeds —* tadpoles —» water beetles —> pike —> man

From our point of view, some of the most important food chains occur in
the sea. In the surface waters where light can penetrate there are millions of
microscopic organisms called plankton. Some of these organisms are like
green plants and carry out photosynthesis, while others are like animals and
eat the plant-like ones. So a food chain in the sea would go like this:

plant plankton —» animal plankton —> fish —> man

Certain important substances get concentrated as they pass along the chain.
48 Biology for life

Figure 5 A food web in a wood.

For example, vitamin D is made by the plant plankton, and it then gets into
the animal plankton. Eventually it gets into the fish, which store and
concentrate it in their livers. This is why cod liver oil is such a good source of
this vitamin.
On land, farming involves several important food chains. Fiere is one of
them:

grass —> sheep —» man

Can you think of any others? And can you think of any circumstances in
which the first consumer is eaten by another animal besides ourselves?

Decomposers
When the animals and plants in a habitat die their bodies decay. This is
because they are broken down by bacteria and other microbes which feed on
them. These microbes are called decomposers. As a result of their activities,
simple substances are released from the dead bodies, and these can be used
again by plants, i.e. by the producers (Figure 6). The decomposers thus play
consumers —
(mainly animals) an important part in keeping life going in a habitat (see pages 51 and 52).

Communities and ecosystems

- dead bodies We have seen that a habitat such as a pond or a wood contains three types of
organisms: producers, consumers and decomposers. Together the various
organisms make up a community. Every habitat has its own particular
community of organisms. Within the community each species occupies a
producers particular position in the food web. We call this its ecological niche.
(mainly plants) The organisms in a community will be influenced by all sorts of conditions,
A such as temperature, humidity and rainfall. The organisms interact with
these conditions, and with each other, to make up what biologists call an
ecosystem.
Ecosystems are easily upset. Look at Figure 5 again. Foxes can be a
nuisance to farmers by killing chickens and sheep. Suppose all the foxes were
destroyed. How might this affect the woodland ecosystem? Well, it might
decomposers cause the grey squirrels to increase in number. Now grey squirrels can
(micro-organisms) damage trees. So killing the foxes could endanger the trees, on which the
whole ecosystem depends.
Ecosystems are often very complex, but you can study them by observing
Figure 6 Decomposers enable the materials in the
the organisms and food webs in particular habitats (Investigation 2).
bodies of the producers and consumers to be
used again.
 Feeding relationships 49

Investigation 1- Investigation 2-
Building up a food web A food web in a natural habitat
2 Using a simple identification key find
1 Set up an aquarium in your out the names of the animals and 1 Choose a habitat. It might be a
laboratory. plants in the aquarium. fresh-water pond, a hedgerow, a
patch of grass, or a rock pool on the
Use a large transparent container. 3 Observe the animals, and see if you
seashore.
Wash it thoroughly, then put in some can find out what each one feeds on.
clean sand to a depth of about 2 cm. If necessary use books to help you. 2 Find as many animals and plants in
Root some water weeds in the sand. the habitat as you can.
4 Write down the names of:
Slowly pour in some pond water until
a) the producers, Whenever you find an animal, try to
the container is approximately
b) the herbivorous consumers, see what it feeds on.
three-quarters full. Put in some
c) the carnivorous consumers.
floating plants like duckweed and Write down the name of each animal
Spirogyra. Now add as large a Which of the carnivorous consumers and its food in your notebook.
variety of animals from a local pond are not eaten by any other
3 Construct as many food chains as
or stream as you can. If possible organism?
you can for your habitat.
include water beetles and their
What do you think would happen if
larvae, dragonfly and caddis fly 4 Now try to construct a food web for
you removed the consumers from
nymphs, mosquito larvae and the habitat.
the aquarium?
pupae, shrimps, water snails and a
If you are not sure what a particular
few small fishes such as carp, 5 Construct a food web similar to the
animal eats, try to find the answer in
minnows and sticklebacks. Don’t put one in Figure 4, showing the feeding
books.
in so many carnivores that they eat relationships of the animals in your
up all the other animals! aquarium.

Assignments
1 In Figure 2 which organisms are: 5 Study the food web in Figure 5, 6 In this Topic it is stated that as one
a) herbivores then answer these questions: proceeds along a food chain, each
b) carnivores a) Give the names of two woodland organism tends to be larger than the
c) predators plants and one nectar-feeding one before.
d) prey? insect. a) Give an example of a food chain
b) Give an example of a predator in which illustrates this.
2 Fill in the missing organism in each
the food web, and write down the b) Why do you think this is true?
of the following food chains:
name of one animal which it c) Give an example of a food chain
a) grass—* ?—> man
preys on. which is an exception to this.
b) grass —* deer -> ?
c) The food web does not include
c) algae —> planktonic animals-^ ? 7 The following figures show the total
the leaves of the woodland
d) lettuces?—> fox mass of body material, measured as
plants. Write down a food chain
e) aphid (greenfly) —»ladybird -»• ? dry mass, from one square metre of
which might lead from leaves.
grassland during one year:
3 The following is a food chain that ends d) The web includes three birds:
up with humans: tits, blackbirds, and hawks. Look plants 470.0 g
them up in a bird book and make herbivores 0.6 g
plant—* bee-* human carnivores 0.1 g
a list of all the different foods
Explain precisely how plants provide which they eat. Re-draw the food
Explain why the mass of body
food for bees, and how bees provide web to include these foods.
material decreases at each step of
food for humans. e) A poisonous chemical leaks onto
the food chain.
the ground in the woods.
4 Flow many food chains can you 8 Energy from the sun passes through
detect in Figure 4? Write them out Which herbivores would be the
food chains. However, only a small
separately. first to be affected, and why? proportion of the sun’s energy gets
A food chain is more easily Which top carnivores would be into the bodies of the final
destroyed than a food web. Why? first to be affected, and why? consumers. What happens to the
rest?
 The wheel of life
The cycling of water
One of the most
Suppose there is a heavy shower of rain. The rain sinks into the ground and
important aspects of drains into rivers, lakes and the sea. When the sun comes out some of the
nature is that materials circulate. water evaporates, and the water vapour rises into the atmosphere. The hotter
This means that they and drier the weather, the faster will be the rate of evaporation. Later the
can be used over water vapour may condense to form clouds and, in the right conditions, it
may fall as rain or snow - which brings us back to where we started. So water
and over again.
goes round and round in nature. We call this the water cycle (Figure 1).
Where does biology come into the water cycle? Well some of the water
which sinks into the ground is taken up by plants. It is drawn into the roots,
rises up the stems and evaporates from the leaves. The evaporation of water
from the leaves of a plant is called transpiration. Animals also take up water
and return it to the environment.
The water cycle is very important, particularly to farmers. It ensures that a
constant supply of water is available to crops and other plants. Sometimes the
water evaporates from the land more quickly than it can be replaced. The soil
becomes dry and a drought may result. Many of the plants and animals die
unless they are specially adapted to survive such conditions. In areas where
there is a low rainfall, it may be necessary to irrigate the land with water
piped from dammed rivers.
As water flows along a river, it gathers minerals from the surrounding
rocks. By the time it reaches the sea there are lots of minerals in the water.
Figure 1 Summary of the water cycle. To keep the This is why sea water tastes salty. When water evaporates from the sea, the
diagram simple, evaporation is shown taking place minerals are left behind. So the rain that falls on the land and fills our lakes
only from the ocean. In practice it also takes place and ponds has no salts in it to begin with: we call it fresh water.
from rivers, lakes and ponds and from the surface
The difference in the amount of salt in fresh water and sea water makes
of the soil. Transpiration takes place from the
above-ground parts of many other plants besides them very different as environments for organisms. Some organisms are
trees. Animals also play a part in the water cycle. adapted to live in sea water, and others are adapted to live in fresh water.

snow
rain

evaporation transpiration

i sinks into
>und (drainage;

water table

water

ocean
 The wheel of life 51

The cycling of carbon

The air around us contains a small amount of carbon dioxide. This is
constantly being absorbed by plants which use it for photosynthesis. The
carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaves, and is built up into sugar and other
complex carbon compounds.
Now when a plant is eaten by an animal the sugar gets into the cells in the
animal's body. Here it is broken down into carbon dioxide and water to
produce energy (respiration). As a result carbon dioxide is put back into the
atmosphere.
When the animals and plants die they decay. In this process bacteria and
other decomposers feed on them. They too respire, and so once again carbon
dioxide is put back into the atmosphere.
We can sum up by saying that carbon dioxide is taken out of the atmosphere by
photosynthesis, and put back into it by respiration and decay. This is known as the
carbon cycle and it is summarised in Figure 2.
If you look at this diagram you will see that carbon dioxide is also released
into the atmosphere when coal is burned (combustion). Coal is formed by the
fossilisation of dead plants. If it was not for us burning coal the carbon
contained in coal would never be returned to the atmosphere, and the arrow
pointing downwards in Figure 2 would be a dead end taking carbon out of Figure 2 Summary of the carbon cycle. The main
cycle is shown at the top of the diagram. The line
the cycle for ever.
leading to coal only happens if oxygen is absent,
Coal is a fossil fuel. Other fossil fuels include oil and natural gas, and of for example in bogs and swamps: the bacteria that
course they give us energy when they are burned. Vast amounts have been cause decay cannot live without oxygen, and so
laid down deep in the ground over millions of years. However, it's a slow the dead plants pile up, forming soft, black peat. In
the course of time the peat gets buried and
process and at present we are using them up about one hundred thousand
hardens to form coal. The other fossil fuels, oil and
times faster than they are formed. Scientists estimate that at this rate we shall natural gas, are formed in a similar way from tiny
run out of them within a few hundred years unless we go over to other ways marine organisms that have sunk to the bottom of
of getting energy. the sea.

carbon dioxide
in the air

carbon compounds
photosynthesis

carbon
compounds
in plants ,

combustion
coal
52 Biology for life

Figure 3 Summary of the nitrogen cycle. The The cycling of nitrogen

diagram shows how nitrates can be formed by the
action of bacteria on animal and plant protein. Some In the soil there are inorganic nitrogen compounds called nitrates which are
nitrates can also be made by the action of lightning dissolved in the soil water. These are absorbed by the roots'of plants which
on the nitrogen in the air. Note that denitrifying then build them up into complex proteins.
bacteria remove nitrates from the soil.
Now think what happens when a plant is eaten by an animal. The nitrogen
in the plant protein gets into the animal's body and becomes part of its
protein.
When the animals and plants die they decay. The microbes which cause
Bacteria in the nitrogen cycle decay break the proteins down into ammonia. Ammonia is also formed from
the animals' excreta. Now in the soil there are certain bacteria which turn
HELPFUL
ammonia into nitrites, and others which turn nitrites into nitrates. The effect
Decay bacteria (decomposers) is to return nitrates to the soil, which can then be used again by plants.
break down amino acids (from proteins) to
Because they enrich the soil in nitrates, they are known as nitrifying bacteria.
ammonia
You will now understand why compost and manure improve the soil for
Nitrifying bacteria group 1 plant growth.
oxidise ammonia to nitrites
This circulation of nitrogen is known as the nitrogen cycle and it is
e.g. Nitrosomonas
illustrated in Figure 3. In this diagram you will see that certain bacteria release
Nitrifying bacteria group 2
nitrogen from nitrates. Obviously they lower the nitrate content of the soil,
oxidise nitrites to nitrates
e.g. Nitrobader and so we call then denitrifying bacteria.
Plants cannot make use of atmospheric nitrogen. However, certain bacteria
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
build up nitrogen into nitrates and proteins
can absorb nitrogen and build it up into nitrates and protein. They are called
e.g. Clostridium in soil nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and they are found free in the soil and also inside
Rhizobium in roots of legumes the roots of plants belonging to the pea and bean family (Figure 4). The
UNHELPFUL nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the roots give some of their nitrogen compounds to
the host plant, while they in turn get protection. The relationship is therefore
Denitrifying bacteria
reduce nitrates to nitrites, ammonia or
helpful to both organisms, and is an example of symbiosis (see page 62).
nitrogen What's more, some of the nitrogen compounds are released into the soil
which thus becomes more fertile.
Table 1 The bacteria in the nitrogen cycle.
 The wheel of life 53

Figure 4 This is a pea plant. Its roots have

swellings on them called nodules. Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria live in these nodules. They are found in
members of the legume family, for example peas,
beans and clover.

-Assignments-
The bacteria in the nitrogen cycle
Look at Table 1. This summarises the various bacteria which play a part in the 1 Explain the part played by each of the
nitrogen cycle. They can be divided into two kinds: helpful and unhelpful. following in the water cycle:
The helpful ones are those that increase the amount of nitrates in the soil. a) mountains c) leaves of plants
Plants need nitrates as food, and so these bacteria help plants to grow. They b) the soil d) the sea.
are the decay bacteria, nitrifying bacteria and nitrogen-fixing bacteria in 2 Figure 1 shows the part played by
Table 1. plants in the water cycle, but it does not
The unhelpful bacteria are those that decrease the amount of nitrates in the say anything about animals. How do
soil. Obviously they hinder plant growth. They are the denitrifying bacteria animals, including humans, affect the
in Table 1. water cycle?
Why do bacteria carry out the various chemical changes shown in Figure 3?
They do it to obtain energy for themselves. For example, when the nitrifying 3 Study the carbon cycle in Figure 2 and
bacteria oxidise ammonia or nitrites, energy is produced which the bacteria then answer these questions:
use for making organic food. So the bacteria are doing this for their own a) What is photosynthesis and how
benefit, not just to help us! does it remove carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere?
b) What is respiration and how does it
The nitrogen cycle and farming add carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere?
Many farmers depend on growing crops for their living. For crops to grow
c) Name the main kind of organisms
well, the soil must be good. Good soil contains the helpful bacteria
that bring about decay, and explain
mentioned in the last section, but not the unhelpful ones.
how they put carbon dioxide into the
Now the helpful bacteria need oxygen for their respiration, so it is
atmosphere.
important that the soil should contain plenty of air; this means keeping it well
d) What happens chemically when
ploughed. As the roots of legumes contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria, it is
coal is burned?
useful to plough these plants into the soil from time to time.
In Figure 3 you will see that nitrites are formed between ammonia and 4 Farmers often plough leguminous
nitrates. Nitrites are poisonous to most plants. However, in good soil that has plants into the soil. Why is this a good
plenty of air in it the nitrites are turned into nitrates as quickly as they are thing to do? Explain your answer fully.
formed.
5 Construct a diagram which
One of the worst things that can happen to the soil is that it gets full of
summarises the way oxygen circulates
water, that is waterlogged. Such soil has no air spaces and is therefore short
in nature.
of oxygen. Denitrifying bacteria thrive in these conditions because they don't
need oxygen for their respiration. We have seen that they take nitrates out of Why is this important to humans?
the soil, so waterlogged soil lacks oxygen and nitrates. The soil may be made
even worse if it contains a high concentration of nitrites. Waterlogging can be
prevented by keeping the soil well drained. Sometimes pipes are laid under
fields to take away excess water.
 The air around us
What does the atmosphere consist of?
What is it about the
The earth's atmosphere contains oxygen and carbon dioxide in amounts
atmosphere surrounding the earth
which never vary very much.
which makes it capable of supporting This is just as well, because a change in the amounts of oxygen and carbon
life? In this Topic we will look dioxide in the atmosphere could make our air unfit for breathing. For
into this question. example, suppose the amount of carbon dioxide was to go up and up? You
would feel drowsy, get a headache, become very hot and faint. Your brain
would stop working properly and eventually you would die. This is why
places where people live and work must be well ventilated. In a well
ventilated room there is plenty of oxygen, and carbon dioxide does not build
up to a harmful level.

How is the composition of the atmosphere kept constant?

When living things breathe (respire) they use up oxygen and give out carbon
dioxide. However, when green plants photosynthesise they use up carbon
dioxide and give out oxygen. In other words respiration removes oxygen from the
atmosphere and adds carbon dioxide to it, whereas photosynthesis removes carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and adds oxygen to it.
In the world as a whole, respiration and photosynthesis are in balance with
each other. The result is that the amounts of carbon dioxide and oxygen are
kept constant.
Another process, besides respiration, takes oxygen out of the atmosphere
and adds carbon dioxide to it. This is combustion (burning). What happens if
Photosynthesis faster than respiration.
Plant takes in more carbon dioxide than it we put some extra carbon dioxide into the air by, for example, burning coal in
gives out. a factory or making a bonfire? If the amount isn't too great, plants simply
respond by using it up more quickly. In this way the level of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere stays more or less the same.

A more detailed look at carbon dioxide

Try the Investigation. Your results should enable you to draw certain
conclusions about the effect of plants, animals, and the two together, on the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Whether a plant gives out, or takes up, carbon dioxide depends on the time
Photosynthesis and respiration proceed of day (Figure 1). Animals, on the other hand, give out carbon dioxide all the
at the same rate. Plant takes in the same
amount of carbon dioxide as it gives out.
time. So they are always adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (Figure 2).
The overall effect of animals and plants living together in a normal
environment is to keep the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere more or
less constant.

Photosynthesis stops, respiration continues.

Plant gives out carbon dioxide but no longer
takes it in.

Figure 1 Whether a plant takes up, or gives out,

carbop dioxide depends on how much light there is.
The arrows show the movement of carbon dioxide
into and out of the tree.

Figure 2 Carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere

by animals all the time, and by plants at night. .It is
removed from the atmosphere by plants during the
day.
 The air around us 55

-Investigation -Assignments-
How do organisms affect the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere? Why is it a good idea to open
classroom windows whenever
possible?

Scientists measured the carbon

dioxide content of the air in a part of
the northern hemisphere with a
temperate climate. They found that
the content in March was 0.02971
per cent, whereas in September it
was 0.02905 per cent. Explain the
difference. Would you expect the
same to be true in the tropics?

Imagine there is a catastrophe in

which all the plants of the world are
suddenly destroyed. Describe in
detail the effects which you think
this might have.

It has been suggested that a

suitable atmosphere might be
put these four test tubes A c D
in the light maintained in a manned space
put these four test tubes E G H capsule by having some plants
in the dark
inside. Do you think this is feasible?
What problems might be
encountered in putting it into
In this experiment we will make use of a 6 After about an hour give each test
practice?
hydrogen carbonate indicator. This tube a quick shake.
changes colour according to how much At an agricultural research station, a
Now compare the colour of the
carbon dioxide is present. group of scientists measured the
indicator in the test tubes. It is best
amount of carbon dioxide in the air
1 Label four test tubes A to D. Pour a to look at the colours against a plain
in the middle of a wheat field every
little indicator into the bottom of white background.
three hours for 24 hours. Here are
each tube. Notice that the indicator
The colour tells you how much their results:
is reddish-orange: this is its colour
carbon dioxide is present in the test
when it is in contact with ordinary
tube compared with ordinary Time Percentage of
atmospheric air.
atmospheric air. carbon dioxide in
2 Set up the four test tubes as shown the air
in the illustration. Seal all the tubes Yellow means there is more carbon
24(midnight) 0.042
with a stopper so there is no chance dioxide than in atmospheric air.
3 0.037
of air getting in or out.
Purple means there is less carbon 6 0.031
3 Set up four more test tubes exactly dioxide than in atmospheric air. 9 0.029
like the first four, and label them E to 12(noon) 0.028
Reddish-orange means there is the
H. 15 0.030
same amount of carbon dioxide as in
18 0.032
4 Put test tubes A to D in the light. (But atmospheric air.
21 0.035
do not use a lamp that is liable to
24(midnight) 0.042
heat them up.) Write down the colour of the indicator in
each test tube.
5 Put test tubes E to H in the dark. (A
a) Plot these results on graph
good way is to put them under a For each test tube, say whether carbon
paper.
cardboard box.) dioxide has been added to or removed
b) Explain them as fully as you can.
from the air, and explain the reason.
c) How would you expect oxygen to
change during the same period?
r—Finding out where
Investigating an organism's distribution
organisms live To study an organism's distribution we need to know roughly how many
individuals occur in different places. There are three main ways of doing this:
The places where
a particular kind of organism The looking method
You simply look at the habitat and describe in words how many organisms
is found make up its distribution. are present. Each plant or animal species is given one of the descriptions
This Topic is about how we can listed in Table 1. Dominant does not always mean the most numerous
investigate distribution. species; it may be the one that has the greatest effect on the environment. For
example, if you were looking at an area under a tree, the tree itself would be
the dominant species. Grass would probably be abundant, weeds frequent or
Description Meaning occasional, and an odd plant rare.
This is the simplest method of describing distribution, and the least
Dominant has the greatest effect
Abundant hardly ever out of sight accurate. But it may help you to spot something interesting which you can
Frequent constantly found then investigate more carefully if you want to.
Occasional seldom found
Rare hardly ever found
The counting method
Table 1 This scale is used for describing the Suppose you want to find out how many thistles there are in a field. How
occurrence of plants or animals in a habitat. It is could you do it? One way would be to count all the thistles in the field.
called the DAFOR scale from the initial letters of the However, this would probably drive you mad. So what you do is to count the
words.
number of thistles in a series of small squares in the field, then work out the
average. We call this process sampling. As many squares as possible are
sampled, and they are selected at random so that the figures are not biased in
favour of a particular result.
One of the simplest ways of sampling a habitat is to use a quadrat. This is a
square frame made of wood or metal which is laid on the ground (Figure 1).
Quadrats come in many different sizes, but for counting thistles in a field, a
quadrat with a side of one metre would be suitable. You simply count up the
number of thistles inside the frame, repeating the process in, say, ten
different parts of the field. You then work out the average number of thistles
per square metre. We call this the density of the thistles (Investigation 1).

The area method

Suppose you want to find out how much grass is growing on a piece of waste
Figure 1 These students are using a quadrat to
count weeds in a field.
ground. In this case you cannot count the plants individually because it's
impossible to tell where one ends and the next one begins. Instead you
estimate the area of the ground covered by grass.
To do this you use a grid. This is a quadrat which has been divided by
string into 100 small squares (Figure 2). You lay the grid on the ground and
estimate the number of squares which the grass fills. Say grass fills a total of
fifteen squares. This means that the area inside the quadrat occupied by grass is
pyj = 15 per cent. We call this the percentage cover.
You repeat this randomly in different parts of the waste ground, and then
you work out the average percentage cover (Investigation 2).

Other ways of investigating distribution

You may have noticed that in some places the types of organisms gradually
change as you go across a habitat. In such cases it is useful to record exactly
where each kind of organism occurs. You can do this by making a line
transect. A length of string or a plastic clothes-line is marked with a felt tip at
regular intervals. It is then stretched across the habitat which you want to
examine. You then record the plants which are touching the line
(Figure 3).
The trouble with a line transect is that it only gives you the organisms that
are right on the line. A better method is to lay out two parallel strings a metre
apart and record the plants between them. We call this a belt transect. If you
Figure 2 A grid made by dividing a one-metre
lay a grid between the two lines it will help you to put the different plants in
quadrat into 100 squares. The stippled areas
their right positions.
represent patches of grass. Grids can be made any
size to suit the particular habitat being studied. Of course you may get interested in one particular species and want to see
 Finding out where organisms live 57

how its numbers change as you go from one end of the habitat to the other.
To do this you use a quadrat, but instead of laying it down randomly you
place it at regular intervals in a straight line across the habitat. You then count
the number of plants, or estimate the percentage cover, in each square.
/ -Assignments -

Investigating the distribution of animals

1 Why is the scale in Table 1 an
So far we have concentrated on plants. The same method can be used for inaccurate way of describing the
stationary animals. But what about animals that move around? Here again occurrence of different species of
sampling comes to the rescue. First you select one of the collecting methods animals or plants in an area? Write
described on page 13. Then you collect the animals over a given period of down as many reasons as you can
time in different places, and count them. think of
Of course this does not tell you how many animals there are in the habitat,
2 Explain the difference between
but it is a good way of comparing their relative numbers in different places.
a) quadrat and grid,
b) line transect and belt transect.
PInvestigation 1 - Investigation 2 -
3 Look at Figure 2. Work out the
percentage cover of the grass in this
To find out how many weeds there Estimating the percentage area of
illustration.
are in a field ground occupied by grass
4 Your friend maintains that there are
1 Obtain a quadrat, one metre square. 1 Obtain a grid. This should be a
more minnows in his pond than there
one-metre quadrat that has been
2 Select a field, and decide what are in yours. What could you do to
divided into 100 squares.
particular weed you wish to see if he is right?
investigate. 2 Find a suitable area of ground that
5 How could you find out if there are
has patches of grass.
3 Lay the quadrat on the ground, and more night-flying moths of a
count the number of weeds inside it. 3 Lay the grid on the ground, and particular species in one area than
estimate the number of squares another?
If a weed is touching the frame,
which contain grass. If a square is
include it in your count if more than 6 A student counted the number of
only partly filled with grass, take this
half of it is inside the quadrat. daisies in thirteen one-metre
into account in making your
quadrats on a lawn. Here is a
4 Repeat the above procedure with estimate. For example, four squares
summary of her results:
the quadrat in at least five different that are each a quarter full count as
places, chosen at random. one square.
Number of daisies 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 Work out the average number of The final figure you arrive at is the
percentage cover. Number of quadrats
weeds per square metre in the field.
in which the above
This is the density of weeds. 4 Repeat the above procedure with number of 1 2 4 3 2 1
the grid in at least five different daisies occurred
Do you think this is a good method of
finding out how many weeds there are places, chosen at random.
in the field? If not, why not? a) Plot these results as a bar chart
5 Work out the average percentage
(histogram) (see page 3).
What are the main reasons for any cover of grass in the area.
b) Calculate the average number of
inaccuracies in the results? Do you think this is a good method of daisies per square metre.
What could be done to improve the finding out how much grass there is c) Why is it a good idea to present

method? in an area. If not, why not? these results as a bar chart?

 -What controls—
What is the environment?
where organisms Every habitat has certain conditions which make it suitable for some

live? organisms but not for others. These conditions make up the environment. An
organism's environment consists of two parts: the physical (abiotic)
environment and the biological (biotic) environment.
The physical environment includes physical features such as temperature,
In this Topic
light, and so on. The biotic environment is made up of all the other organisms
we shall ask why certain
in the habitat.
organisms are restricted to
particular places.
The physical environment on land
In general the physical features of the land environment are closely related to
the climate.

Light
This is one of the most variable features of the physical environment and it
can have a great influence on where different organisms occur. For instance,
you have probably noticed that plants only occur where there is light. In dim
places, such as under a beech tree, there are not very many.
Plants vary in the amount of light they need. For example, the
chrysanthemums in Figure 1 like the bright sunlight, whereas ferns and
many orchids prefer shady places.
Many animals, such as earthworms and blowfly larvae, avoid light
altogether (Investigation 1). The light acts as a stimulus, and they move away
from it. Movement of a whole organism towards, or away from, a stimulus
which comes from a particular direction is called taxis. Organisms which
move away from light are described as negatively phototactic.

Figure 1 Chrysanthemum growing in a garden. This

Temperature
plant needs plenty of light.
The temperature can vary a great deal between different parts of the world. In
the Arctic and Antarctic the temperature is below 0 °C for most of the year
and the ground is frozen for long periods. The same applies to the tops of
high mountains such as the Himalayas. Not many organisms can live in these
conditions (Figure 2).
In temperate regions like Britain the winters are generally fairly mild. Some
animals hibernate or migrate in the winter. The plants have various ways of
getting through the winter. The trees are either evergreens with tough, often
needle-like leaves, or broad-leafed deciduous trees which lose their leaves in
winter and have resistant buds. Herbaceous plants die back, leaving under¬
ground storage organs or resistant seeds which give rise to new plants next
spring.
In the tropics the temperature is mostly between 20 °C and 30 °C. It is
hotter and shows less variation during the year as you get closer to the
equator. In such conditions the animals and plants can be active the whole
year round, provided of course that other conditions are suitable.
In many parts of the world the temperature may change a lot between day
and night. In the desert, for example, the temperature may reach 50 °C
during the day but fall to below 10 °C at night. Cold-blooded animals are
particularly affected by such fluctuations. Some cold-blooded animals, for
example lizards and snakes, bask in the sun to keep warm, and cool off in the
shade (Figure 3).

Rainfall
In temperate regions like Britain it can rain at any time of the year, and only if
there is a drought do organisms run short of water. However, in the tropics
Figure 2 Adelaide Island in the Antarctic. The there is a regular alternation between wet and dry seasons and only those
temperature is nearly always below freezing, even in organisms that can survive the dry season are able to live in such places.
the summer. Few land animals live here, but the Plants have special ways of cutting down water loss. For example, their
surrounding sea contains an abundance of
leaves may be covered by a thick waterproof cuticle, and they may have
plankton, fish and whales. And there are penguins
galore! relatively few stomata; the stomata may be sunk down into pits or protected
 What controls where organisms live? 59

by hairs so that water vapour escapes less easily; also their leaves may be
small so as to cut down the surface area across which water evaporates. These
kinds of plants can live in hot, dry places such as deserts. They are called
xerophytes, and an example is the Joshua tree shown in Figure 4. Many
desert plants have swollen stems in which water is stored. Such plants are
called succulents, and an example is shown in Figure 5.
Animals too have ways of reducing water loss. For example, reptiles such
as lizards and snakes have a scaly, waterproof skin which enables them to
live in deserts (Figure 3). In contrast, amphibians such as frogs and newts
have a thin, moist skin through which water readily evaporates. Such
animals are normally found only in wet places. Flowever, the West African
lungfish gets round the situation in an interesting way. It burrows down into
the mud and goes into a dormant state until the rains return. This is called
aestivation: it's like hibernation but takes the animal through the dry season
rather than the winter.

Humidity
In Britain we have all experienced those hot days in summer when the air
feels heavy and moist. We say it is humid. A high humidity means that there
is a lot of moisture in the air; a low humidity means that there is not much
moisture in the air - in other words the air is dry. The drier the air, the faster
water evaporates from the surfaces of animals and plants. Organisms that are
well waterproofed can live in the very dry atmosphere of the desert. On the
other hand, organisms which lose water rapidly are restricted to humid
places (Investigation 2).
Figure 4 This Joshua tree has spiky leaves with a
thick cuticle for reducing water loss. The plant can
Wind live in hot, dry deserts.
The speed and direction of the wind are important in pollination and in the
dispersal of seeds, fruits and spores. Some harmful pests such as locusts and
the potato blight fungus are carried by the wind. Wind and breezes also
speed up the rate at which water evaporates from the surfaces of animals and
plants.

The physical environment in water

Some of the physical features on land also apply to water. However, aquatic
habitats such as lakes, rivers and the sea have a number of special features of
their own which can greatly influence where organisms occur. Here are the
main ones.

Figure 3 This rattlesnake has all sorts of adaptations for living in the desert. It controls its
body temperature by its behaviour, lying in the sun to get warm and going into the shade Figure 5 These cacti in the North American desert
store water in their thick stems and branches.
to cool off.
60 Biology for life

Light penetrates into water for a surprisingly short distance. For this reason
water plants such as Canadian pondweed, and the myriads of tiny green
organisms that make up the plant plankton, must be near the surface. Motile
organisms such as Euglena swim towards light. We say that the organism is
positively phototactic. Euglena has a light-sensitive spot which guides it
towards the light.

Temperature
Figure 6 A wind-speed gauge for comparing the In general, temperature fluctuations in water are not as great as on land.
wind speeds in different places. You count the However, certain animals need warm water, whereas others prefer cold. Put
number of times the wind makes the arms swing a tropical fish in cold water and it will soon die. If you try to keep sea-water
round in a certain period.
fish and invertebrates from around the British coast in an aquarium, you need
to refrigerate the tank!

Waterflow
If the water is flowing rapidly, as in a river or stream, the organisms may be
swept away unless they can hang on or stem the current. Organisms which
cannot do this can only live in still water. This problem reaches an extreme in
mountain streams and in the inter-tidal zone on the seashore.

Depth
This is important because it affects the pressure acting on the surface of the
organism. Delicate organisms would be crushed by the water pressure if they
went too deep.

Acidity or alkalinity
The degree of acidity or alkalinity, i.e. the pH of the water, can be critical in
Figure 7 A rain gauge for comparing the rainfall in
controlling what organisms are present.
different places. You measure the amount of
rainwater which collects in the measuring cylinder in
a period of time. Muddiness (turbidity)
Some aquatic organisms require clear water. Others can tolerate muddy
water and may use it for hiding from their enemies.

Oxygen concentration
The oxygen concentration is higher in a swiftly flowing stream than in a
stagnant pool. Some organisms are able to survive in stagnant water.

Saltiness (salinity)
Salinity varies from low values in fresh water to high values in sea water,
with in-between values in estuaries. Most aquatic organisms are confined to
one particular situation, though salmon and eel can move from one extreme
to the other.

The physical environment in the soil

The main physical features of the soil are the amounts of water, air and
humus present, the pH of the soil water, and the types of particles of
which the soil is composed. All these features determine which particular
plants can grow in the soil, and what animals occur there. They are known as
edaphic factors and are discussed fully on pages 78-81.

Measuring physical features of different habitats

Suppose you are interested in two different habitats. You have noticed that
each supports different kinds of animals and plants, and you suspect that this
is because one is more humid than the other. Before going any further, you
Figure 8 This plant grows on sandy beaches in must find out exactly how humid each area is.
southern Africa. Why does it occur here and You can do this very simply with cobalt chloride or cobalt thiocyanate
nowhere else? paper. This is blue when dry and pink when moist. You simply measure how
 What controls where organisms live? 61

long it takes for the paper to change from blue to pink in the two habitats. For
a more accurate comparison you would need to use a special humidity gauge.
Suppose we find that one habitat is indeed more humid than the other.
Can we be certain that this is why different kinds of organisms live in each
habitat? No, because the two habitats may differ in other respects besides
humidity. For example, one of them might be warmer, lighter or windier than
the other, or it might get more rain. This means that you must measure these
other features as well.
To measure the temperature you use a special double thermometer, called
a maximum-minimum thermometer, which will tell you the range of
temperatures during a period of time. To measure the light, you can use a
light meter of the type that photographers use. To measure the wind speed
you use a wind gauge (Figure 6), and to measure the rainfall you use a rain
gauge (Figure 7).
Even after making all these measurements it may still be difficult to decide
why a particular organism occurs in one place but not in another. Take the
plant in Figure 8, for example. This occurs on sandy beaches in southern
Africa. Why does it occur in this particular situation and nowhere else? It is
not easy to decide why. *

Measuring the physical features within a habitat

Figure 9 This graph shows the number of daisies
Look under a tree on a lawn in summer. You may find that the number of and the light intensity at different distances from a
daisies increases as you go further from the trunk. tree trunk. The number of daisies is represented by
the solid line, the light meter readings by the dotted
The most obvious reason that springs to mind is that the light intensity
line.
increases as you go further from the trunk. To test this idea you estimate the
number of daisies at different distances from the trunk by the method
described on page 57. You also measure the light intensity at each position.
You then plot graphs to see if there is a correlation between the two (Figure
9). But remember: an apparent correlation doesn't prove that there is a
connection between the number of daisies and the light intensity. The change
in the number of daisies might be caused by some other factor, or by several
factors acting together.
It is often difficult to find out why organisms are distributed in a particular
way by making measurements in their natural habitats. Sometimes you have
to do controlled experiments indoors: you put the organism in different
conditions and find out which it prefers.

The biotic environment

Look at the caterpillar in Figure 10. This feeds on privet leaves and
occasionally on lilac and ash leaves. These particular plants form the
caterpillar's biotic environment. Without them the caterpillar could not
survive. Organisms are always found close to their source of food: this is one
of the most important aspects of their biotic environment.
Now let's take another example. Bees normally occur only in places where
there are flowers. Bees need flowers because they get nectar and pollen from
them, so flowers are an essential part of the bees' biotic environment. If all
the flowers were to disappear from an area, the bees there would either die or
have to move to another area. It works the other way round too: the flowers
need the bees for pollination, so bees are an important part of the plants'
biotic environment.
Many organisms are adapted to living inside, or sometimes on the surface
of, another organism. The latter is called the host. Sometimes the host is
harmed in some way, in which case we call the organism a parasite. The
blood fluke and many fungi are examples of parasites. They feed on the
host's tissues and damage them.
The blood fluke is an example of a parasite that lives inside its host: we call
it an endoparasite. Other parasites, such as the head louse, live on the
surface of the host: they are called ectoparasites. Every parasite is specially Figure 10 A caterpillar of the privet hawk moth. It
adapted to live in or on its particular host, and to spread from one host to lives only on privet.
62 Biology for life

another. The host forms an essential part of the parasites' biotic environment.
Organisms which live in or on the bodies of other organisms don't always
harm their hosts. For instance, mosses and lichens grow on the trunks and
branches of trees. However, they don't feed on the tree's tissues and they
don't damage it in any way. We call these organisms epiphytes.
In some cases the two organisms which live together help each other. Such
is the case with the nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live in the roots of
leguminous plants (see page 52). An association between two organisms
which help each other is called mutualism. (It is also known as symbiosis,
but this word is gradually being replaced by mutualism.)

Colonisation and succession: a changing environment

Suppose you have an area of bare rock, and you leave it entirely alone. In
time it becomes colonised by organisms. First lichens, and later on mosses,
start growing on the rock. These, along with various physical factors such as
wind and rain, break the surface of the rock into particles. Eventually the
particles accumulate to form soil. First various grasses and weeds appear,
forming a covering of low vegetation. Then larger plants such as gorse and
broom grow up, turning the area into a scrub. Next, shrubs such as hawthorn
develop, and later on small trees such as birch and mountain ash grow up.
Finally, large trees such as oak and beech become established (Figure 12).
There is thus a series of changes, one after the other. We call this a
succession. The plants present at one stage alter the environment in such a
way that new species can move in. In other words each lot of plants prepares
Figure 11 Lichens growing on rock-the beginning the habitat for the next lot. For example, oak and beech are able to move in at
of a succession? the end of the succession because the shrubs prepare the way for them: the
shrubs shade the ground and prevent other plants from developing, but oak
and beech seedlings don't mind being shaded so they survive.
While changes occur in the vegetation, changes also occur in the animals
present in the habitat. For example, once the shrubs and trees grow up, birds
and squirrels can move in and make their homes in them.
Once the large trees are established no further changes occur and the
community has reached a climax. The only things that can change it now are
a forest fire, or chopping down the trees.
Sometimes an animal may prevent a succession from continuing. For
example, grazing animals such as rabbits and sheep will keep an area in a
grassy state and prevent shrubs and trees from developing.

Figure 12 A plant succession.

 What controls where organisms live? 63

Investigation 1 -Investigation 4 -

To find out how blowfly larvae react sheet of paper. An interesting project
to light
Have you noticed a green powdery
1 Obtain a sheet of white paper 5 Switch the lamp on and observe the
substance on the bark of tree trunks? It
approximately 24 cm long. blowfly larvae.
consists of a certain kind of organism.
How do they react to your switching on
2 Direct a lamp towards one end of the Carry out your own experiments to
sheet of paper. the lamp? Why is this response useful
to them in their natural environment? answer these questions:
3 Switch the lamp off and darken the
What could you do to make sure their 1 What kind of organism does the
room.
response is not caused by heat from green powder consist of? (Hint: use
4 Place about six blowfly larvae on the the lamp? a microscope!)

2 On which side of the tree trunk does it

occur? (Hint: find the percentage
rInvestigation 2 cover, using a small quadrat.)

3 What environmental factors might

To find out how woodlice react to allow time for these conditions to influence its distribution on the tree
humidity develop. trunk? (Hint: which side of the tree
1 Set up the choice chamber faces the sun?)
2 Place about ten woodlice in the
containing a dry area and a moist choice chamber. What general conclusions do you
area as shown in the illustration draw from your investigations?
below. 3 Observe the woodlice at intervals
during the next half hour or so.
Anhydrous calcium chloride powder
absorbs water, so the air on this side
Which end of the choice chamber do PAssignments -

woodlice seem to prefer?

of the choice chamber will become
very dry. In contrast, the air above 1 Name as many organisms as you
Where do woodlice live, and how does
can think of which form the
the water will become relatively this fit in with the results of your
biological environment of each of
humid. Wait at least ten minutes to experiment?
thefollwing:
a) a mosquito,
b) a tapeworm,
c) a butterfly,
d) a lion,
e) a tadpole.

2 A brick wall runs east-west. There

are mosses on the north side but
not on the south side.

P Investigation 3 Suggest two possible reasons for

this. Describe experiments which
To see if Euglena is attracted C Leave uncovered. you could do to find out which
towards light suggestion is correct.
3 Place the three tubes under a lamp
1 Obtain three specimen tubes (not too bright) for about 24 hours. 3 If you put an earthworm on the
containing large numbers of surface of some soil in daylight, it
4 After 24 hours remove the black
Euglena. soon burrows into the soil.
paper from the tubes, and examine
2 Set up the three tubes like this: the distribution of the euglenas in Here are two possible reasons
each tube. why it does this:
ABC
stopper. Whereabouts are the euglenas? a) it is repelled by light
euglenas
What is the reason for setting up b) it is attracted to the soil.
tubes B and C?
rubber band Describe experiments you could
From the results of this experiment can do to find out which reason is
you suggest how plankton is correct.
A Wrap black paper around the
distributed in lakes and seas?
bottom half of the tube. If (b) is correct, what might it be
B Wrap black paper around the How would you find out if your about the soil that attracts the
entire tube. suggestion is true? worm?
 Adaptation and
survival
Figure 1 shows a caterpillar
which looks like a twig. In this
way the animal is camouflaged so it
cannot be seen by its enemies.
This is an example of
adaptation.

Figure 1 (Right) This is not a twig but the caterpillar

of the peppered moth.

What is meant by adaptation?

When we say that an organism is adapted, we mean that its appearance,
behaviour, structure and mode of life make it well-suited to survive in a
particular habitat. The caterpillar in Figure 1 is a particularly striking example
of adaptation. However, all living things are adapted, though it may not
always be obvious (Investigation 1). Every organism must be adapted if it is to
survive.
The pages of this book are full of examples of adaptation. In this topic we
shall consider a few special examples and the way they affect survival.

Shape, colour and pattern

Most animals are clearly adapted in their external appearance, but none more
so than insects. Some insects are wonderfully camouflaged. Many of them
are the same colour as their background. Others have the same colour and
shape as objects like leaves, twigs, thorns and even flowers (Figure 2). In this
way they avoid being seen by other animals.
Some insects with distinctive markings are unpleasant to eat. Animals such
Figure 2 Can you see the praying mantis in the as birds learn to recognise these markings, and they avoid eating these
picture above? It looks just like a flower. particular insects. Some insects which are good to eat have the same
markings as those that are not. So predators will avoid these insects too. This
is known as mimicry, and it is a useful means of defence (Figure 3).

Plants that feed on animals

We usually think that animals feed on plants, but there are some plants that
feed on animals. Such plants are adapted in different ways to capture small
animals, especially insects. They may have leaves with sticky hairs, as in
sundew, or leaves which close over and trap the insects, as in the Venus fly
trap. Some have leaves shaped like jars, as in the pitcher plant (Figure 4). The
insects fall into the 'jar' and cannot escape.
The plants digest their prey with enzymes. Then they absorb the dissolved
substances, which are mostly broken down proteins. The plants are green
and can make their own carbohydrate food. They may have become adapted
to feeding on animals because many of them live in places where the soil is
poor in nitrogen-containing substances.

A detailed look at adaptation: the vertebrate limb

In Figure 5 you can see the forelimbs of four mammals including the human.
Notice how they differ. In each case, the limb is adapted to do a particular
job. For example, in the bat the fingers are greatly lengthened to support the
Figure 3 The hoverfly in the top picture looks like the wing, which is used for flying. In contrast the seal has short, flat fingers to
wasps in the bottom picture.
support the flipper, which is used in swimming.
 Adaptation and survival 65

4 f"

|
human seal bat pig
(grasping) (swimming) (flying) (trotting)

Figure 5 These diagrams show how the forelimbs of

four different mammals are adapted to carry out
different functions.

.upper part of limb

.lower part of limb

Figure 4 Pitcher plants. On the left an insect is being digested by enzymes in the
pitcher. _ankle or wrist
big toe or thumb
Although the limbs illustrated in Figure 5 are all different and are used in
different ways, they are all built on the same basic plan. This is illustrated in
Figure 6; it is known as the pentadactyl limb - the word pentadactyl comes
from Greek and literally means 'having five digits' (fingers or toes). This kind
of limb is found in amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, though in
different groups it is adapted to serve different purposes. digits

Structures which have the same fundamental design, though they may be
Figure 6 The pentadactyl limb with its five digits.
used for different purposes, are described as homologous. The limbs of The legs of all land-dwelling vertebrates, including
vertebrates provide a particularly good example of homologous structures, the mammals shown in Figure 5, are all variations on
though there are many other examples (Investigation 2). the basic theme;
66 Biology for life

Does adaptation work?

When you look at an organism you can usually see certain features which
appear to be useful adaptations. But how can we be sure that a particular
feature actually helps the organism to survive?
To answer this let's look at an animal which is common in Britain: the
peppered moth (Investigation 3). There are two forms of this moth: a white
form and a black form. In the 1950s a scientist called Bernard Kettlewell
studied the distribution of the peppered moth in Britain, and he found that in
industrial areas such as Manchester and Birmingham the black form was the
more common, whereas in non-industrial areas such as Cornwall and the
north of Scotland the white form was the more common.
How can we explain these observations? The peppered moth rests on tree
trunks and is fed on by thrushes which peck them off the trees. In
non-industrial areas, the tree trunks are usually covered in lichens which are
light in colour: against this background the white form of the moth is well
camouflaged, whereas the black form shows up clearly (Figure 7). As a
result, the thrushes take mainly the black moths, and the white ones survive.
However, in industrial areas the tree trunks are darkened by soot: here the
black form of the moth is camouflaged, whereas the white form shows up
(Figure 8). The result is that in these aFeas the thrushes take mainly the
white ones and the black ones survive.
We can sum this up by saying that in industrial areas the black colour is a
useful adaptation. On the other hand, in non-industrial areas the white
colour is a useful adaptation.
The peppered moth is not only a good example of adaptation, but it also
shows us how evolution can take place. The black form of the moth arose
during the 19th century, and the industrial revolution, blackening the trees,
Figure 7 White and black peppered moths resting enabled it to survive and spread.
on a light-coloured tree trunk.

Behavioural adaptation
Many organisms show interesting adaptations in the way they behave. An
example of this is seen in the way they respond to stimuli, such as touch.
Take Amoeba for example. It's rather difficult to prod an animal as small as
an amoeba, but scientists have managed to do this. The animal reacts by
moving away.
Touch is one of many stimuli to which Amoeba reacts. Other stimuli include
temperature (hot or cold), and chemical substances in the water. The
organism moves either towards or away from the stimulus, depending on
whether it is pleasant or unpleasant.
Another example of a useful response is seen in the earthworm. If you go
out into the garden with a torch on a warm, wet night, you will see
earthworms lying on the ground. During the day they stay underground, but
at night when it is dark they come up onto the surface.
When a worm comes out of the soil it keeps its hind end in its burrow
If you touch the worm, or if a bird pecks at it, the worm retreats quickly into
its burrow. It does this by pushing out its bristles: this gives it a firm grip on
the sides of the burrow. At the same time the longitudinal muscles
throughout the body contract rapidly. All this happens very quickly, so the
worm pulls back into its burrow before it is harmed. This rapid escape
response is brought about by messages being sent at high speed down the
nerve cord. These messages are sent off as soon as the skin is touched.
Earthworms respond to other stimuli besides touch. For example, they
move away from light: this is why they burrow into the soil and only come
out at night. They also move away from unpleasant chemicals in the soil.
An organism's ability to react in this kind of way is very important. It has
the effect of guiding it away from harmful situations into places where it is
most likely to survive.
Figure 8 White and black peppered moths resting In addition many animals have elaborate behaviour patterns which help
on a dark-coloured tree trunk. them to find food and to reproduce successfully.
 Adaptation and survival 67

-Investigation 1- Investigation 3- ~Assignments-

Some examples of adaptation Camouflage in the peppered moth 1 Give one example of how a named
1 Examine various organisms, or animal or plant is adapted to its
1 Set up a moth trap as instructed by
pictures of organisms, provided by environment, excluding any of the
your teacher.
your teacher. examples given in this Topic.
Leave it running overnight in a safe
2 Use the classification on pages 2 Why is it an advantage to an insect
place out of doors. (A good place
14-19 to find out what group each to taste unpleasant?
would be a flat roof in your school.)
organism belongs to. 3 Write down one special adaptation
2 Next day carefully examine the
3 Examine each organism carefully, which would be needed to enable:
moths.
and write down one way in which it a) a small mammal to feed on the
appears to be well-adapted to its Which ones are peppered moths? fruits from the top of a tree,
environment. b) a lizard to avoid being seen by
The proper name of this moth is
birds in a sandy desert,
In each case explain how you think Biston betularia.
c) a parasitic worm to live on the
the adaptation may help it to survive. What kind are present: white or gills of a trout,
black-or both? d) the leaves of a plant to avoid
4 Search for organisms around your
home or school. Look carefully being eaten by cows,
3 Put dead specimens of the white
because they may be camouflaged! e) a fish to be equally at home in
and black moth on sheets of light
Good places to look are in leaf litter, fresh water and the sea.
and dark paper. Against which
under stones and amongst shrubs. background is each kind of moth 4 Hover flies have yellow stripes and
Alternatively use one or more of the camouflaged best? look very like wasps, but they are
collecting methods described on not wasps at all, they are flies and
page 13. 4 Put the moth trap out again for
do not sting.
several nights and examine the
5 Examine each organism and note moths each day. Count the numbers Why is it useful to hover flies to look
how it is adapted to living in its of white and black ones. like wasps?
particular habitat.
Which are the most common? 5 Fifty black mice and 50 white mice
Can you explain your observations in were released into an area
Be sure to include plants as well as
terms of the darkness of the tree trunks inhabited by a pair of owls. After
animals.
in your area? four months the mice in the area
were recaptured: only 38 black and
nine white mice remained.
How would you explain this result?
-Investigation 2 What further experiments could you
do to find out if your explanation is
An example of homology correct?
1 Obtain preserved specimens of a 4 In each box describe the shape and 6 The picture below shows the
locust, butterfly, beetle and housefly. form of each wing, and say what it is appearance of a certain moth,
used for. viewed from above when at rest. Of
2 Examine the wings of these animals,
the forewings first, and then the How is the structure of each wing what possible value might its
hindwings. markings be?
adapted to perform its function?
3 Draw the following table in your What other homologous structures can Describe further observations which
notebook: could be carried out to test your
you see in these four insects?
suggestion.

locust butterfly beetle housefly

forewing

hindwing
 A look at two
A wood
habitats The dominant plants in a wood are, of course, the trees. There are many sorts
of wood, depending on the kinds of trees that occur there (Figure 1).
shall look at
We A wood like the one in Figure 1 can be divided into a series of layers (Figure
two different habitats 2). The ground layer may be covered with litter consisting of dead leaves
which have fallen off the trees and shrubs. When the litter decays it forms
and some of the organisms
humus. This makes woodland soil very rich.
that live in them. Woodland plants tend to have tall, strong stems to raise the leaves into a
good position for getting light. Their stems and branches contain lots of
strengthening tissue, particularly woody fibres. In the summer, when the
leaves are out, the canopy shades the smaller plants underneath. However,
some of these smaller plants are able to photosynthesise in dim light, and
some come into leaf before the trees do. The canopy of beech trees is so dense
that very few plants can grow underneath.
Woods tend to be damp places, and they offer a refuge for all sorts of
animals that would dry out in the open. Each of the layers shown in Figure 2
supports certain animals. Some of them are illustrated in Figure 3.
The various layers support other organisms besides animals. For example,
tree trunks are often covered on one side by thousands of microscopic green
organisms called Pleurococcus. If you have done Investigation 4 on page 63
you will have met this organism already. It is shown, highly magnified, in
Figure 3 (the bottom right hand picture).
Pleurococcus is an example of a plant-iike organism which lives attached to
the surface of a plant. Many other plants and plant-like organisms do this:
they are epiphytes (see page 62). Examples include lichens, mosses and, in
wetter areas, ferns. You can often see them clinging to the trunks and
branches of trees. They get their nutrients from little bits of humus which
collect in crevices in the bark. They don't grow into the tree itself; they just
use it for support.
Trees also support various climbers. For example, you often see ivy
growing up tree trunks. The stem sends out hundreds of little rootlets which
cling to the bark.
There are many different kinds of woods. Some contain coniferous trees,
others deciduous trees. A deciduous wood may contain just one type of tree
Figure 1 A wood. such as beech or oak, or there may be a mixture of trees. It depends on many
different things, particularly the type of soil. For instance, beech and ash tend
Figure 2 A section through a wood, showing the to like chalky soil whereas birch and Scots pine prefer acid soil (see page 81).
different layers.

_tree layer
e.g. oak

_shrub layer
e.g. hazel

-field layer (herbs)

J e.g. bluebell
-^0|. — ground layer
e.g. moss
 A look at two habitats 69

Song Thrush Makes its nest in trees and shrubs. Feeds mainly on
the ground. Likes eating snails (by smashing shells against a stone)
worms, insects and berries. Because it flies it can make good use of Ground beetle (insect) First pair of wings form a shield which
the tree canopy. / protects the delicate second pair of wings. Lives in litter but has
relatives found in other places such as under the bark of trees. Has
jaws (mandibles) and feeds mainly on plant material.

Grey Squirrel Has sharp hooked claws for climbing trees, powerful
hind legs for running and a bushy tail to help it keep its balance
along narrow branches. Feeds on nuts, seeds and berries. Eaten by Woodlouse (crustacean) Tends to collect in dark, damp places -
birds of prey. Makes nest in a tree hollow or in the canopy of a tree. under logs and in litter at foot of trees. Loses water quickly and soon
dies if exposed to hot sun. Scuttles about on seven pairs of legs,
and rolls up into a ball when touched. Feeds mainly on leaves and
dead matter.

Snail (mollusc) Found in dark, moist places such as in leaf litter at

foot of trees. Feeds on leaves and other vegetable matter which it
rasps with a special toothed organ called the radula. Pulls head and
foot into shell for protection. Breathes through a small hole under the
edge of the shell which leads into a simple lung. Glides on a slimy Pleurococcus Single cell, about 20 ju.m wide. Spherical shape.
(mucous) trail by means of ripples which pass forward along the Occurs in vast numbers on damp walls and tree trunks usually on
underside of the foot. Head bears two pairs of tentacles, one of north-facing surfaces. Cell has cell wall and does not move around.
which has eyes at the end. Eyes are sensitive to light. The snail goes Chloroplast for feeding by photosynthesis. Nucleus (black spot) is in
into its shell, in a dormant state, in very cold or dry weather. centre of cell. Cells sometimes divide into small groups.

Figure 3 A selection of organisms that may be found in a typical wood

70 Biology for life

A fresh-water pond
The particular organisms found in a pond will depend on whether water
flows through it or is stagnant, and whether the bottom is rocky, stony or
muddy.
Figure 4 shows a typical pond, and some of its inhabitants are shown in
Figure 5.
Living in water is very different from living on land. The plants don't have
to rely on their roots to get water and mineral salts from the ground; they can
take them in all over their surface. This also means that they do not need
conducting (vascular) tissue. They can exchange gases with the water, and so
their leaves do not need stomata. Because they are supported by the water
they do not need the strengthening tissues found inland plants. Instead they
have large air spaces in their stems or leaves to help them float so that they
can get plenty of light for photosynthesis.
For the animals there is no danger of drying out, and so there are many
soft-skinned forms, including the young stages of many insects. The animals
show various adaptations for breathing. The smaller ones exchange gases
through their skins, while larger ones often have gills. Some have breathing
tubes for taking in air at the surface, while others bring down a bubble of air
into the water. And there are some which live on top of the surface film.
Many water animals feed by filtering small organisms from the water, while
others are carnivorous.
You can see some of the features mentioned above in the organisms shown
in Figure 6.

Figure 4 A fresh-water pond.

dragonfly

stickleback water
boatman
arrowhead water lily duckweed great pond mosquito water
diving skater iarvae scorpion
beetle and pupae

water crowfoot

tadpoles

water snail

mussel

leech caddis larva Tubifex newt

dragonfly nymph great diving bloodworms
beetle larva

Figure 5 A section through the edge of a pond, showing some of the animals and plants which live there.
 A look at two habitats 71

- Investigation -

mature leaf Water lily (flowering plant) Studying a habitat

The large leaves lie on the 1 Visit youphabitat. Use one or more
surface of the water and carry
out photosynthesis. Upper of the methods described on page
side of the leaves is covered 13 to collect organisms in your
with a waxy cuticle so that
water runs off easily. Lower
habitat.
side has no stomata, and only
a thin cuticle through which What does each organism feed on?
gases easily diffuse. The floppy
stalks contain air spaces What, if anything, feeds on it?
which help it to float and
supply oxygen to the underground Construct a-food chain or web for
parts. Grows from a rhizome which the habitat, making clear which
is buried in the mud. It does not
have well-developed roots because organisms are producers,
it can absorb water and mineral consumers and decomposers.
salts all over its surface.
2 Make a general map of the habitat
as instructed by your teacher.

3 Describe, and where necessary

measure, the physical features of
the environment (see pages
58- 61).

4 Make a line transect across the

habitat (see page 56). For the pond
the line should start on the bank and
Water boatman (insect) go down into the water.
Pond skater (insect)
Belongs to the bug family. Another member of the bug
Why do certain organisms occupy
Uses four of its legs to skate family. Swims on its back:
over the pond. The legs are its powerful hind legs are particular positions in the habitat?
long and thin and do not break flattened and have stiff hairs
the surface film of the which help them push against How are they adapted to live there?
water. If it goes under water the water. Swims to the
to escape enemies, it quickly surface every now and again and
bobs up again and is kept dry
by a coating of hairs on its
collects a bubble of air which
it carries between rows of - Assignments -

underside. Feeds on dead hairs on the abdomen.

Attacks small fish and tadpoles
or dying insects floating on 1 Choose one woodland plant and
the water; it holds its food with its sharp proboscis, and
with its front legs while it sucks then sucks up their juices. one woodland animal and describe
how each is adapted to its habitat.

2 In what ways is living in a fresh¬

water pond different from living on
Caddis fly larva (insect)
land?
Lives in a portable case
which it makes from sticks,
small stones or leaves stuck
3 Of all the animals in Figure 5, which
together with silk. Only one do you think is closest to being
the head and thorax come out
fully terrestrial, and which one is
of the case; the abdomen is held
inside by two little hooks. Breathes least so? Give reasons for your
by means of delicate gills answer.
on either side of the abdomen.
Has jaws for feeding on plants 4 Make a table comparing a water lily
or, in some species, other animals.
with the kind of lily that grows on
land.

5 What special features would you

Bloodworm (insect)
expect each of the following animals
This is the larva of a midge- a
kind of fly. Its red colour is caused to possess:
by the presence of haemoglobin a) one that lives in the mud at the
which helps it to get oxygen from
stagnant water. Lives in mud
bottom of a pond;
tube at the bottom of a pond b) one that lives in the canopy layer
and creates a current of water
of a wood?
for breathing by gently waving
its body. Leaves its tube from
6 Choose one organism from this
time to time and swims with a
jerky, wriggling motion. Topic. Discuss the consequences
of destroying its niche.
Figure 6 A selection of organisms that live in fresh-water ponds.
I—Changes through
the year
There are great
differences between summer
and winter. How do organisms
respond to these
differences ?

Figure 2 A horse-chestnut twig in the spring. The How do trees and shrubs survive the winter?
top photograph shows the terminal bud just
beginning to open. The bottom photograph shows Think of a tree such as a horse-chestnut. How does it manage to survive the
the same bud three weeks later. winter? Here are three reasons:

1 It has a thick layer of corky bark which protects its trunk and branches, and
helps to keep the tissues underneath warm.
2 The horse-chestnut is deciduous and drops its leaves in the autumn. As a
result far less water evaporates from the tree than would otherwise be the
case. This is useful because if the ground freezes the roots can't take up
water from the soil. A plant whose roots are in frozen soil is as short of
water as a plant living in a dry desert.
3 As winter sets in, the tree becomes dormant: it goes to sleep, as it were,
and no further growth or activity takes place. It remains in this state until
the following spring.

Twigs
If you look at a twig of, say, a horse-chestnut tree in winter, you will find that
it looks pretty dead (Investigation): the leaves have dropped off, leaving only
a series of scars where they were attached. The buds are closed and dormant,
and there is no sign of life. However, in the following spring, things begin to
happen: the terminal bud at the end opens up and a leafy shoot grows out
(Figures 1 and 2). After a few weeks a group of flowers is formed, and later on
seeds are produced. In the autumn the fruits appear: the horse-chestnut fruit
Figure 3 A horse-chestnut twig in the autumn contains the familiar 'conker' which is actually the seed (Figure 3).
showing several fruits.
 Changes through the year 73

- Investigation -

Looking at horse-chestnut twigs

1 In spring look at a horse-chestnut twig
whose buds are still closed.

Which structures in Figure 1 can you

see?
An area of weakness grows across the Eventually only the veins are
base of the leaf stalk from the outside left running through. Only one 2 Stand the twig in a jar of water in a warm,
inwards. The natural ‘glue’ by which the vein is shown in this diagram.
packing cells are normally stuck well-lit place, and leave it.
together dissolves.
3 Observe the way the terminal bud opens
3
and gives rise to a new leafy shoot.
a leaf scar
leaf scar (cork)
from in front
Make simple sketches at intervals to
illustrate exactly what happens.

4 Later in the spring look at a tree whose

marks left
shoots have formed flowers.
The leaf loosens and falls off. In the by veins
meantime a layer of cork develops (vascular 5 In the autumn look at a tree which
under the area of weakness and bundles) bears fruits.
this makes a leaf scar after the leaf in leaf stalk
has fallen off. What are the functions of the buds,
leaves, flowers and fruits of a horse-
Figure 4 These diagrams show what happens when a leaf falls off a tree or shrub. Look
chestnut tree? Where would you look
at the top two diagrams first, then the bottom two. for a horse-chestnut seed?

6 Follow a twig from the tip backwards.

What makes the leaves fall off? How does its appearance change as
you go further back? Try to explain the
As winter approaches a layer of cells grows across the leaf stalk at the point changes.
where it's attached to the main stem or branch: the cells form a partition,
leaving only the veins (vascular bundles) running through (Figure 4). This
creates a region of weakness at the base of the stalk, and eventually it breaks
and the leaf falls off. A layer of cork then grows over the cut surface, creating
a leaf scar in which the marks left by the veins can be seen.

Autumn tints r- Assignments -

Why do leaves change colour in the autumn? You may know that leaves
contain yellow and orange pigments (xanthophyll and carotene) in addition 1 Explain each of the following:
to the green pigment chlorophyll; however, there is normally so much
(a) bud scale, (b) leaf scar,
chlorophyll in the leaf that these other pigments don't show up. Towards the
(c) scale scar, (d) lenticel.
end of the summer the chlorophyll breaks down and disappears, but the
other pigments remain. So the leaves change from green to yellow or orange. 2 In a winter twig, what may each of the
In addition, the leaves of some plants start making red and purple pigments following give rise to:
(anthocyanins) at this time, and this makes their leaves particularly beautiful.
(a) terminal bud, (b) lateral bud?

3 Why do leaves change colour from green

Other changes
to yellow in the autumn?
Many other changes take place in the autumn. Migrant birds depart; many
4 In the autumn a frost may cause the
animals hibernate; many herbaceous plants die back and rest in the soil as
leaves to fall sooner than would
perennating organs. Seeds which have been produced during the summer
otherwise be the case.
remain dormant until the next spring.
When spring arrives the migrant birds return; animals come out of Explain why this is. What other weather
hibernation; herbaceous plants send up new shoots and seeds germinate. conditions, besides frost, may hasten the
This is the mating season when many animals produce offspring. They are falling of leaves?
stimulated to do so by an increase in the amount of sex hormones in the
5 How could scientists prove that it’s the
body, and this in turn is brought on by the longer period of light each day.
longer period of light in each day which
Changes in the daily light are also responsible for making many plants
makes an animal mate in the spring?
flower.
 Social insects
The honey bee
Certain insects live Wild bees usually live in a nest in a hollow tree or some other suitable place.
together in an organised Bee-keepers rear them in specially constructed hives (Figure 1) so as to get
society or colony. This helps them honey from them.

to survive in their environment.

We call them social insects. Who's who in the beehive?
A large hive may contain more than 50000 bees. They are all descended from
one individual, the queen (Figure 2). So a colony of bees is really one
enormous family. The queen is the head of the colony. Her only job is to lay
eggs-
Several hundred male bees may be present in the hive. These are called
drones. Their only job is to mate with a queen.
The remaining bees are workers. They are sterile females which cannot
reproduce. Their job is to look after the hive, feed the queen and the drones,
rear the young and perform sundry other tasks; in short, to do all the work.
Each of these three types of individuals has its own particular job to do. No
one steps out of line; the idea of worker bees going on strike is unheard of!
There is thus a strict division of labour within the hive (Investigation 1).

The structure of the hive

Inside the hive, the workers make combs out of wax. The wax is produced by
glands on the abdomen. The worker takes wax from these glands, moistens it
with saliva, and moulds it into shape with its mandibles.
A comb consists of numerous chambers called cells. The cells are about
2 cm deep, and usually they slope so that the contents do not fall out. They fit
together neatly as shown in Figure 3.
In the cells towards the top of the comb, the bees store honey. In the cells
lower down, pollen is stored. In the bottom-most cells the young are reared:
workers are reared in the smallest cells, drones in slightly larger cells, and
queens in specially large cone-shaped cells near the edge of the comb.

What is honey?
Figure 1 Worker bees in a hive.
Honey is the main food that bees live on. It is made by the workers from
nectar, the sugary fluid found in flowers. When a worker visits a flower, it
sucks up the nectar with its tongue-like proboscis, and stores it in its
stomach. In the stomach the nectar is turned into honey.
When the bee returns to the hive, it regurgitates the honey into one of the
cells of the comb. The worker then closes the cell with a wax lid. Honey is
queen
stored in the comb for use later on.
Man can take honey from bees because they normally make far more than
they need. In a man-made hive, the bees construct their combs inside
wooden frames. The top ones, where the honey is stored, can be taken out
easily. In a good summer a hive can produce enough honey to fill 100 pots.

Producing new individuals

In the small cells towards the bottom of the comb, the queen lays eggs. These
hatch into larvae which will give rise to workers (Figure 4).
For the first few days the workers feed the larva on a special substance from
their mouths, called royal jelly. Then they switch the diet to a mixture of
pollen and honey.
By the end of a week, the larva is fully grown. The worker now puts a lid
on the cell. Inside, the larva pupates and two weeks later an adult worker
emerges.
Drones and new queens are produced in a similar way except that they are
Figure 2 The three types of individual found in a bee reared in larger cells and new queens are fed on nothing but royal jelly.
colony. Each has Its own job to do.
 Social insects 75

The worker bee

The workers live for about two months, during which time they move from central partition
between rows
one job to another. To begin with they clean out the cells and feed the larvae. of cells
Then they build new combs. Later they defend the hive against intruders. In
the last few weeks they collect nectar and pollen from flowers.
The structure of the worker bee suits it for these jobs (Figure 5). Its mouth
parts are adapted for sucking nectar from flowers, and its legs are adapted for
collecting pollen. It has special structures for making the wax combs, and the
egg-laying tube has been turned into a sting for defence (Investigation 2).

Defending the hive

A worker on guard duty stands at the entrance of the hive, looking out for
wasps, mice and other animals which might come to the hive to steal honey.
Some bees are particularly fierce and will make a mass attack on anyone who
_entrance to
comes too near their nest.
cell
The worker's main weapon is its sting. This is a sharp needle-like tube with
a poison sac at the base. The sting has tiny^barbs sticking out of it, like a fish
hook, so when the bee has used its sting it may not be able to pull it out. The
result is that when the bee flies away, the sting gets left behind. Unluckily for
the bee, part of its gut gets left behind too, so it dies soon afterwards.
The queen bee has no barbs on her sting, so it does not stay in the victim's
body and can be used again. The same applies to wasp stings.

wings
for flying
and ventilating
hive queen cell

Figure 3 Part of a comb. The picture shows worker

hairs bees putting pollen into the cells.
for collecting
compound eye pollen
for seeing

feelers
stomach for
(antennae)
storing nectar
for smelling.

gland
for producing sting for
royal jelly killing enemies queen lays egg
in cell
mandibles,
for moulding wax
wax glands worker feeds
for producing wax larva
proboscis for making the
for sucking up comb
nectar larva grows

pollen comb
for scraping pollen
off abdomen worker puts lid
on cell

notch pollen press

for pushing pollen larva pupates
for cleaning
into pollen basket inside cell
antennae

new worker
pollen basket
for holding pollen emerges
when flying back to hive

Figure 5 This diagram summarises the various ways a worker bee is suited to carry out Figure 4 This picture shows how worker bees are
its different jobs. produced in a hive.
7c> V- i;w

How is a new colony started?

It the number of bees becomes 11x1 great, the reigning queen leaves the hive
and starts a new colony somewhere else. Accompanied by about half the
workers, she flies off in a swarm. Often the swarm hangs from a branch of a
tree, while some of the workers go off in search of a suitable nesting site
(Figure 6). A bee-keeper who wants to start a new hive will capture a swarm
in a basket and put them in a hive.
Meanwhile, back in the old hive, a new queen takes over. A few weeks
before the swarm took off, the workers reared several new queens. I he first
queen to emerge immediately stings the other ones and kills them, thereby
establishing herself as head of the colony.
After a short while, the new queen flies away from the hive with all the
drones in hot pursuit. This is called her marriage flight. The first drone to
catch her mates with her in mid-air. In the process his reproductive organs
are ripped out of his body and soon afterwards he dies. From this one drone
the queen receives enough sperms to last her entire life.
After mating, the queen returns to Hie hive. She now moves from cell to
Figure 6 A swarm of bees hanging from a tree cell, laying eggs. In the summer she may lay several thousand a day, but she
branch stops during the winter.

How do worker bees communicate?

On returning to the hive from a food-gathering trip, a worker can tell other
workers where to find the food. This was discovered by the German scientist
Karl von Frisch.
When the worker gets Kick to the hive, it does a dance (Figure 7). If the
food is close to the hive the bee dances in a circle. This is called the round
dance. The closer the food, the faster the dance.
iwnd dance
If the food is more than about 100 metres away, the worker dances in a
figure of eight, waggling its abdomen as it does the straight run in the
Figure 7 The two kinds of dance which the worker middle. This waggle dance tells other bees not only how far away the food is,
bees perform but also in what direction it is. The distance is given by the speed of the
dance: the faster the dance, the closer the food. Von Frisch claims that its
direction is given by the position of the dance relative to the sun. While a
worker is dancing, other workers gather round in an excited manner and
after a few seconds they fly off in the exact direction of the food.
While the bees are dancing they make various piping noises. Some
scientists feel that these noises rather than the dances, tell the other bees
where the food is.

Other social insects

Wasps, ants and termites have a social system which is similar to the bee's,
though the details are different.
Wasps build nests out of a papery material which they make by chewing
wood to a pulp. Their nests hang from the branches of trees or the eaves of
buildings. They feed mainly on nectar and any other sugary substances they
can find. They have different kinds of individuals like bees, but they don't
communicate with each other by dances.
Ants live in underground nests with interconnecting tunnels and chambers
for raising the young. They have workers which in some species attack and
kill prey. The workers feed the colony gathering food and bringing it back to
the nest. It you disturb an ants' nest the workers will pick up the larvae and
cocoons in their jaws and carry them to deeper parts of the nest. At certain
times of the year winged males and females fly away from the nest and mate.
The female returns to the ground and starts a new colony.
Some ants keep ‘cows and milk them. Their 'cows' are aphids which feed
on plant juices. The aphids produce a sugary liquid called honeydew. An ant
goes up to an aphid which is full of honeydew and strokes it with her feelers.
I he aphid responds by passing out a droplet of honeydew which the ant eats.
Figure 8 A termite mound m West Africa
 Social insects 77

The aphids benefit because they are protected from enemies by the ants. If
there is danger the ants drive away the intruders and carry the aphids to
safety. Some ants build shelters on the plant stems for their aphids, and some
even keep them in their nests.
Termites live in tropical and semi-tropical regions where they feed mainly
on wood and dead plant material in the soil. Some species live in nests which
consist of large mounds (Figure 8). Others make nests in trees, or burrow
underground, or tunnel out cavities in timber or woodwork. They do much
damage, particularly in the tropics, where they weaken and even destroy
wooden buildings. A hut may be completely demolished in a matter of
weeks.
The queen is fertilised by a single male, the king. The young develop
gradually, like the locust. The workers are nymphs which never grow up into
adults, so termites can be said to use 'child labour'! Termites have individuals
called soldiers which defend the nest. For fighting, these soldiers have large
jaws, or in some cases a 'squirt gun' on the head (Figure 9). This shoots out an
Figure 9 This soldier termite squirts a sticky liquid at
unpleasant liquid which drives the enemy away.
any animal that tries to enter its nest.

■Investigation 1 - Investigation 2 -

Looking at the three types of bee To see how the worker bee is 4 Examine prepared slides of the
adapted to do its jobs mouth parts of a worker bee under
1 Obtain preserved specimens of a
the microscope. Observe the
queen bee, drone and worker. 1 Watch, or see a film of, worker bees
proboscis and the mandibles,
visiting flowers and doing their other
2 Use Figure 2 to help you decide
duties. What is each used for?
which is which.
2 Now examine a preserved specimen 5 Examine prepared slides of the front
Why do you think they differ in size?
of a worker bee. Use a hand lens to and hind legs of a worker bee under
3 Draw the three bees in outline, help you see it in more detail. the microscope.
making clear their differences in size
3 Make a list of the adaptations shown Observe in detail the adaptations
and shape.
in Figure 5 which you can see in your shown in Figure 5 for collecting
What are the main jobs performed own specimen. pollen.
by each type of bee?

Assignments
1 Explain each of the following, all but to how this might work.
one of which are mentioned in this
4 How does the organisation of a bee 6 Drone bees have been described as
Topic:
hive compare with the organisation ‘lazy, stupid, fat and greedy1 2 3.
drone,
of a human society such as a town?
royal jelly, Do you think this is a fair
queen substance, 5 Suggest a reason for each of the description?
marriage flight, following:
7 Find out as much as you can about
round dance.
a) the cells in a bee comb are one particular species of ant, and
2 Why does a worker bee die after it hexagonal in shape; compare its social organisation with
has stung someone, and why does a b) in a poor summer bees make that of the honey bee.
drone bee die after it has mated with less honey than usual;
Which do you think has the more
a queen? c) when a bee colony gets above a
complex society? Give reasons for
certain size, half the bees leave
3 It is claimed that the worker bees’ your choice.
in a swarm;
figure-of-eight dance (waggle 8 What part do (a) plants (b) bees and
d) an individual bee will often visit
dance) tells other bees where food (c) humans play in making a pot of
only one kind of flower, ignoring
is. others; honey?
How could you find out if this is true9 e) worker bees often sit on the cells
Put forward your own suggestion as which contain developing larvae.
 —What is soil?-
How is soil formed?
Soil is the surface of the
Thousands of millions of years ago, the land was covered with bare rock.
earth's crust where plants have Gradually the surface of the rock was broken up by rain, wind, snow and
their roots and where many small frost into small particles. These particles were gradually piled up on top of the
animals make their homes. y4s the rock to form soil.
soil directly affects the growth If you look at a cliff or a new motorway cutting, you will see that the soil is
made up of layers (Figure 1). At the top is a dark layer where plants and other
of plants, it is of the
organisms live. We call this the topsoil: it is formed by surface weathering
utmost importance
and the activities of the many organisms which live in it, and it contains the
to man. decaying remains of dead organisms. It may be covered with dead leaves; this
is called leaf litter.
Beneath the topsoil is a lighter-coloured layer of gravel, stones, clay and so
on. This is called the subsoil. It contains the deeper roots of large plants, like
trees, but otherwise not much lives there.
Further down still is solid rock. This is non-porous and won't let rain
through, so water tends to gather above it. The surface of this water is called
the water table.
These three layers are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2. Their relative
thicknesses, and the position of the water table, vary a great deal from place
to place.

What does soil consist of? '

Soil contains six main components: rock particles, soil water, humus, mineral
salts, lime and air. We shall now look at each in detail.

Rock particles
These vary in size. Depending on their size, they are classified into clay, silt,
sand and gravel (Figure 3). Clay particles are so small that they can only be
seen properly under the microscope. At the other extreme, gravel consists of
small stones which can be separated from the rest of the soil by sieving.
The smaller soil particles can be separated from each other by shaking up a
sample of soil with some water and letting it stand (Investigation 1). The sand
sinks to the bottom, but the tiny clay particles remain suspended in the water
above the sand.
Figure 1 Notice the different layers of soil in this
Rock particles make up the framework of the soil, its 'skeleton' as it were.
cutting. You can get an idea of the scale from the
binoculars. Both clay and sand are important in this respect. Clay holds on to water better
than sand, thus making it sticky and helping to bind the rest of the soil
together. On the other hand, sand is looser and more easily penetrated by air
 What is soil? 79

and water. Good soil consists of a mixture of fhe two: this is called loam.
Loam contains roughly twice as much sand as clay. relative sizes
If you look at some good garden soil you will notice that the particles are
clay
stuck together in small clumps (Investigation 2). These are called soil crumbs:
diameter less than 0.002 mm
they make the soil coarser, helping air to get into-it and water to drain
through it.
The roots of plants grow down between the soil crumbs, gripping them as
they do so. This gives plants a firm anchorage, which is why it is sometimes
hard to pull them up.
silt
diameter 0.002 - 0.02 mm
Soil water
Soil particles are normally surrounded by a thin film of water. It is from these
films that plant roots take up all the water they need. Unless the soil is
excessively dry, these films are always present. What ensures that this is so?
Let's answer this by thinking what happens after a heavy shower of rain
(Figure 4). fine sand
diameter 0.02 - 0.2 mm
Tlye rain sinks down into the soil, wetting the soil particles. Eventually it
reaches the water table. The roots of plants absorb water from the films
surrounding the soil particles, and some water also evaporates from the
surface of the soil. But as quickly as water is lost this way, more is drawn up
from lower down. If you don't believe this, try doing Investigation 3.
The process which causes this is capillary action. It is the same process that coarse sand
causes water, or ink, to spread through a piece of blotting paper, or to rise in diameter 0.2 - 2.0 mm
a narrow capillary tube.
For water to move through the soil like this, the soil particles must be the
right size. If they are too large, water will sink straight through and will not
be pulled up. Such soil is useless: not only does it fail to hold water, but
useful nutrients are washed out of it as the water sinks through. This is called
gravel (small stones)
leaching. On the other hand, if the soil particles are too small and tightly
diameter more than 2.0 mm
packed, water cannot get through - it just stays on top or flows off the
surface.
You can find out how much water is present in a sample of soil by doing
Investigation 4. In good, well-watered soil the water should take up about a Figure 3 The different kinds of particles which make
quarter of the total volume. up soil.
If there is very heavy rain and the drainage is poor, the soil may become
full of water. It is then waterlogged. Waterlogged soil is short of oxygen, so
roots cannot breathe properly. In swamps and bogs the soil is waterlogged all
the time. Only certain kinds of plants will grow in these conditions. In
Figure 4 The water in the soil is constantly on the
waterlogged soil materials will not decay fully.
move, as shown in the diagram.
80 Biology for life

Humus
When animals and plants die in the soil, their dead bodies gradually decay
into a sticky jam-like liquid called humus. The layer of soil where most
humus is found is the topsoil. Much of it comes from the leaf litter on the
surface. Humus is black, so soil that contains a lot of it tends to be a dark
colour. For the gardener one of the best sources of humus is compost (see
page 89).
Humus makes the soil rich in nutrients which are needed for plant growth.
It also forms a sticky coating round the soil particles, helping them to clump
together into soil crumbs. Humus stores water and prevents valuable
nutrients being washed out of the soil when it rains. It also helps to insulate
the soil against extremes of heat and cold.
For material to rot completely, oxygen is needed. If there is not enough
oxygen, it accumulates into a thick carpet of half-decayed material called
peat. If peat is added to well-aerated soil it will decay into humus.
You can find out how much humus is present in a sample of soil by doing
Investigation 5. In good soil humus takes up about a tenth of the total
volume.

Mineral salts
Dissolved in the soil water are various mineral salts. These provide plants
with important elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, and
they are essential for growth.
Some mineral salts come from the rock which formed the soil. They may
give the soil a particular colour: for example, the red soil of Devon contains a
lot of iron salts (Figure 5). Other minerals, such as nitrogen salts, are formed
when humus breaks down. This is why humus is so good for plants.
Figure 5 A red sandstone cliff in Devon.
Lime
Lime comes from limestone, a type of rock which contains chalk. Chalk is
calcium carbonate. All good soil contains a certain amount of this important
chemical substance (Investigation 6).
Lime is important for three main reasons: (1) Calcium is one of the elements
which all plants need for proper growth and development. (2) Lime helps soil
particles to clump together into soil crumbs. (3) Calcium carbonate is alkaline,
and this prevents the soil being too acidic: in gardeners' language it prevents
the soil being 'sour'.
We can express how acidic or alkaline the soil is by a number called the pH.
These numbers are arranged in a scale running from 0 to 14 (Figure 6). A pH
of 7.0 is neutral - neither acidic or alkaline. A pH of less than 7.0 indicates
acidity, and above 7.0 indicates alkalinity. You can do a simple test on
samples of soil to find out their pH (Investigation 7).
Most plants grow best in soil which is round about neutral. However, some
plants like alkaline soil, and others like acidic soil.

Soil air
In good soil there are plenty of spaces between the soil particles and crumbs.
These spaces are filled with air. The oxygen in this air is needed for
respiration by plant roots and the other organisms which live in the soil.
Oxygen is also needed for material to decay into humus - this is because the
microbes responsible for decay are aerobic.
You can find out how much air is present in a sample of soil by the method
I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I
given in Investigation 8. In good soil about a quarter of the volume is taken
Of 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 up by air.

I
more and more acidic I more and more alkaline

neutral
If the soil particles are too tightly packed together, or if the soil is
waterlogged, the amount of oxygen will be lowered, and few organisms will
be able to live there. Decay will not take place fully and so peat will tend to
accumulate.

Figure 6 The pH scale for telling us how acidic or

alkaline a solution is.
 What is soil? 81

Different kinds of soil

You often hear people say that the soil in their garden is dreadful. There are
many different types of soil, some good, some bad. Here are the main types:

Sandy soil
As the name implies, this kind of soil contains mainly-sand. Sandy soil is
loose, light and easy to dig: think how easy it is to dig sand on a beach. It
contains plenty of air, and it drains well. However, it is a cold type of soil
because it readily loses heat. It dries up quickly in hot weather, and useful
chemicals are washed out of it when it rains. So sandy soil is not very fertile.
If you have a garden with sandy soil you should add humus to it. As well
as putting goodness into the soil, the humus helps to bind the sand together.
It also holds on to water when it rains.
You can prevent sandy soil from drying up by spreading a layer of peat or
manure over the surface. This is called mulching and it also helps to keep the
soil warm.

Clay soil
This kind of soil contains a lot of clay. It holds on to water and nutrients very
well, so it tends to be rich in plant food. However, it is extremely heavy and
difficult to dig, being sticky when wet and hard when dry. The soil particles
are held together so tightly that there is little room for air in between. Rain, Figure 7 The White Horse at Cherhill in Wiltshire.
rather than draining through it, runs off the top. The turf has been removed in the shape of a horse,
If you have a lot of clay in your garden, you should add lime to it. This exposing the chalky soil which can be seen from
causes the particles of clay to clump together into soil crumbs, a process miles away.

known as flocculation. This breaks up the soil, getting air to it and draining
it. Clay soils can also be improved by adding humus, which is spongy and
helps air to get into the soil. It also adds goodness to the soil.

Chalky soil
This kind of soil contains a lot of lime. It is therefore very alkaline. As chalky
soil comes from calcareous rock, it looks rather white. It is typical of the
downs of Southern England: if the turf is stripped off, the white soil can be
seen from far away (Figure 7).
Chalky soil is usually rather clayey and therefore difficult to cultivate. If
you have chalky soil in your garden, the best thing is to add humus to it. This
makes it more acidic, and helps to break it up. Although most garden plants
dislike a lot of chalk, many wild flowers thrive on it.

Peaty soil
This kind of soil contains a lot of peat. Although peat is useful, too much of it
can make the soil acidic. Most plants dislike this kind of soil, though some
like it. Moorland soil is very peaty, and heather is one of the few plants to
grow well in such areas (Figure 8). If you have this sort of soil in your garden
you should add plenty of lime to it.

The ideal soil

The best soil is a balanced mixture of sand, clay, humus and lime. What
should their proportions be? Good garden soil should contain roughly: 50 per
cent sand, 30 per cent clay, 12 per cent humus, and 8 per cent lime.
This kind of soil has a pH round about neutral and a fairly loose texture.
Soil crumbs form readily and the particles are of a size which keep the soil
well aerated and allow it to drain easily. Most plants grow well in this sort of
soil. However, there are exceptions. For example, rhododendrons and
azaleas need an acidic soil with lots of peat. On the other hand, clematis likes
an alkaline soil with plenty of lime. Some plants grow surprisingly well in
poor soil. Roses, for instance, thrive in heavy, clay soil; and many grasses and
succulents grow in dry, sandy soil.
Figure 8 Heather and other moorland plants like
living in acid soil.
82 Biology for life

Investigation 1 rInvestigation 4-
Separating the components of soil To find out how much water there is
in soil
1 Quarter fill a large test tube with soil.
1 Half fill a small crucible with soil.
2 Add water until the tube is _humus (floating)
three-quarters full. Notice that air 2 Weigh the soil and crucible.
bubbles are given off: what does this _small clay particles
3 Put the soil and crucible in an oven
(in suspension)
tell you?
at about 100 °C for at least 30
3 Put your hand over the open end of .large clay particles minutes. The water in the soil should
the tube, and shake well. -Silt evaporate.
.sand
4 Put the tube in a rack, and let the soil .gravel (small stones)
4 Put the soil in a desiccator and let it
settle. The heaviest components of cool down.
the soil will sink to the bottom, and
5 Re-weigh the soil and crucible.
the lighter ones will float at various
5 Repeat this experiment with different
levels. 6 Repeat steps 3 to 5 until you get no
kinds of soil and compare the
further change in mass.
Does the appearance of your test amounts of the different components
tube agree with the illustration? in each. What is the difference in the mass of
the soil before and after drying it?

Do you agree that this is the mass of

Investigation 2- the water in the soil sample?

What percentage of the soil is taken

and squash it with your finger. What
Looking at soil crumbs makes the particles stick together? up by water?

1 Obtain some good garden topsoil. 4 Look at the roots of a plant which has 7 Repeat this experiment with two soil
Look at it, and feel it with your been pulled out of the soil. What samples, one taken after a period of
fingers, then describe it as fully as causes the soil to cling to the roots? dry weather, the other after heavy
you can. How are the roots connected to the rain.

2 Notice that the soil is composed of soil crumbs? How do the two soil samples differ in
numerous small particles. Some of Soil crumbs make the soil better for their water content?
the particles may be separate, but plant growth - why? In what ways is soil water important in
others are clumped together into soil
Make a list of all the features of the soil supporting life?
crumbs.
which, directly or indirectly, help plants
3 Put a soil crumb on a sheet of paper, to grow in it.

-Investigations- Investigation 6-
To see if water moves upwards 7 Observe the tube at intervals, To find out if soil contains lime
through soil watching to see if the water rises
1 Put a little soil in a test tube.
1 Obtain a wide glass tube, about through the soil.
20 cm long. 2 Add a few drops of concentrated
8 Note the time when the seeds start
hydrochloric acid.
germinating.
2 Plug one end of the tube with glass
wool. 3 Do the contents of the test tube fizz?
How long after setting up the
If they do there is lime in the soil. The
3 Hold the tube upright with the glass apparatus do the seeds start to
fizzing results from the acid reacting
wool end downwards. germinate?
with the lime (calcium carbonate).
4 Fill the tube with dry soil above the Do they germinate as soon as the
What gas is given off in this reaction?
water reaches them?
glass wool.
Is there any liquid left in the test tube
5 Scatter some seeds on the surface 9 Repeat this experiment with different
after the fizzing has stopped?
of the soil at the top of the tube kinds of soil, and compare how long
(mustard seeds will do). it takes for water to rise through Can you write a chemical equation for
them. the reaction?
6 Set the tube up so that the lower end
is dipping into a dish of water. What should the control be in this Why is lime useful in the soil?
Note the time. experiment?
 What is soil? 83

Investigation 5- ■Investigation 8-
To find out how much humus there is in soil To find out how much air there is in
1 Half fill a small crucible with soil. 10 Repeat steps 6 to 8 until you get no
soil
further change in mass. 1 Obtain a measuring cylinder with a
2 Dry the soil by putting it in an oven
at about 100 °C for at least 30 volume of 100 cm2 3 4 5 6 7.
What is the difference in the mass
minutes. of the dry soil before and after 2 Put soil into the cylinder up to the
burning it? 50 cm3 mark.
3 Put the soil in a desiccator and let it
cool down. Do you agree that this is the mass
3 Tap the cylinder to make sure that
of the humus in the soil sample?
4 Weigh the dry soil and crucible. the soil is bedded down.
What percentage of the soil
5 Repeat steps 2 to 4 until you get no
consists of humus? 4 Run water slowly into the cylinder
further change in mass.
until it reaches the 100 cm3 mark.
11 Repeat this experiment with
6 Place the crucible of soil on a wire
different kinds of soil, and compare 5 Stir the soil and water gently so as to
gauze on a tripod, and put a bunsen
the percentages of humus in them. dislodge all the air bubbles from
burner underneath (see illustration).
between the soil particles.
7 Light the bunsen burner and heat
6 Note the new level of the water.
the crucible with a strong flame for
ten minutes. The humus will burn What is the difference between the new
up into carbon dioxide gas and level of the water, and the original
water vapour. levei?

8 Put the soil back in a desiccator Do you agree that this is the amount of
and let it cool down. air in the sample of soil?

9 Re-weigh the soil and crucible. What percentage of the soil consists of
air?

In what ways is this method of

measuring soil air inaccurate?
How could the method be improved?

Investigation 7- -Assignments-
To find out how acidic or alkaline 1 Why is it better to water a garden in mountain the soil is about twenty
soil is the evening rather than in the middle metres thick.
of the day? Suggest two reasons for the
1 Put a little soil in a test tube and
difference.
cover it with distilled water. 2 a) You put a potted plant on a
saucer and pour some water 5 A student carried out an experiment
2 Put your thumb over the end of the
onto the surface of the soil, but to determine the percentage of
test tube, and shake it vigorously.
none of the water comes through. water in a sample of soil. These are
3 Obtain a piece of pH paper. What has happened to it? his results:
b) Some people water their potted
4 Dip the pH paper into the water.
plants by standing the pots in a mass of crucible 10 g
What colour does it go?
saucer of water. Will this work? mass of crucible plus damp soil 25 g

5 Compare the colour of the paper Explain your answer fully. mass of crucible plus soil after drying 20 g

with the colour code supplied by the

3 What sort of soil:
manufacturer. a) How do you think the student
a) shifts easily beneath your feet,
dried the soil?
6 What is the pH of the soil sample? b) sticks to your shoes,
b) What was the percentage of
c) looks very black,
Is the soil sample acidic, alkaline or water in the soil?
d) has a whitish appearance,
neutral? 6 In what sense does humus add
e) is very acidic?
7 Repeat this experiment with different 'goodness’ to the soil?
4 On a certain mountain top the soil is
kinds of soil and compare their pHs. only a few centimetres thick,
whereas in a forest at the foot of the
 Life in the soil
Collecting organisms from the soil
The soil A few quite large animals live in the soil, for example earthworms and moles.
provides a home for However, most soil organisms are micro-organisms and you have to use
special methods for collecting them (Investigation 1).
many different organisms and
One commonly used method depends on the fact that soil organisms do
they can greatly affect not like light and move away from it. You obtain some soil and shine a light
its quality. on it so as to drive out the organisms.
Having got the organisms out of the soil, you can look at them in detail,
find out what they are, and learn about their various habits. Many of them
are very small and live in the water surrounding the soil particles, often in
huge numbers. One gram of soil may contain over a million protists and as
many as a thousand million bacteria.

A helpful animal: the earthworm

There may be over two million earthworms in a hectare of good garden soil.
Like other soil animals earthworms don't like light, so during the day they
live underground in their burrows (Figure 1). Here they eat soil, grinding it
up in their gut. Undigested particles are then passed out through the anus
onto the surface of the ground as worm casts.
At night worms come out of their burrows and feed on dead leaves which
they pull down into the soil. If you go out into a garden with a torch, you may
see the worms lying on the ground. Tread softly because theslightest
vibration will make them jerk back into their burrows. In my garden I have
counted over 30 worms in a square metre.
You can find out the effect which earthworms have on the soil by building a
wormery (Investigation 2).

How do earthworms improve the soil?

1 They turn it over
By constantly burrowing through the soil, they loosen it and mix it up. This
helps to drain and aerate it, and it ensures that the various nutrients are
evenly spread out. In this way worms do what a gardener does when he digs
his garden. It has been estimated that in one hectare, worms may turn over as
much as 50 tonnes of soil in a year.

2 They fertilise it
Worm castings contain nitrogenous waste which makes them very fertile.
They also contain calcium carbonate which helps to make the soil less acidic.
Worms also help to fertilise the soil by pulling leaves into it: once buried the
leaves quickly decay and useful nutrients are released from them. The worms
Figure 1 Earthworms in their burrows. The worm on
add further goodness to the soil when they themselves die and decay.
the left has just deposited a cast on the surface. The
one on the right is pulling a leaf into its burrow.
3 They make it finer
Having been ground up in the worm's gut, worm castings are very fine.
Seeds get covered with this fine soil, which protects them and helps them to
germinate successfully. And when the young roots emerge they can push
their way easily through it.

Do worms do any harm? Their castings certainly look rather unsightly on a

newly mown lawn and they can be a nuisance on golf courses, but this is a
small price to pay for all the good they do.

The mole
This amazing little animal can burrow over 100 metres in a day. As it
lives underground it is blind, and it has short strong forelegs for digging
(Figure 2). It has a very large appetite and can eat its own mass in food in a
day.
Figure 2 A mole Its burrows serve as irrigation channels, helping to drain excess water from
 Life in the soil 85

Figure 3 Four animals which are a nuisance in the

the soil. As it eats a lot of soil pests, it can be useful to gardeners and farmers. soil. They eat the roots of plants. Their approximate
However, it also eats earthworms and makes unsightly mole hills on lawns, lengths are given in brackets
so many people regard it as more of a hindrance than a help.
The mole is one of a small number of mammals that make their homes in
the soil. Can you think of any others?

Some harmful soil organisms

Unfortunately the soil contains a number of organisms which are a nuisance
to farmers and gardeners. Various insect larvae eat the roots of plants and do
a lot of damage. These include 'wireworms' which are the larvae of a certain
kind of beetle, and 'leather jackets' which are the larvae of the daddy long
legs. Millipedes can also be harmful, and so can certain roundworms. These
animals are shown in Figure 3.
Various poisons can be used to kill these pests. These are available as
powders which can be dug into the soil before planting, or they can be
dissolved in water and sprayed onto the soil after the plants have started
growing.

Bacteria in the soil

In this topic we have concentrated mainly on animals. However, the soil also
contains vast numbers of bacteria and other microbes which help the soil to
support life. Most of them are helpful: they bring about decay and make the
soil rich in nitrates which plants can use. However, some lower the nitrate
content of the soil and therefore hinder plant growth (see page 53).

The effect of plants on the soil

The main effect which plants have on the soil is to hold it together. We can
appreciate the importance of this by seeing what happens if the plants are
suddenly removed from an area. Suppose a farmer puts too many sheep to
graze on a hillside. As they run short of food, the sheep crop the grass so
close to the soil that the grass dies. The soil, no longer bound together by the
roots, starts getting loose. Rain and wind then wear it away, and soon the
area becomes bare and incapable of supporting life.
This is called erosion, and one of its main causes is over-grazing of the kind
just described. This rarely happens in countries like Britain where farming is
of a high standard. However, it is all too common in many developing
Figure 4 Soil erosion in Kenya, caused by over-
countries (Figure 4). grazing.
86 Biology for life

rInvestigation 1
Collecting organisms from the soil Method 4
This method is used for collecting small
Method 1
arthropods such as ants and insect
This method is used for larger soil
larvae. This apparatus
animals such as caterpillars, beetles is called a
(larvae and adults), millipedes, 1 Obtain a sample of good garden Tullgren funnel

centipedes and woodlice. soil.

lamp
1 Collect a quantity of loose soil and 2 Set up the apparatus shown in the (40 watt bulb)

leaf litter with a garden fork. A good illustration, spreading the soil out on
place to sample is the ground near the perforated tray. (This apparatus
some rotting wood or under stones. is called a Tullgren funnel.)

2 Spread it out on a white sheet. 3 Switch the lamp on, and leave the
apparatus for between one and
3 As soon as you see any movement
three days. The light and heat from
pick up the animal with a spoon,
the lamp should drive the animals
pooter or forceps and put it in a
downwards out of the soil into the
plastic bag.
beaker.
4 Put some of the soil in a If the beaker contains ethanol this
wide-meshed kitchen sieve and will preserve the animals.
shake it. Some other animals may
4 Observe the contents of the beaker.
then come through.
Are there any animals in it?
Use a key to identify the animals.
What kind of animals are they?
Method 2
Use a simple key to identify them.
This method is used for collecting small
arthropods such as ants and insect
larvae. Method 5
This method is mainly used for
1 Make up a 25 per cent salt solution
collecting roundworms and protists
by dissolving 25 g of common salt in
that live in the soil water.
100 cm2 3 of water.
1 Obtain a sample of good garden
2 Pour the solution into a plastic bowl. lamp (optional)
soil.
3 Add some soil and stir it around.
2 Wrap the soil up in a bag made out
4 Small arthropods will float to the of cheesecloth, and set it up as
surface. Pick them up with a spoon shown in the illustration.
or paintbrush and transfer them to
3 Switch the lamp on, and leave the
an empty bowl.
apparatus for several days. The light
Use a key to identify the animals. and heat should drive any small
animals living in the soil water out of cheese-cloth
Method 3 the bag. bag containing
soil
This is a good way of collecting 4 Open the clip and run a little water
earthworms. plastic funnel
from the funnel into the beaker.
containing water
1 Make up some soapy water by 5 With a pipette transfer a drop of the rubber tubing —
adding 50 cm3 of washing-up liquid water to a microscope slide, and with clip
to ten litres of water. cover it with a coverslip.

2 Pour this solution on a square metre 6 Examine the slide under the
of garden soil. Any worms should microscope: low power first, then
come up in a few minutes. They can high power. beaker
then be rinsed in running tap water
and put in a wormery (see Can you see any slender worms with
Investigation 2). pointed ends? These are
roundworms (see page 16).
3 Alternatively, collect worms on a
damp lawn, by torchliqht. Tread Can you see any other organisms on
softly! your slide? If so, try to identify them.
 Life in the soil 87

rInvestigation 2
To find the effect of earthworms on
the soil

1 Set up the wormery shown in the

illustration.
hardboard lid
2 Place about ten vYorms on the
surface of the soil. glass front

leaves on surface
3 Watch the worms burrowing.

4 Observe the wormery at intervals good garden soil

during the next week or so.
What happens to the leaves at the at least 30 cm

surface?

What happens to the two chalk-sand

layers of chalk-sand mixture
layers?

(Disturbance of these layers is an

indication of the extent to which the
worms are mixing up the soil.)

Make a list of the effects the worms a wormery

have on the soil which you can see

for yourself.

Assignments
1 Name two soil animals which are
useful to humans, and two which are
harmful. Explain why each animal is
useful or harmful.

2 The apparatus shown on the right

was set up to find out if there were
any microbes in a sample of soil:

After 48 hours the level of the water

had risen in the left-hand side of the
U-tube and dropped in the
right-hand side.
a) Suggest an explanation for this
result.
b) What should the control be in this
experiment?

3 While digging the soil, a gardener

notices that there are lots of
earthworms in one part of his garden
but none in another part. Suggest
one possible reason for this.
Describe an experiment which you
could do to find out if your Describe an experiment which you the soil?
suggestion is right. could do to find out if you are right.
6 Earthworms eat soil. Which
4 You suspect that worms prefer 5 Why are (a) soil water and (b) soil air components of the soil are useful to
beech leaves to oak leaves. important to organisms which live in them, and why?
 -Decay-
What happens during decay?
It is said that When something decays - a dead animal if you like - it is gradually turned
if no decay had occurred into a liquid. Three main things cause this to happen:
since the reign of Elizabeth I, 1 Immediately after death, enzymes start breaking down the body. The
the bodies of dead organisms would organism literally digests itself. This may happen remarkably quickly: an
cover the earth to a depth animal's gut, for example, may become as thin as tissue paper within a
day after death.
of a kilometre!
2 Various natural processes help to break the body up. Birds peck at it,
worms and maggots wriggle through it, rain softens it, and alternate
freezing and thawing breaks it up into pieces.
3 Certain microbes, mainly moulds and bacteria, feed on the dead remains
and break it down. They are decomposers, and they are the main agents
of decay.

You can see some of the organisms that bring about decay in Investigation 1.
dead material

How do microbes bring about decay?

When an animal or plant dies, it isn't long before some spores of moulds and
bacteria land on it. They burst open, giving rise to new individuals. These
grow and multiply, spreading quickly through the dead material. A tea¬
spoonful of rotting vegetation may contain over a thousand million bacteria.
To feed on the dead material the microbes must first break it down into a
liquid, just as we have to digest our food before we can absorb it. They do this
by producing digestive enzymes which break down the solid material into
soluble substances (Figure 1). They then soak up all the nutrients they need.
Soft remains like skin and flesh decay more quickly than hard structures like
bone and wood (Investigation 2). A skeleton may remain intact for years after
the rest of the body has decomposed.
they secrete digestive enzymes which break Decay does not occur all at once: it happens step by step. A dead body is
down the material into a liquid
attacked by one kind of microbe first. This works its way in, and prepares the
way for another organism and so on. As decay gets underway the rotting
material may get warm, because of the heat given out by the millions of
microbes (Figure 2). It may also have an unpleasant smell, due to certain
gases being given off.

Figure 1 These diagrams summarise how microbes What conditions are needed for decay to occur?
bring about decay.
Experiments tell us that the following conditions are needed for decay to
occur:

1 There must be plenty of moisture

This is needed for the spores to germinate, and for the microbes to grow and
multiply. If a dead body is kept dry it loses moisture and the skin shrinks, but
it does not decay. This process is called mummification: the ancient Egyp¬
tians used it to preserve the bodies of their kings.

2 It must be warm enough

Most microbes which bring about decay thrive in a warm environment. If it is
cold, decay is slowed down; and if it is well below freezing, it will not happen
at all. Extinct mammoths, which died in Siberia thousands of years ago, have
been dug out of the ice with their flesh intact: the intense cold had stopped
their bodies decaying.

time (days)
3 Oxygen must be present
The microbes which bring about decay need oxygen for respiration. If oxygen
is lacking they respire without it, i.e. they respire anaerobically. The
Figure 2 The graph shows how the temperature end-product of this is lactic acid. The lactic acid prevents further decay from
inside a heap of dead vegetation changed after it
taking place. So, when there is no oxygen present decay is incomplete. This is
had been piled up.
how peat is formed (see page 80).
 Decay 89

4 Chemicals must not be present which kill the microbes

This sometimes happens when poisonous substances are discharged into
lakes and rivers from factories. It also happens when a biologist puts a cover
specimen in alcohol or formalin to preserve it. In the past it has happened
when animals have fallen into tar pits: a tar pit is a lake full of an oily liquid. soil
In California there are tar pits containing the undecayed skeletons of extinct lime
sabre-toothed tigers which died there about a million years ago.

vegetable waste
How can we make decay occur?
To bring about decay all we need to do is to put some dead material in a place lime
where microbes can flourish. This is what a gardener does when he makes a
compost heap (Figure 3).
manure
Any rottable material can be used to make compost: old cabbages, potato
peelings, tea leaves - you name it. In making a compost heap you must make side e.g.
sure that the conditions listed in the previous section are present, otherwise corrugated iron

decay won't occur. brick for support

Sometimes we want to stop decay taking place. For example a farmer

may want to store grass cuttings for feeding his livestock during the winter. air grille
So he packs the grass tightly in a pit or container so that air cannot get into it.
Without oxygen the microbes form lactic acid and the grass is prevented from
decaying any further. The result is silage.
Another way of preserving grass is to dry it. This is what farmers do when
they make hay. Figure 3 Diagram of a compost heap seen in
sectional view.
Why is decay important?
If is wasn't for decay, the dead remains of organisms would simply pile up.
However, decay is important for another reason: it helps chemicals such as
carbon and nitrogen to circulate in nature so that they can be used over and
over again. This cycling of matter is explained on pages 50 - 53.

Assignments-
-Investigation 1- ■Investigation 2- 1 Decay is brought about mainly by
microbes such as bacteria.
Looking at organisms which bring To find out how quickly different However, it is helped by several
about decay things decay other agents. Name five such
agents.
1 Puil off a small piece of mould from 1 Fill a plant pot with damp soil.
some stale bread with forceps. Put it 2 A body was found in a remote cave
on a slide. Add a drop of water, and 2 Put different objects on the surface in the Sahara desert. Forensic
cover it with a coverslip. of the soil, e.g. a dead earthworm, experts estimated that it had been
insect, leaf, stick, and bone. there for well over 100 years. The
2 Pull off a piece of decaying
3 Cover the pot with a polythene bag: skin, though dry and shrivelled, was
earthworm with forceps, and put it
still intact. Suggest reasons why it
on another slide. Add a drop of
had not decayed.
water and cover it with a coverslip.
3 When making a compost heap, you
3 Examine your slides under a
should:
microscope. You may see three a) support it on bricks or stones,
types of organisms which help to
b) break up old cabbage stalks
bring about decay: before you put them on the heap,
Bacteria look like tiny dots c) mix grass cuttings with bulkier
Moulds look like fine threads materials when you put them on,
4 Put the pot in a warm place.
Roundworms are slender with d) keep it moist but not saturated,
pointed ends 5 Examine the objects at intervals for e) turn the heap occasionally with a
the next two to three weeks. fork.
In what ways are these organisms
suited to living on dead material? How does each object change Give reasons for each of the above.
during this period?
4 Study Figure 2. Explain why the
Explain your observations. temperature rises and then falls.
 —Populations—
People, people
everywhere! This Topic is
about populations: how they grow
and what happens if they
get too big.

stage 1 stage 2 stage 3

15 000

w Figure 1 A crowded beach in Britain

10 000
3
.o
co

o
How do populations grow?
5
n Suppose you introduce 100 rabbits onto an unpopulated island. The rabbits
£
3 5000 reproduce and gradually the population increases. If you were to count the
C
number of rabbits at intervals and plot them against time, you would find
that the population rises as shown in Figure 2.
One of the most noticeable things about populations is that they increase
0 5 10 15 20 25 very quickly. This is because the numbers go up by multiplication, like this:
time (months) x2 x2 x2 x2 x2
100-> 200-> 400-> 800-> 1600-> 3200-^
Figure 2 This graph shows how a population of
rabbits may increase with time. The population
In other words the total number doubles at regular intervals of time. This type
growth can be divided into three stages. In stage 1 of increase is described as exponential, and it is how populations grow,
the population increases slowly at first and then whether they are rabbits, flies or human beings.
gradually gets faster. In stage 2 the population rises
exponentially at the maximum rate. In stage 3 the
population growth gradually slows down and Why do populations grow?
eventually stops altogether.
In any population new individuals are born and older ones die. The rate at
which new individuals are born is called the birth rate, and the rate at which
older individuals die is called the death rate. The birth rate and death rate are
expressed as percentages. If the birth rate is ten per cent, it means that for
every 100 individuals at the beginning of the year there would be ten more
(i.e. 110) at the end. If the death rate is three per cent, it means that for every
100 individuals at the beginning of the year there would be three less (i.e. 97)
at the end. The whole population would show a net increase of 10 — 3 = 7 per
cent. This means that for every 100 individuals at the beginning of the year
the actual number at the end would be 107.
Populations increase because new individuals are born at a faster rate than
older ones die, in other words the birth rate is greater than the death rate.
Populations are also affected by individuals entering or leaving the
community, that is immigration and emigration.

What stops a population growing?

Look again at the graph in Figure 2. Notice that once a certain number of
individuals has been produced, the curve gradually flattens out: in other
words the population growth slows down and levels off.
Why does this happen? In the case of our rabbits there are several possible
reasons. Flere are some of them:

1 The food (grass and so on) begins to run out, so some rabbits starve.
2 There are so many rabbits that there is no room for any more burrows.
3 The rabbits are so overcrowded that diseases spread rapidly and many
die.
Figure 3 Foxes feed on rabbits and help to keep 4 Being overcrowded the rabbits fight each other, resulting in many deaths.
their numbers down. 5 Predators such as foxes or hawks may eat some of the rabbits (Figure 3).
 Populations 91

Figure 4 This graph shows how the population of Britain has grown since 5000 BC.

These are the kind of checks which stop populations growing for ever. The
first two involve competition: the rabbits compete with each other for food and
living space. Competition between members of the same species is called
intraspecific competition. You can also get competition between different
species: that's called interspecific competition. What other species might
compete with rabbits, and for what?
If there are no predators, man may step in and take control. Australia used Figure 5 The result of overpopulation: poor housing
not to have any rabbits, but in 1859 some domestic rabbits escaped from their and crowded conditions.
pen when it was swept away by a flood. These rabbits ran wild and bred at
such a rate that parts of Australia soon became overrun with them and they
did a great deal of damage to crops and gardens. Unfortunately there were
not enough predators to keep them under control. Eventually a virus disease
called myxomatosis was deliberately introduced to destroy them. The disease
swept through the rabbit population very quickly, and their numbers
dropped dramatically.

Human population
First let's look at Britain. Figure 4 shows the total number of people in
Great Britain at various times during the last 7000 years. Notice how the
number has increased; in fact the graph looks rather like the one in Figure 2.
In particular, notice that the population has grown more during the last 200
years than in the whole of the previous 5000 years!
Why has there been tnis recent explosive increase? In the old days a large
number of people died of starvation and infectious diseases. Many died
before they were a year old; in other words the infant mortality was high.
However, in recent times there have been great improvements in food
production and in fighting disease. Infant mortality has been cut right down,
and people live much longer than they used to; in other words life
expectancy is higher.
We can sum it up this way: in Britain over the last few hundred years the
death rate has fallen dramatically with the result that the population has shot
up. Obviously this cannot go on for ever. Already many people feel that we
have reached the point where there are too many people in Britain.
Because of this there has been a campaign in recent years to encourage
young people to have smaller families. This involves birth control. Birth
control certainly seems to be having an effect because the population of
Britain is now levelling off. Unfortunately this is not true of many developing
countries where the population continues to rise at a horrifying rate, creating
very bad living conditions in some places (Figure 5). In fact the world
population as a whole is increasing by about 80 million people each year
(Figure 6), that's 9000 an hour, or 150 a minute. Someone has worked out that
if this were to go on indefinitely the whole of the earth's surface would be Figure 6 World population: the past, and a
covered with people standing shoulder to shoulder within 600 years. projection for the future.
92 Biology for life

Population growth in different countries

Country
Populations increase when the birth rate is greater than the death rate. Let s
A B C D see how this works out in four different countries (Table 1).
Birth rate 5% 5% 3.5% 2% Country A has a birth rate of five per cent and a death rate of three per cent,
Death rate 3% 2% 1.5% 1% giving an overall population growth of two per cent per year. This describes
Overall population growth 2% 3% 2% 1% the situation as it was in many parts of the world at the beginning of the
century. There was a high birth rate, but also a high death rate with high
Table 1 Population changes In four different
infant mortality and low life expectancy.
countries.
Country B shows what happens when the death rate is lowered by better
food and medical services but the birth rate remains high. This has happened
in many developing countries, where more children survive childhood but
the parents still have large families. Improved medical care has actually
increased the population growth to three per cent. A growth rate of three per
cent per year means that the population will double in only 23 - 24 years.

Country C shows what happens when birth control methods are introduced
so that the birth rate is lowered to three and a half per cent. At the same time
further improvements occur in living conditions, and the death rate
decreases. This is the stage that many developing countries have reached. A
growth rate of two per cent per year means that the population will double in
about 35 years.

Country D shows a further reduction in birth rate and death rate to give an
overall population growth of one per cent. In the USA and several countries
in Europe the growth rate is less than one per cent per year.
If the population growth is not too rapid it gives the country more chance
to develop and take better care of its people.

Population structure
Look at Figure 7. These diagrams are called population pyramids. They show
the population for different age groups in Great Britain at various intervals of
time from 1891 to 1980.
In 1891 the most numerous people were the youngest ones. However, by
1947 the proportion of people in the 35 to 39 age group had increased, due to
better health, but the proportion of teenagers had decreased. Notice the
increase in the number of children in the nought to four age group: this was
caused by an increase in the birth rate just after the second world war. It is
known as the post-war bulge.
You can see the post-war bulge again in the 1956 and 1980 pyramids. These
later pyramids also show a marked increase in the proportion of elderly
Figure 7 Population pyramids for Great Britain. The
people compared with young people.
length of each horizontal bar represents the
percentage of people, male or female, in a particular Population pyramids are useful because they enable us to forecast the
age group in the population. The arrows indicate the population structure in the future. This is important in planning things like
post-war bulge. schools, housing needs and medical services.
 Populations 93

r Assignments-
1 Study Figure 2, then suggest two
reasons why the rise in population is slow
to begin with and then speeds up.
2 If all its offspring survived, a single
greenfly could produce 600 000 000 000
offspring in one season, with a mass of
over 600 000 kg - roughly equivalent to
10 000 men. What prevents this
happening?
3 Study the graph in Figure 4 and then
answer these questions.
Figure 8 This graph shows fluctuations in the population of the snowshoe hare and the
lynx in Canada between 1845 and 1935. a) How do you think we know what the
population of Britain was in 5000 bc?
Fluctuating populations b) Suggest a possible reason why the
population was rising around 50 bc.
Some years ago a scientist called Charles Elton carried out an interesting
c) What do you think caused the sudden
study on the populations of various mammals in Canada. He found out from
fall in the population midway between
the Hudson Bay Company how many skins had been obtained from different
ad 1200 and 1800?
animals each year from 1860 to 1935.
d) Wny has the population risen so
The figures for two of the animals are shown as a graph in Figure 8. You quickly since ad 1800?
will see that the numbers of hares and lynxes go up and down more or less
e) Suggest two reasons why the
together. Why is this? The most obvious explanation is that the lynxes population appears to be levelling off
depend on the hares for food; so if the number of hares rises and falls, the now.
number of predators will rise and fall too.
Many animals show regular fluctuations in their numbers, but the reason is 4 The table shows the birth and death
not always clear. In the Arctic a small rodent called the lemming shows a rates for four countries.
regular four year cycle in its numbers. When the population reaches a peak
the animals start suffering from severe stress. This makes them run frantically Country Birth rate % Death rate %
all over the place, jumping off cliffs and falling into rivers (Figure 9). The
UK 1.71 1.19
population then falls.
Other animals suffer from stress when overcrowded. For example, rats USA 1.76 0.96
kept in overcrowded cages show various kinds of anti-social behaviour such
as fighting with each other and killing their young. Scientists have found that China 2.9 1.3
such rats have high levels of the hormone adrenaline in their bloodstream.
India 4.2 1.7
They are suffering from what's called adrenal stress.
It's possible that adrenal stress may occur in humans in overcrowded
conditions. It might be responsible for the aggressive behaviour shown by Calculate the percentage increase in the
people who live close together in slums and ghettoes of the kind shown in population of each country. Suggest
Figure 5. However, the causes of aggression in modern society are very reasons why the population is increasing at
complex and many factors are probably involved. different rates in the four countries.

5 Examine the 1980 population pyramid

in Figure 7.
a) In what age group is the post-war
bulge evident?
b) How would you account for the
post-war bulge?
c) Why do you think the proportion of
teenagers was so high in 1980?
d) Why do you think the proportion of
under tens was relatively low?
6 What do you think the population
pyramid for Great Britain will look like in
the year 2000? Try drawing it, and give
reasons for your prediction.
i . wmmmmmmmmmmrn I . - - . .- .. • - ■ ■ ■■■■ --

Figure 9 The lemming has an unusual way of controlling its numbers.

—Our effects on the
environment
We alter
the environment in
almost everything we do,
from polluting the air to
destroying wildlife.

Figure 1 The air is heavily polluted In this industrial

area.

Pollution
Pollution is any process which leads tc a harmful increase in the amount of a
chemical substance in the environment (Figure 1). These harmful substances
are called pollutants. They accumulate more quickly than they can be
recycled by the processes of nature, if indeed they can be recycled at all.
It is often difficult to know for certain whether a particular substance is
harmful or not. Its effects may not appear straight away, but only after a long
period of time. Also a pollutant may affect some organisms more than others.
For example, certain gases from factories may not affect man in the concentra¬
tions in which they normally occur, but they may damage plants. Some
pollutants which are harmful to certain organisms may actually help others.
For instance, a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the air, though
harmful to animals, is useful to plants because it enables them to photosyn-
thesise faster.

Air pollution
A widespread air pollutant is smoke from the burning of fossil fuel such as
coal and petrol. The smoke contains particles of carbon which float through
the air and settle on the surface of buildings and trees, turning them black
(Figure 2). If breathed in, the particles irritate the breathing passages and can
cause bronchitis. Simple methods of finding out how much smoke pollution
there is in different places are given in Investigations in 1 and 2.
Smoke contains two main gases: carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. The
effects of carbon dioxide are described on page 54. Sulphur dioxide is a
poisonous gas, but fortunately it is not normally produced in sufficient
quantities to endanger man. However, it certainly affects plants, either killing
them or reducing their yield. In industrial areas the concentration of sulphur
dioxide in the air may reach 4 ppm.* Concentrations as low as 0.3 ppm may
damage plants. In certain parts of North America the vegetation has been
completely destroyed by sulphur dioxide from smelting works.
Lichens are particularly sensitive to sulphur dioxide and in polluted
regions you do not find lichens growing on the tree trunks. In fact the
number of lichens in an area can be used to indicate the amount of pollution
Figure 2 Industrial smoke blackened Buckingham there.
Palace until it was cleaned. Sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen and water in the atmosphere to form
* ppm means parts per million. This is the number
sulphuric acid (Investigation 3). This aggravates bronchitis and other brea¬
of cubic millimetres of sulphur dioxide in one thing complaints. The sulphuric acid is washed down into the soil as acid
million cubic millimetres (i.e. one cubic metre) of rain. It may make the soil highly acidic, harming the growth of plants. It also
air. eats into the surface of buildings, eroding the stone and brickwork (Figure 3).
 Our effects on the environment 95

One of the main causes of air pollution is the motor car. The exhaust
contains carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is very poisonous. Even quite
small amounts may make one feel faint. Motor vehicle exhaust also contains
lead, as do certain household paints. Lead affects the brain and in some
extreme cases may cause mental retardation. In some countries lead-free
petrol and paint are now used.

Smog

Normally smoke from factories goes straight up into the atmosphere and is
blown away by wind and air currents. However, in certain conditions it stays
close to the ground where it builds up to form smog. Smog is a mixture of
smoke and fog, and it is caused by a layer of warm air developing above a
region of colder air. The warm layer prevents the colder air from escaping.
This is called temperature inversion (Figure 4).

Figure 3 Years of erosion by sulphuric acid in the

rain led to the disfigurement of this statue at Hever
Castle.

Normally the air is warmer nearer the ground than higher up. As warm
air rises, the smoke gets carried upwards and is dispersed.

warm air

But in certain conditions a layer of warm air develops high up. This holds
down the cooler air underneath, thus preventing the smoke from rising. Figure 4 These diagrams show how smog can build
up as a result of temperature inversion.

Smog is not only unpleasant but it can be dangerous. In December 1952

there was a particularly bad smog in London. It lasted five days, and is said to
have caused 4000 deaths. Street lamps had to be put on in the middle of the
day, and in cinemas it was impossible to see the screen clearly from the back
of the auditorium.
In 1956 a Clean Air Act was introduced by parliament, making it illegal to
burn coal and other smoky fuels in industrial areas except in special
circumstances. This has led to a pronounced improvement in the atmos¬
phere. In London the concentration of carbon particles and sulphur dioxide at
street level was six times lower in 1977 than in 1950 (Figure 5).
Although smoky smogs have largely disappeared, there is another kind of
smog which is still a problem. This is the type which you get in sunny places
like Los Angeles and Tokyo. It is caused by the action of sunlight on the
chemicals in motor vehicle exhaust, for which reason it is called photochemi¬
cal smog. Temperature inversions are frequent in these areas, and the result
is a brown haze which makes people's eyes sting and can cause severe
headaches. In Tokyo many car drivers wear masks, and there are 'fresh air
dispensers' in offices. The smog also damages plants and is said to have
reduced the yield of citrus fruits (oranges and lemons) in the Los Angeles
area.
Figure 5 This picture shows what a month's fall of
Water pollution soot in central London would have looked like if
swept into a pile in Trafalgar Square (a) in the early
From time to time oil is spilled into the sea from a tanker or an off-shore oil 1950s and (b) in the late 1970s. Nelson's column is
rig. The oil forms a thick layer, or slick, which floats on the surface of the sea. about 48 m high.
96 Biology for life

The slick may then be carried by ocean currents to the coast, where it is
deposited on the shore.
The oil ruins the beaches for the local residents and holiday-makers. It also
kills fish and sea birds (Figure 6). In the past, attempts have been made to get
rid of oil slicks by spraying them with detergents which break the oil up into
drops. The trouble is that the detergents are even more deadly than the oil
and they kill many organisms that might have escaped the oil. Nowadays less
destructive methods are used.
Another water pollutant is sewage. If untreated sewage is put into a river
or lake, it is decomposed by bacteria which quickly multiply. The bacteria use
up so much oxygen that there is not enough for the fish and other animals,
which suffocate and die. The same thing may happen when a lot of fertiliser
or farm waste is drained into a river from the surrounding farmland. With so
much nitrate to feed on, the algae multiply and the water turns green. This
great growth of algae is called eutrophication. When the algae die the bacteria
multiply, using up all the oxygen. Matters are made even worse if hot water
from a local power station is discharged into the river. This is called thermal
pollution. The extra warmth makes the organisms multiply even faster.
The insecticide DDT has a cloud hanging over it. It gets into rivers and
lakes and is taken up by small organisms at the beginning of various food
chains. It is then passed along the chains, becoming more and more
concentrated as it goes from one stage to the next (Figure 7). DDT is known to
damage animal tissues, and may be a danger to man. For this reason it has
Figure 6 This cormorant was the victim of the been banned in many countries. Here we have an example of a useful
spillage of oil from a damaged oil tanker. substance turning out to be a pollutant. Another example is dioxin, a
powerful herbicide used for killing weeds in conifer plantations. This
chemical, which was used by the Americans to defoliate the jungle during the
Vietnam war, is now known to be highly dangerous to man.
Finally chemical waste products from factories are sometimes discharged
into seas and rivers. They may be so concentrated that the fish are killed
straight away. But sometimes they are taken up into food chains just like
DDT. Some years ago over 60 people died in Japan from eating fish whose
bodies contained mercury. The mercury had been discharged into the sea
organism
from a local factory and had then passed right through the food chains.
DDT level (ppm)
You can test the effects of some water pollutants on various animals in
Investigation 4.
cormorant 26.4
WM Land pollution
There are many examples of land that has been stripped of vegetation by
industrial development and disposal of waste. The slag heaps from mines
bear witness to the destructive effect which this can have on our environ¬
large fish
ment.
Sometimes the tips from mines contain chemical substances which are
poisonous to plants, and possibly to man too. For example, high levels of lead
and cadmium have been found in the soil and crops in certain areas where
small fish 0.5 mining used to be carried out. The trouble is that we just don't know the
long-term effects which this kind of thing might have on people's health.
However, many people feel that it is better to be safe than sorry and to err on
the side of caution.
Have you ever thought what happens to all the rubbish which people
plankton 0.04 throw away? Much of it will decay: this includes bits of left-over food, potato
peelings, tea leaves - in fact anything which can be broken down by
microbes. We call this sort of rubbish biodegradable. Thanks to microbes, the
chemicals in these materials can be set free and used again: in other words
Figure 7 This diagram shows the amounts of DDT in they are recycled in nature.
four organisms belonging to a food chain. Notice
Other kinds of rubbish will not decay, because they are made of substances
how the DDT gets more and more-concentrated as it
goes up the food chain. This is because it is kept in which microbes cannot live on. They are called non-biodegradable. They
the animals’ bodies instead of being excreted. include plastic, polythene and many other man-made materials. If you throw
an apple core into a hedge, it will eventually decay; but if you throw a
polythene bag it will remain there for ever - unless some worthy citizen
removes it.
 Our effects on the environment 97

Some man-made materials can of course be used again: for example paper, 0
threshold
and scrap metal from used cars. But the majority cannot be re-used and must of hearing
10
be got rid of somehow. Getting rid of this kind of rubbish is a major problem
in modern society. 20
quiet
Noise pollution 30

We have defined pollution as an increase in a harmful chemical substance in 40

the environment. However, other things besides chemicals may be harmful, 50 normal
and these too can be regarded as pollutants. An example is noise.
Noise can be measure by a sound meter and is expressed in a unit called the 60
decibel (dB) (Investigation 5). The quietest sound that the human ear can 70 loud
detect (zero decibels) is called the threshold of hearing. Figure 8 relates the U)
0
loudness of sounds as measured in decibels to a series of everyday situations. _Q80
O
0
Notice that a sound of 120 dB is on the threshold of pain: sounds louder than T3
90
0 very loud
this actually hurt your ears and can give you a headache. If they go on <n (can be
o 100
continuously they may damage the sensory cells in the inner ear, causing c harmful)
o
permanent deafness. People who work close to machinery in foundries and c 110
0
mills are at a particular risk, and they normally wear ear-plugs. o
£ 120
/ <o threshold
Radiation pollution 130
of pain

Another type of pollution to which we are all exposed is radiation from 140
radioactive materials. Radiation affects dividing cells, damaging the genes.
It can cause leukaemia, which is cancer of the blood. It also causes mutations 150 damaging
(can cause
in the sex cells in the ovary and testis, and this can result in babies being born 160 deafness)
with deformities. The offspring of survivors of the atom bomb raids on Japan
170
at the end of the Second World War showed a high incidence of mutations.
Most of the radiation to which we are exposed comes from the sun and 180
outer space and is a natural part of our environment. However, we add to
190
this natural radiation by nuclear power stations, medical equipment such as
X-ray machines, and of course nuclear explosions (Figure 9). The total 200
amount of radiation which an average person receives from all these man¬ Figure 8 This illustration shows the noise scale as
made sources is about half the natural radiation. This is not considered a expressed in decibels, the standard unit of noise as
hazard to health. However, people who work in places where radiation levels measured with a sound meter.

are particularly high, such as nuclear power stations, are at greater risk than
the rest of us, and so special precautions are taken to protect them.
Obviously a nuclear war poses a particular threat to man. After a nuclear
explosion radioactive materials get into the atmosphere and come down to
the earth as fallout. Many nuclear test explosions were carried out in the
1950s, but the test ban treaties since then have greatly reduced the number of
tests. Fortunately the tests carried out so far have increased the amount of
radiation by only two per cent, but this figure could be raised drastically by a
nuclear war.

Controlling pests
Certain animals and plants are harmful to man. For example, weeds compete
with crops such as wheat and barley, and herbivorous animals such as rabbits
eat them; insects such as greenflies damage all sorts of plants, and mos¬
quitoes spread malaria, yellow fever and other diseases. The list could go on
and on.

Man gets rid of pests in two main ways:

1 By spraying the ground with a chemical substance which kills the pests.
We call this chemical control.
2 By making use of another organism which kills the pests. We call this
biological control.

Chemical control
A chemical substance which kills pests is called a pesticide. Those which are
used against weeds (herbs) are called herbicides; those which are used
Figure 9 A nuclear test. Nuclear explosions add to
against insects are called insecticides. the amount of radiation in the atmosphere.
98 Biology for life

Herbicides work in different ways (Figure 10). One of the most widely used
is the hormone weed-killer which many gardeners use to clear their lawns of
weeds. If this is sprayed onto the lawn in the right concentration, it kills the
weeds but not the grass; in other words, it is a selective weed-killer. The
reason why the grass escapes being killed is that the blades are too narrow to
absorb enough of the chemical to be harmful. On the other hand the weeds
with their broader leaves take up a larger amount of the chemical. The
hormone weed-killer is really a concentrated form of the hormone auxin
which makes shoots grow. When used in high concentration as a weed-killer,
it makes the weeds metabolise so fast that they die.
In the past one of the most useful insecticides has been DDT (whose full
name is dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane!). This has been used very
successfully against mosquitoes and many other insect pests.
The trouble with pesticides is that they may damage the environment.
Spraying the countryside with herbicides may get rid of weeds but it also kills
many wild flowers; and insecticides may destroy harmful pests but they also
kill beautiful insects such as butterflies and moths, and may even be a hazard
to humans. This is an aspect of pollution.

Biological control
Greenflies (aphids) suck plant juices. They can damage crops and are
therefore a nuisance to humans. Now greenflies are eaten by ladybird larvae,
and so if ladybirds are released in an area they will help to get rid of the
greenflies. The ladybirds are serving as agents of biological control. Other
herbicides. Contact herbicides act on the parts of
the leaf which they touch. Transported herbicides biological control agents include the myxomatosis virus which keeps down
are either leaf- or soil-acting; they are taken up by rabbits, and various fish which eat mosquito larvae.
the plant and carried to the site of action. The advantage of biological control is that it does not involve putting
artificial substances into the environment. Nature is doing the job for us.
However, not every pest has a predator that will keep its numbers down
sufficiently, and so chemical methods are more often used.

Modern farming
With the help of pesticides and fertilisers, farmers are able to grow a single
crop in very large fields year after year. This is called monoculture. We need
monoculture for feeding a large population, but it can make the countryside
look dull. It has a more serious drawback too. Suppose a parasite happened
to get into the crop. Any natural predators that might control it would have
been killed by pesticides, and with the crop plants close together it would
spread quickly. To some extent this problem can be overcome by rotating
crops. Different plants are infested with different pests; rotating crops can
break the pest's life cycle.
Growing the same crop year after year has another snag. With yearly
ploughing and repeated use of artificial fertilisers, it can spoil the texture of
the soil, making it fine and dusty. As a result the soil may be blown about by
the wind and this can lead to erosion. In wheat-growing areas the soil is
usually left fallow (empty of crops) every third year or so. This helps the soil
to regain its texture, as does the use of manure.

Wildlife in danger
Over the centuries many animal and plant species have dwindled in number
and some have died out completely. This has been mainly because we have
needed the land for farming, industry, reservoirs and houses. Britain now
has very few forests and wilderness areas where wild animals can live and
flourish. This is not just because wicked people have destroyed them. There
is a real conflict between our desire to have these sort of places, and the needs
of a modern industrial society. We are not helped by the fact that our country
is small and densely populated. Many of the animals and plants which we do
Figure 11 (Top) Open-cast coal mining at the
still have are under threat, and we must do all we can to conserve them.
Shipley Lake site near Ilkeston, Derbyshire.
(Bottom) The Shipley Country Park - the land was
restored after the coal mining was finished.
 Our effects on the environment 99

Conservation
To conserve something means to protect it and keep it in a healthy condition.
Applied to our environment, conservation means protecting the animals and
plants from being harmed. This can be achieved in the following ways:

1 We must reduce pollution as much as possible. Pollution can damage natural

habitats and harm the organisms that live there. Since the Clean Air Act
was introduced in Britain many birds have been nesting in London which
had not been seen there for over 100 years, and the River Thames, once one
of Britain's most polluted rivers, now has salmon in it.

2 Areas which have been devestated by mining should be restored afterwards. Figure
11 shows that this is perfectly possible, though of course it costs money.
Plants and animals will soon move back into such areas if conditions are
made right for them.

3 Animals that are killed for food, or any other purpose, must not be used up quickly.
This particularly applies to fish and whales. Some animals such as deer and
seals are protected by law. In 1914 the grey seal was almost extinct in
British waters. It was estimated that ohly 500 existed. Then an act was
brought in to protect it. By 1970 the population had risen to about 37 000.

4 Natural forests should not be used extensively as a source of timber. It is better to

rely on plantations in which the felled trees are replaced by new seedlings.
Quite apart from the trees themselves, our woods and forests are a haven Figure 12 Woods and forests provide a natural
for many species of animals and plants (Figure 12). Even hedgerows environment for our dwindling wildlife.
contain much wildlife and it is a pity that modern farming with its large
fields has involved cutting down so many hedges. Fortunately some
farmers are conservation-minded and have replanted hedges.

5 One species of animal or plant should not be allowed to flourish at the expense of
another. This can upset the balance of nature. For example, killing off a
predator may result in a large increase in the population of its prey. The
prey then compete for food, and if they happen to be grass-eaters this
can lead to over-grazing and soil erosion (see page 85). In the eighteenth
century the killing of foxes and birds of prey resulted in a huge increase in
the population of rabbits.

6 Endangered species must be helped to survive. Take the Hawaiian goose, for
example. In 1950 this delightful bird was almost extinct. Then a few were
brought to the Wildfowl Trust Centre at Slimbridge in Gloucestershire.
They bred successfully in captivity, and it wasn't long before there were
more Hawaiian geese at Slimbridge that in the whole of Hawaii! In the early
1960s some of them were released in Hawaii where their numbers are now
increasing. This is a success story in conservation but unfortunately there
aren't many like it.

7 We must respect the countryside. This means not leaving litter around, not
picking armloads of wild flowers, and not taking birds' eggs out of their
nests. Even if you lift up a stone in a stream or rock pool to see what's
underneath, it's a good idea to put it back afterwards exactly where you
found it.

In many countries certain areas have been set aside where the animals and
plants are protected. These are often called National Parks and they contain
an abundance of wildlife and natural scenery which everyone can enjoy.
Because of humans, most of the wild animals which used to roam the earth
have long since died out. However, in places such as East and South Africa
there are large game parks with lions, giraffes, elephants, zebras and many
other animals (Figure 13). Here the animals can roam about in safety. They
are carefully managed by game wardens so that their numbers are kept at the
right level.
Figure 13 Burchell’s zebra in a game park in Kenya,
East Africa.
100 Biology for life

Our long-term effects on the environment ■Investigation 1

When we are thinking of the effects of our activities on the environment, we
To find out how much dust is
must look ahead. What will be the effects in 100 years' time, or even 1000
deposited on outside walls
years? Let's take an example: the air around us.
The amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air are delicately
1 Cut off a short length of sellotape
balanced. However, we do two things which might lower the amount of
about 8 cm long.
oxygen and raise the amount of carbon dioxide:
2 Place the sticky side of the sellotape
1 We cut down trees for timber and destroy vegetation to make room for
against a wall out of doors and
towns.
press it gently.
2 We burn fuel, which uses up oxygen and produces carbon dioxide.
3 Hold the sellotape against a sheet of
How could we find out if doing these things affects the amount of oxygen and
white paper and note how much
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere? We would have to make measurements
dust it has picked up.
over many years of the amounts of these two gases in our atmosphere. This
has been done in several parts of the world during the last 100 years. 4 Repeat the experiment on other
The results are very interesting. walls in different places, and
In the case of oxygen, there has been no detectable change. This is because compare the amounts of dust
there is a vast supply of oxygen in our atmosphere which has been put there picked up.
by plants over thousands of millions of years, and humans in their short
Suggest reasons why some walls
history have not used much of it. Even if we burned all the coal and other
appear to be dirtier than others.
fuels that exist in the whole world, the oxygen content of the atmosphere
would decrease by only a fraction of one per cent. If you have the chance, try doing
So we are not likely to run out of oxygen because we burn things. But this experiment in a town and in the
might we run out of it because we destroy plants? This could happen, but it is country and compare the results.
unlikely. We would have to destroy an awful lot of plants to lower the
amount of oxygen in the atmosphere, and even then any changes would take How could you test the idea that dust is
place very slowly. carried by the prevailing wind?
What about carbon dioxide? Look at the graph in Figure 14. In the last 100
years or so the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by
about twelve per cent. The cause of this is not known for certain, but the
burning of fossil fuels and farm waste is thought to have been at least partly
responsible.
If carbon dioxide goes on increasing in the atmosphere, what might its
effects be? It is unlikely to increase so much that our health would be affected.
However, some scientists believe that it could bring about a change in climate
by making the temperature go up. The rise in temperature might melt the ice
■Investigation 2-

at the North and South poles. This could cause the sea-level to rise> flooding
To find out how much dust there is in
many of our coastal cities and destroying vast areas of farmland.
the atmosphere
1 Obtain six slides which have been
coated with a thin layer of agar jelly.

2 Place the slides in different places

out of doors. Make sure they are in
cj
05
o

safe places where they won’t be

co
a
o

interfered with.
amount of carbon dioxide

3 Leave the slides in position for a day

to
to
o
(parts per million)

or two.
co
o
o

4 Compare the amounts of dust

deposited on the agar surface of the
to
oo
o

six slides.
to
g>
o

5 Look at the slides under a lens or

microscope to see how dense the
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960
dust particles are.
years
This investigation could form the basis
of a large-scale survey of air pollution
Figure 14 This graph shows how the amount of carbon dioxide in the air has increased in your district. How would you carry
during the last 100 years. The measurements were made in Vienna. Similar figures have out such a survey?
been recorded in other parts of the world.
 Our effects on the environment 101

Investigation 3 -Investigation 4 -Assignments

Estimating the amount of pollution Finding the effect of chemical 1 How did the word'smog’get its
in rainwater pollutants on organisms name?

1 Obtain a jar about 15 cm tall, a 1 Set up a series of jars all containing What causes smog to develop over
funnel and filter paper. the same amount of clean water. a city?

2 Set them up as shown in the 2 Into each jar place a small selection 2 Suggest one reason for each of the
illustration. of living organisms such as following:
water fleas and insect larvae. a) Discharging sewage into a river
may kill the fish.
b) The Los Angeles smog is worst
3 Put a substance which you suspect
on bright sunny days.
may be a pollutant into each jar. You
funnel c) The use of the insecticide DDT
might try oil, detergent, paraffin, acid
has been stopped in many
and so on.
countries.
4 Observe the behaviour of the
3 Write out a chemical equation for
organisms straight away and, if
the reaction which occurs when
necessary, over a number of days.
sulphuric acid is formed from
sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere.
Is the behaviour of any of the
organisms abnormal? Give two harmful effects of acid rain.

Do any of them die? If so, which ones?

4 Certain lichens are never found in
What conclusions do you draw? industrial areas, though they are
abundant in non-industrial areas.
Describe an experiment which you
Suggest a possible reason for this.
could do to find out the maximum
concentration of a chemical substance Describe an experiment which you
a particular species of animal can could do to test your suggestion.
3 When it is raining, place the tolerate without being visibly harmed.
5 The following figures show the
apparatus in a safe place out of
concentration of mercury in sea
doors and leave it there for at least
water and of various organisms
30 minutes.
rInvestigation 5 expressed in parts per million:
4 Examine the filter paper for particles
seawater 0.00003 ppm
of dust which have been brought Measuring the noise level in different
algae 0.03 ppm
down by the rain. places fish 0.3 ppm
5 Using universal indicator paper, water birds 2.0 ppm
1 Using a sound meter, measure the
measure the pH of the rainwater in
maximum amount of noise in Suggest an explanation for these
the jar.
different places such as: a street figures. What do they tell us about
You will probably find that the pH is corner, a railway station, an airport, a mercury as a pollutant?
round about neutral. children’s playground, a school
6 The amount of nitrates in drinking
dining hall, a reference library, a
However, if the air is badly polluted water has increased in recent years.
bridge over a motorway, a factory, a
the pH may be acidic. Politicians are concerned about this
park, a disco.
because nitrates are believed to
What is the acidity caused by?
2 Compare your results with Figure 8, cause stomach cancer.
If you have the chance, try doing this and state whether the noise level in a) Why do you think the amount of
experiment in different parts of the each place is quiet, normal, loud, nitrates in drinking water has
country and compare the results. very loud or dangerous. increased?
b) How would you test the
How could you find the average
Make a list of as many harmful effects suggestion that nitrates cause
noise level in a particular place?
of acid rain as you can think of. stomach cancer without
experimenting on animals?
c) What might be done to decrease
the nitrate in drinking water?
■How organisms
affect humans
We live in a
world which is populated
by many other kinds of organisms
besides ourselves. Some of them
help us by, for example, by
giving us food; others
harm us.
 —Organisms as-
Cereals
foodfor humans If you are travelling through the British countryside in summer, you will see
two main crops growing in the fields: wheat and barley (Figure 1). It is easy to
Humans are omnivorous, to confuse them for they both have slender leaves like blades of grass. This is
that is they feed on plants because they belong to the same group of flowering plants as the grasses, the
Gramineae. All food crops in this group are known as cereals, and their seeds
and animals. In this topic we
- the grains - are a very important source of food for humans.
shall look at our main When wheat is fully grown, the grains are clustered at the tops of the
sources of food. stems. Each grain is enclosed in a tough covering called the husk which is the
fruit. Combine harvesters, so-called because they combine two actions in one,
cut the wheat stems and separate the grain from the husks. After harvesting,
the grain is kept in grain stores. From here it is sent away to be milled into
flour or made into animal feed. Some of it is used as seed for next year's crop.
Nowadays chemical fertilisers are used to help the crops to grow well. The
trouble is that the fertilisers help weeds to grow too, and these may then
compete with the crop. So the weeds are destroyed by spraying with a
selective weed-killer (see page 98). The result is that a field may contain
nothing but one single crop plant. This is called monoculture. We see
monoculture carried to an extreme in parts of North America where wheat is
grown intensively on a huge scale (Figure 2).

Energy from cereals

A crop plant such as wheat is really an energy converter. It captures light
energy from the sun and transfers it to sugar and other carbon compounds by
photosynthesis. However, only a small proportion of the light energy which
strikes the plant is transferred in this way. Most of the light is reflected or
Figure 1 Two of our most widely grown cereals. Left:
passes straight through the leaves or is used in various chemical reactions
wheat, from which we get flour for making bread and
cakes. Right: barley, from which malt is extracted for inside the plant. Of the energy which does get trapped in sugar, most is used
making beer. Both these crops can be used as in respiration and only a small proportion gets transferred to starch and other
animal food as well. (These pictures are not to carbon compounds. This is summed up in Figure 3.
scale.)
In Figure 3 only five per cent of the energy in the light which strikes the
plant gets into the carbon compounds. We can call this the conversion
efficiency. This sort of figure is the best that can be achieved by a crop plant
growing in ideal climatic conditions with the soil well fertilised and free of

Figure 3 This diagram shows what happens to the energy in the light striking a crop
plant such as wheat. Suppose 100 units of light energy strike the leaf. Only nine units get
into sugar which the leaf makes by photosynthesis, Of this, four units are used in
Figure 2 Harvesting wheat on a large scale in North
respiration and the remaining five units get into the starch and other carbon compounds
America.
made by the plant.
 Organisms as food for humans 105

pests. In practice the average conversion efficiency of a temperate crop plant

like wheat is about one per cent. Even sugar cane in the tropics rarely exceeds
two and a half per cent.

Cattle
Cattle are reared for their milk and meat (beef). There are about twelve main
breeds in Britain. The commonest is the black and white Friesian which is our
chief dairy breed. Our main beef breed is the Hereford with its familiar
reddy-brown coat and white face (Figure 4).

Energy from meat

Think of a cow eating grass in a lush meadow. Like the crop plant which we
considered just now, the grass contains energy in the form of starch and
other carbon compounds. These are eaten by the cow, but only a tiny fraction
of the energy contained in these compounds finds its way into the tissues of
the cow.
Figure 5 shows what happens to the rest of the energy. Most of it passes
straight through the gut without being absorbed and is lost in cowpats, or in Figure 4 Friesian (black and white) and Hereford
methane gas given off by microbes in the cow's stomach. Someone has cattle. We have more Friesians in Britain than all
our other breeds put together.
worked out that there is enough energy in this gas to light a small house.
Further energy is lost in urine, or used up in respiration with the production
of heat.
Altogether a mere four per cent of the energy ingested by the cow gets into
its tissues. Yet more energy is lost when the cow is eaten by humans because
we only eat the meat. Non-edible structures like the bones, horns and skin
get left behind.
Some animals are better energy converters than the cow. For example,
certain fish have an energy conversion efficiency of over twenty per cent.
Because so much energy is lost at each step in a food chain, it is more
economical for humans to eat producers than consumers. Plant crops like
wheat, maize and rice will feed more people than livestock such as cattle.
This is particularly important in densely populated countries where people
are short of food: a piece of land with crops can support more people than the
same piece of land with cattle.

^-Assignments -

1 Imagine you are a wheat farmer.

List all the things you will need in order to
grow and harvest your crop. What
problems might you have? Describe how
you would solve your problems.
2 The cow in Figure 5 has an energy
conversion efficiency of only 4 per cent,
whereas the perch, a fresh-water fish,
has an energy conversion efficiency of
22.5 per cent. Suggest reasons why the
perch is a much better energy converter
than the cow.

3 Suppose the leaf in Figure 3 is eaten by

the cow in Figure 5. What proportion of
the sun’s energy that strikes the leaf will
get into the cow’s tissues? Show your
reasoning.

4 Why is it better for people in densely

populated countries to concentrate their
Figure 5 Here we see what happens to the energy in the grass eaten by a cow. Suppose efforts on growing crops rather than
100 units of energy are ingested. Only four units get into the cow s tissues. 63 units are raising livestock?
lost in faeces, urine and gas, and 33 units in respiration.
 Useful microbes
Decay and the cycling of matter
Microbes, Bacteria and fungi play an important part in making dead organisms decay
particularly bacteria (page 88). This is the first step in the process by which matter circulates in
and fungi, are essential in nature, nature. One aspect of this circulation is the nitrogen cycle which is explained
in detail on page 52. The bacteria in the nitrogen cycle help to make the soil
and humans make use of them
rich in nitrates which are essential for the growth of plants.
in many ways.

sieve for second settling

holding back tank in which dead
large solids bacteria etc. settle
out as ‘humus'

first filter bed

settling in which

channel for
catching grit
tank in which
solid matter
(sludge)
aerobic
bacteria
break down
1
purified
settles out organic effluent
and is digested substances discharged
by anaerobic in liquid into river
bacteria sewage or lake

Figure 1 A simplified diagram of a sewage works.

Getting rid of sewage

Sewage is got rid of in a sewage works (Figures 1 and 2). The process depends
on decay bacteria.
First the sewage is pumped into a large tank. Here the solid matter sinks to
the bottom, forming a sludge. This is broken down by anaerobic bacteria
which give off the gas methane; this can be used as a fuel, supplying power to
run the sewage works. When the sludge has been broken down by these
bacteria, it is dried and can be used as a fertiliser.
Meanwhile the liquid part of the sewage is pumped into a long pipe with
holes in it. This sprinkles the liquid onto a bed of broken stones, called a filter
bed. The stones are coated with a slimy film of aerobic bacteria. These
Figure 2 Settling tanks in a sewage plant. bacteria break up any organic matter into simple substances like carbon
dioxide and nitrogen salts. The liquid is collected from underneath the filter
bed and treated with chlorine to kill any harmful bacteria. The dead bacteria
then settle out, and the liquid is discharged into a nearby river.

Making butter, yoghurt and cheese

Certain bacteria make milk go sour. They convert the milk sugar (lactose) into
lactic acid. The lactic acid makes the milk curdle and go lumpy. To make
yoghurt all you have to do is to add a flavouring to the solidified milk. Butter
can be made by churning sour cream.
Making cheese is rather more complicated. Firs't the solid part of the
curdled milk is separated from the fluid part (the whey). One way of doing
this is to put the curdled milk in a muslin bag and squeeze the fluid whey out.
The paste-like substance left behind is cheese.
At this stage the cheese is white and tasteless. It must now be ripened. This
is carried out by decay microbes (Figure 3). They break the cheese down,
softening it and giving it its characteristic smell and flavour.
There are many kinds of cheese, and each is ripened by particular
microbes. In some cheeses the mould is visible as a network of threads. In
others the microbes give off a gas which cannot get out; the result is that the
cheese has cavities in it (Figure 4). Next time you are in a food shop, see if
Figure 3 Blue cheese is ripened by a mould which there are any cheeses that look like this.
grows in it. This machine makes holes in the unripe Cheese should not be ripened for too long, otherwise the decay process
cheese, helping the mould to spread through it. goes too far and the cheese begins to liquefy and go very smelly.
 Useful microbes 107

Making linen
Linen is made from fibres obtained from the stem of the flax plant. The
fibres are extracted by letting the rest of the stem rot. This process is called
retting and is brought about by bacteria. It is carried out in water and can take
as little as three days. Chemical methods are sometimes used but the
resulting linen is not as good. Bacteria do a better job!

Brewing and baking

These two processes make use of yeast, a single-celled fungus. Both
processes depend on the fact that yeast undergoes alcoholic fermentation,
producing ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Making vinegar
Certain bacteria turn ethanol into acetic acid. They are used in the production
of vinegar which contains acetic acid. The bacteria are aerobic and therefore
need oxygen. The ethanol is made to tricjde through tall cylinders packed
with a material such as wood shavings coated with a film of bacteria. The
cylinders have holes at the bottom so that air can circulate freely inside them.

Making silage
Silage is undecayed grass. It is used for feeding livestock in winter. The grass
is prevented from decaying by lactic acid produced by anaerobic bacteria.

Making antibiotics
An antibiotic is a substance produced by a microbe which kills other types of
microbes or prevents them multiplying. Microbes'produce antibiotics so as to
stop other microbes living in the same place and competing with them.
An example of an antibiotic is penicillin. This is produced by the fungus
Penicillium which forms a green mould on the surface of various foods.
Penicillin and many other antibiotics are now manufactured from microbes.
Some of them come from fungi, others from bacteria. They are used for
treating people with bacterial and fungal diseases (see page ll6).
Figure 5 The cylinders used in vinegar production.

Producing enzymes
Many commercially important enzymes are obtained from bacteria. They
r-Assignments -

include enzymes that are put in biological soap powders. You will find a
1 List three useful chemicals which are
summary of their other uses in the Topic on enzymes.
made by bacteria, and one which is
made by a fungus. Explain why each
Producing edible protein chemical is useful.

It is now possible to grow bacteria and fungi in special chambers at such a rate 2 Describe two useful processes
that in the future they may become a source of protein food for farm animals which involve decay bacteria.
and even humans. Trials have been carried out with encouraging results. In a
3 Certain bacteria convert ethanol into
certain restaurant in England, unsuspecting diners enjoyed 'chicken' and
acetic acid. Under what
'ham' which had been made with flavoured threads of a fungus! Fungal 'meat
circumstances are these bacteria
pies' can now be bought in food shops.
(a) a nuisance, and (b) useful to us?

4 A politician makes a speech in which

Genetic engineering he urges scientists to find a way of
In this process genes are transferred to bacteria from higher organisms such getting rid of all bacteria.
as humans. The bacteria then make useful substances for human use. An
Write a letter to a newspaper giving
example is the hormone insulin which prevents diabetes. Genetic engineer¬
your view on this idea and explaining
ing is explained more fully in the Topic on how genes work.
its probable consequences.
 Food spoilage aud¬
What makes food go bad?
its prevention The reason why food goes bad was discovered by the famous French scientist
Louis Pasteur (Figure 1). Pasteur did the experiment illustrated in Figure 2.
If you leave food You can do the same kind of experiment yourself (Investigation 1). The
for a time it is likely to experiment shows that there are microbes in the air around us, and if they are
allowed to get into food they make it go bad. The microbes are mainly
go bad. Why does this
bacteria and moulds, the same kind that bring about decay (see page 88).
happen and how can They feed on the food, breaking it down into simple substances. Flies and
it be prevented? other insects feed on the food too; they may lay their eggs in it, and when the
maggots hatch out they too feed on the food. All these organisms thrive in
warm conditions, and that's why food goes bad so quickly in hot weather:
meat left out at 30 °C may be crawling with maggots within a week.
In the course of breaking down the food the microbes give off substances
which make the food smell and taste unpleasant. Some produce poisonous
substances which cause food poisoning. When a person gets food poisoning,
he usually has an upset stomach, but he soon gets better. On rare occasions
the effects are more serious. Such is the case with botulism, which is caused
by a type of bacteria. These bacteria live in anaerobic conditions and so they
can occur in canned food. The substance produced by the botulism germ is so
poisonous that a spoonful of it could kill over a million people.

How can we prevent food going bad?

To some extent we can stop food going bad, or at least delay it, by keeping
microbes and flies away from it. For example, you can clean the food and
then wrap it up or cover it. Meat can be protected from flies by covering it
with a fine net, but unfortunately this won't keep microbes out.
Figure 1 Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895). Pasteur
discovered that there are microbes in the air which It's much better to kill the micro-organisms or make conditions unsuitable
make food go bad. He is seen here in his for them. This is the basis of food preservation. There are four main ways of
laboratory in Paris. preserving food and they are explored in Investigation 2.

Figure 2 What makes food go bad? This

experiment, first performed by Louis Pasteur in the
1 Cold treatment
1860s, shows that microbes from the air make food For hundreds of years Eskimos have preserved fish by burying it in frozen
go bad. The narrow S-shaped neck of the flask ground. We do the same when we put food in a food freezer, or when food is
stopped microbes getting to the broth; they got frozen in a factory or in the home.
stuck on the sides of the drawn-out neck. Breaking
Freezing does not kill microbes, but it stops them multiplying and slows
the neck allowed microbes to enter.
their action - and the colder it is the slower they get. However, as soon as the
food thaws, the microbes start up again and the food begins to go bad. In the
case of meat, decay sets in particularly quickly. This is because during
freezing the cells are broken open by ice crystals, and this makes it easier for
bacteria to penetrate into the food afterwards. So frozen food should be eaten
as soon as possible after it has been taken out of the freezer.
It is important to freeze food quickly. This can be done by subjecting it to a
very low temperature (Figure 3). Once it has been frozen, it can be stored at a
slightly higher temperature. Most home freezers have two temperature
1 Nutrient broth
poured into flask

2 Neck of flask
heated and pulled
out into S shape
5 Neck of flask broken off without
3 Broth boiled for 4 Broth allowed to cool. touching it with hands.
a few minutes to kill It stayed clear and Broth went bad within a few days.
any microbes present fresh for months. It became cloudy and was soon
and drive out air teeming with microbes.
 Food spoilage and its prevention 109

settings: -24°C for freezing food, and -18°C for storing it. At this
temperature bacterial action is slowed almost to a standstill.
How long can you leave frozen food in a freezer? It depends on the kind of
food, and the temperature at which it is stored. If you look at the front of a
freezer you may see a row of stars. These indicate how long food can be kept
(Figure 4). In a four star freezer some foods can be kept for up to a year.
It is important to distinguish between a food freezer and a refrigerator. The
temperature in the main part of a refrigerator is just above freezing. At this
temperature bacterial action is slowed down, but nothing like as much as it is
when the food is completely frozen. For this reason most foods can be kept in
a fridge for only a few days.
Inside most fridges there is a small frozen food storage compartment. The
temperature in here is below freezing. You should not use it to freeze food,
but it can be used for storing food which is already frozen.
Freezing food is very important nowadays. Frozen foods are transported in
refrigerated lorries and ships, and they are a popular item in every super¬
market.

2 Drying ,
Microbes need moisture. If food is dried they go into a state rather like
hibernation. They stop multiplying and their action ceases. If spores land on
dried foods they cannot germinate since moisture is needed for this. Dried
food lasts indefinitely. Samples of dried food, found in Jericho, were Figure 3 Cold store man with frozen fingers!
preserved over 4000 years ago.
Removing water from an object is called dehydration. Nowadays food is
usually dehydrated by having hot dry air blown over it. Sometimes other
more complicated methods are used. Milk, eggs, potatoes, fish and meat can
all be dehydrated. When water is added to dehydrated food, it quickly takes
it up and can then be eaten.
Dehydrated foods are compact and light so they can be moved around
easily and cheaply. They are particularly useful in wartime and in space travel
and for air-lifting food to famine areas. Of course once the dried food is made
up with water it will go bad in the usual way.

3 Heat treatment
Figure 4 Temperature scale for refrigerating food.
When you cook food, the heat kills many of the microbes that might
If you want to freeze fresh food you should freeze It
otherwise make it go bad. Heat can thus sterilise food. This is especially true at the lowest temperature. It can then be stored in a
if a pressure cooker is used (Figure 5). frozen state at a higher temperature.

7°C average temperature range in main cabinet of refrigerator:

bacterial action slowed only slightly:
4°C perishable food can be kept fresh for a few days only

0°C freezing point of water: ice forms

temperature of frozen food storage compartment in

—6°C one-star refrigerator: bacterial action slowed:
frozen food can be kept for one week

temperature of frozen food storage compartment in

— 12°C
two-star refrigerator: bacterial action slowed more:
frozen food can be kept up to one month

— 18°C temperature of frozen food compartment in

three-star refrigerator: bacterial action stopped:
frozen food can be kept for three months

-24°C lowest temperature in four-star freezer:

fresh food should be frozen at this temperature
110 Biology for life

Many people preserve fruit by bottling it (Figure 6). A special jar is used - it
control valve has a lid with a rubber rim. You fill the jar with fruit and syrup and put the lid
on. Then you heat the jar to kill any microbes present. After that you let the
safety valve
jar cool down. As it cools, the air inside it shrinks and a vacuum is created.
This pulls the lid on tightly, and the rubber ring makes it airtight.
airtight seal Canning works in the same kind of way. In a canning factory food is placed
in metal cans. Air is then sucked out of the cans, after which they are sealed.
They are then heated under pressure for long enough to kill any microbes.
Heat is also used for killing bacteria in milk. Milk can be completely
steam sterilised by heating it to a very high temperature and then sealing it. Some
people buy sterilised milk because it will keep for a long time. However,
food
sterilisation alters the flavour, and most people prefer pasteurised milk.
boiling water Pasteurisation is named after Louis Pasteur. He was the first person to
\ \ \ \ i i // / realise that heat kills bacteria. When milk is pasteurised it is heated enough to
heater kill dangerous germs, but not so much that it loses its flavour. In one method
the milk is heated to about 70 °C for fifteen seconds, then quickly cooled and
put into a sterilised bottle or carton, and then capped or sealed. Some dairies
Figure 5 A pressure cooker consists of an airtight use a quicker method: they heat the milk to 135 °C for one second, and then
metal container. When the water is heated, seal it. Some bacteria survive this treatment, but not the ones that cause
pressure builds up Inside the container. This
disease.
causes the water to boil at a higher temperature
than normal. The control valve allows steam to
escape when the desired temperature has been 4 Chemical treatment
reached. The high temperature cooks food quickly The idea here is to add to the food a chemical which kills bacteria but is
and kills most germs.
harmless to man.
Pickling is an example. When food is pickled it is put in a preservative such
as vinegar. The acid in the vinegar kills the bacteria and prevents the food
from going bad.
Another example is smoking. In this process the food is held over a wood
fire. The smoke contains substances which kill the bacteria, as well as giving
the food a delicious flavour.
Some foods are preserved by salting: the food is either soaked in a solution
of salt (brine) or salt is rubbed into it. The salt pulls the water out of the
bacterial cells by osmosis and kills them.
In hot countries, the local people often put fruit or fish out in the sun
(Figure 7). This not only dries the food as the water in it evaporates, but also
leaves a high concentration of sugar or salt. This kills any microbes present
and is the reason why 'dried fruit' such as figs and dates keep for a long time.
Bacteria and other microbes can also be killed by radioactive rays. This
provides a very modern way of preserving food, which may eventually
become widely used.

Figure 6 Plums being put in a jar for bottling. The lid

will be fixed tightly in place by means of the clip.
Figure 7 Drying fish out of doors in Malawi, Africa.
 Food spoilage and its prevention 111

PInvestigation 1- rInvestigation 2- rAssignments-

To find out what makes food go bad Finding ways of stopping food going 1 Give five examples of foods which
bad go bad within a few days if you don’t
1 Make up some‘nutrient broth’as
follows: put a broth tablet in a test keep them in a refrigerator.
1 Cut six small pieces of fresh meat,
tube and add 10 cm of distilled about 1 cm square. 2 Mrs Patel leaves a loaf of bread,
water to it. Boil it for several minutes two biscuits and some pickled
so as to sterilise it. 2 Obtain six large test tubes. Label
them A to F. onions on the sideboard while she
2 Pour half the nutrient broth into each goes on holiday. When she gets
of two test tubes, and set the test 3 Set up the six test tubes like this: home she finds that the bread has
tubes up as shown below. gone mouldy but the biscuits and
A Put a piece of meat in a test tube
pickled onions are unaffected. Can
and plug the tube with cotton
you explain the difference?
straight glass tube_ wool. Leave it at room
- _cotton wool
r temperature. This is your control. 3 Explain each of the following:
a) Food left at the South Pole by
B Put a second piece of meat in a
Captain Scott during his
test tube, and plug the tube with
expedition in 1912 was
cotton wool. Place it in a
discovered many years later in
.nutrient broth refrigerator.
perfect condition.
w C Dry another piece of meat by b) Sometimes the sides of a can of
blowing warm air over it with a food bulge out and the can
hair drier for a few minutes. Then bursts.
put it in a test tube with a few c) Pasteurised milk eventually goes
crystals of silica gel, and plug the bad even if the container is not
tube with cotton wool. Leave it at opened.
room temperature.
4 Here are some simple rules for
D Put a piece of meat in a test tube, freezing food.
and plug the tube with cotton a) Freeze the food as soon as
wool. Place the tube in an possible after you have obtained
autoclave or pressure cooker, it.
and heat it. Then cool it, and leave b) Handle the food as little as
3 Sterilise both tubes by heating them it at room temperature. possible before you freeze it.
in an autoclave or pressure cooker c) Set the freezer at its lowest
E Soak a piece of meat in vinegar.
for fifteen minutes, then let them temperature several hours before
Then put it in a test tube and plug
cool. you put the food in.
the tube with cotton wool. Leave it
Alternatively boil the broth over a d) Don’t re-freeze food which has
at room temperature.
been frozen and thawed before.
bunsen burner for about one minute.
F Rub salt into the final piece of
Give a scientific reason for each of
4 Observe the nutrient broth in the two meat. Then put it in a test tube
these rules.
test tubes at intervals during the next and plug the tube with cotton
few days or weeks. wool. Leave it at room 5 Describe an experiment which you
temperature. could do to compare the rates at
If the nutrient broth goes cloudy, it
which (a) dried milk powder and
means that bacteria have got in and 4 Can you think of any other ways of
(b) dried milk powder that has been
are turning it bad. preventing meat going bad? If you
made up in water, go bad.
can, set up extra test tubes and label
Which tube goes cloudy first?
them G, H ... etc. 6 A fresh fish weighs 120 grams and
How would you explain your contains 22 grams of protein. After
5 Leave the test tubes for several
observations? being dried, the same fish weighs
days.
31.5 grams.
How does this experiment differ from
6 After several days look at the pieces a) What percentage of the fresh fish
the one outlined in Figure 2?
of meat and smell them. is protein?
5 Place a drop of the nutrient broth b) What percentage of the dried fish
Which pieces of meat have gone bad,
from each tube on a slide and put on is protein?
and which have not?
a coverslip. c) Why are the two figures different?
Examine it under the microscope. From this experiment, which methods d) Why is this important in feeding
appear to be good for preserving food? mankind?
Can you see any microbes?
Which tube contains them, and why?
 Microbes and
What is disease?
disease Disease is the condition which arises when something goes wrong with the
normal working of the body. As a result we become ill. The signs of the
What causes diseases, why disease may include a headache, rashes on the skin, sore throat or fever. We
do they spread quickly, and what call these the symptoms of the disease (Figure 1). When a doctor examines a
sick patient he looks for these symptoms because they will probably tell him
can we do about them?
what's wrong. He can then suggest a remedy: in medical language, he
prescribes some kind of treatment.

What causes disease?

In the middle of the nineteenth century the French scientist Louis Pasteur
discovered that there are microbes in the air around us and they are
responsible for making food go bad (see page 108). Pasteur suggested that
microbes might also cause diseases. Some years later a German doctor called
Robert Koch (Figure 2) showed that diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis
are caused by certain bacteria. Koch took blood samples from people who had
a particular disease and grew microbes from the blood on agar jelly. He then
injected the microbes into mice and found that they got the same disease.
Similar investigations were carried out by other scientists, and by the end of
the nineteenth century the particular microbes responsible for many diseases
were known.
The microbes which cause diseases are described as pathogenic, This word
comes from Greek, and literally means 'gives rise to suffering'. Here we will
refer to them by their everyday name - germs. The main kinds of germs are
bacteria and viruses, though diseases are also caused by other organisms.
Germs get into the body mainly through the mouth and nose, or some¬
times through cuts and wounds. Once inside, they may multiply very
quickly. This is called the incubation period and several days or even weeks
may go by before the person actually starts feeling ill.
Germs harm us in one of two ways. Some of them attack and destroy our
cells, others release poisonous substances into the bloodstream. For example,
Figure 1 Every disease has its symptoms.
the bacteria which cause cholera never leave the gut of their victim, nor do
Smallpox is caused by a virus and it is
characterised by spots on the skin. Fortunately this
they invade the cells lining it. The harm they do is caused entirely by poisons
terrible disease has now been successfully wiped which they produce.
out.

How are germs spread?

In 1918 there was an outbreak of flu in Spain. Within a few months it had
spread all over the world. Between April and November over 21 million
people died of it - twice as many as were killed in the whole of the First World
War. When a large number of people go down with a disease, we say there is
an epidemic. If it's worldwide it's called a pandemic.
Diseases spread because germs get passed from one individual to another:
a healthy person 'catches' the disease from someone else - or maybe from an
animal. Diseases which are spread like this are called infectious diseases.
Sometimes a person may have germs in his body without showing the
symptoms of the disease. Such a person is called'a carrier.

Here are the main ways that germs are spread from one individual to another:

1 By droplets in the air

When you cough or sneeze, thousands of tiny drops of moisture shoot out of
your mouth and nose (Figure 3). If you have a disease these droplets may be
swarming with germs. If they are breathed in by other people, the disease is
likely to be spread to them. This can happen if an infected person breathes
into someone else's face, or talks to him. Colds and flu spread rapidly this
way, particularly in crowded places. These are virus diseases.

Figure 2 Robert Koch (1848 - 1910) discovered 2 By dust

the cause of many diseases. Some diseases can be spread by dust, for example diphtheria and scarlet
 Microbes and disease 113

fever. Germs stick to the dust particles and float through the air. Eventually
they settle on surfaces which may be a long way from where they arose.
People can catch the disease by breathing in the dust, or getting it in their
mouths from infected food.

3 By touch
Impetigo is a skin disease which occasionally breaks out in schools. It is
caused by a bacterium. You can catch it by touching an infected person, or
even by brushing against his clothes or sharing his hairbrush or towel.
Another skin disease, athlete's foot (caused by a fungus), can be picked up
from the floor of changing rooms and showers. In both these cases infection
is by contact: such diseases are said to be contagious.

4 By faeces
The faeces of an individual with a disease may be teeming with germs. If the
faeces get into food or drinking water, the disease will quickly spread to other
Figure 3 In crowded places people readily infect
people. Epidemics of typhoid and cholera have been caused this way. Food
one another with their germs. This is a flash-
can become contaminated with faeces if it is handled by a person with dirty photograph of a sneeze. Thousands of droplets of
hands. This is why you should always wash your hands after going to the moisture, containing germs, shoot out of the man’s
toilet, particularly if you are about to prepare food for other people. Drinking mouth and nose. The droplets may travel at up to 70
water may become contaminated if sewage gets into it. This happens in miles per hour.
places where sewage is not disposed of properly. In some countries the local
river water is used for washing, swimming, defaecating in and drinking.
Even in the most hygienic communities sewage can get into the drinking
Water if there is a disaster such as an earthquake or a flood.

5 By animals
Germs are brought onto food by animals such as rats and mice, cockroaches
and flies. Take flies for example: these little animals are equally happy
feeding on dung or sugar lumps (Figure 4). Their legs may be covered with
germs. Moreover, they put saliva onto their food before they feed on it. In
this way germs may be transferred from faeces to food.
Many diseases are spread by animals which suck blood. An example is the
mosquito which transmits malaria and yellow fever (see page 129).
Plague (the Black Death of the Middle Ages) is caused by bacteria which are
carried from rats to man by fleas. This terrible disease still occurs in dirty
places where rats are common.
A number of diseases are spread by pets such as dogs and cats. By far the
most serious is rabies, which is caused by a virus. Humans can catch it by
being bitten or even licked by an infected dog. Pets also carry less serious
diseases. The family dog may look innocent, but its tongue is covered with
germs. It is unwise to let it lick your face.

6 By cuts and scratches

Suppose Jean scratches herself with a needle, and then the needle scratches
Ann. Certain diseases may be passed from Jean to Ann in this way. An
example is viral hepatitis. Sometimes drug addicts share the same needle for
injecting themselves with drugs (see page 279): in the process serious
diseases may be passed from one to the other.
Even more serious is when contaminated blood is given to someone in a
blood transfusion. In the past the virus disease AIDS has been spread this
way. Now blood that is to be used in a transfusion is tested beforehand to
make sure it is safe. AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome
and normally it is transmitted only by close sexual contact (see page 359). A
syndrome is a group of symptoms characteristic of a disease.

How are we protected from germs?

Figure 4 A fly feeding on a lump of food. The fly puts
Our bodies are protected from germs in many ways. Some of the ways arise
saliva onto the food before it sucks it up. The saliva is
from the body's own defence mechanisms. Others are man-made. Here we likely to contain germs, and there may also be germs
shall be concerned mainly with the man-made methods. on the fly’s feet.
114 Biology for life

1 Germs are destroyed by sterilisation

When an object is freed of germs, it is said to be sterilised. We often try to
sterilise things by boiling them. For example, when we cook food we kill
many of the germs in it; in fact good food hygiene is very important in
preventing disease. So is cleaning things in chemicals such as Dettol. We call
these chemicals disinfectants (Investigation).
Heating and disinfecting things is useful in the home, but it does not kill all
germs. Bacterial spores are particularly resistant. A much better method is to
heat them under pressure. Why under pressure? If you heat water at
ordinary atmospheric pressure, the water boils at 100 °C and that's the highest
temperature it will reach. Unfortunately this is not hot enough to kill all
germs, particularly the spores of bacteria. However, if you raise the pressure,
the water boils at a higher temperature, and the germs can be killed in the
steam. The process is carried out in a metal chamber which works in the same
way as a pressure cooker in the kitchen. It is called an autoclave. Heating at
120 °C for fifteen minutes is sufficient to kill most germs. Pre-packed foods
and hospital instruments are sterilised in this way.
The most germ-free place is the hospital operating theatre (Figure 5). Before
entering the theatre, the air passes through a special filter. The surgeons and
nurses wear sterilised gowns, head covers and face masks, and all the
instruments are sterilised beforehand. There is therefore little risk of the
patient being infected.

2 Animals which carry diseases are exterminated

Great efforts have been made to get rid of disease-spreading animals such as
rats, fleas, lice and mosquitoes. The battle against insects has been helped
enormously by insecticides. These are chemical substances which kill insects.
One of the most useful insecticides has been DDT, which was first used
during the 1939-45 war to get rid of head lice. DDT has now been banned in
many countries because it may be dangerous to man. However, it has been
extremely useful in the fight against malaria and yellow fever.

3 Infectious individuals are isolated

A person who has a serious infectious disease, or is a carrier of it, must be
kept away from other people. So he is isolated until he is no longer infectious
This is called being put in quarantine. Occasionally a person entering a
country is placed in quarantine because it's thought he may be carrying a
Figure 6 When there is an outbreak of foot and serious disease. This is only done if the person comes from an infected area
mouth disease the whole area is put in quarantine. and has not been vaccinated against the disease. It is always done in Britain
with animals. Cats and dogs brought in have to be put in quarantine for six
months. This is to make sure they don't bring in rabies. Outbreaks have
occurred in Europe, but it has never gained a foothold in Britain. Anyone
who breaks the quarantine law and smuggles a pet into the country
could start a rabies epidemic.
An animal which shows signs of having rabies is destroyed immediately, to
prevent the disease spreading further. This is also done with foot and mouth
disease which occasionally strikes at cattle and other livestock. When there is
an outbreak of foot and mouth disease on a farm, the whole area is cordoned
off (Figure 6). The boots and car tyres of people leaving on essential business
are disinfected. All infected animals are killed and then burned or buried in
quicklime. It is one of the most distressing things that can happen to a farmer.
Most diseases have an incubation period of a week or two. In the old days a
person travelling from one country to another by ship would probably show
signs of the disease before docking, so he could be isolated before he had a
chance to mix with other people. With modern travel, particularly by air, an
infected person may arrive in a country and move about freely for quite a long
time before he starts feeling ill and goes to the doctor. In the meantime he
may have infected many other people.
Figure 7 This enormously magnified picture of the
surface of human skin shows groups of bacteria 4 The skin should be kept clean
living in the crevices. The surface of the skin is very uneven, and thousands of tiny organisms
 Microbes and disease 115

make their homes in its nooks and crannies (Figure 7). Some of these
organisms kill harmful germs, so they help to protect us against disease.
However, others are harmful and can cause unpleasant skin diseases. For
good health it is important to wash the skin regularly with soapy water.
When you cut your skin, you open a door to germs and the cut may go septic.
However, this can be prevented by applying a substance which kills germs.
Such substances are called antiseptics; iodine is an example.
Antiseptics were discovered in the 1860s by the English surgeon Joseph
Lister (Figure 8). In Lister's day more than half the people who had
operations died: many of them got a bacterial infection of their wounds,
called gangrene. Lister discovered that if he sprayed the patient's wound
with carbolic acid during the operation, it did not go septic. Thanks to Lister,
the number of people who died after operations was enormously reduced.
If you cut yourself, the wound should be cleaned and then covered with
elastoplast or a bandage. These are called dressings. They prevent germs
getting in, and bring the cut surfaces of the skin close together which speeds
up the healing process.

5 Being immunised
When a particular germ gets into your bloodstream, it usually causes you to
produce antibodies which kill it. Now suppose a small amount of fluid
obtained from some dead germs is injected into your blood before you've had Figure 8 Joseph Lister, the first person to use
the disease. What effect will this have? The fluid contains antigens, so it antiseptics.
causes you to make antibodies: you will then be protected against the disease.
This is what doctors do to make people immune to various diseases. The
process is called immunisation.
The first person to immunise someone against a disease was the English
physician Edward Jenner. In 1796 he immunised a young boy against the
dreaded disease smallpox. He did this by giving him serum from a girl who
had a related disease called cowpox or Vaccinia. For this reason the process of
being immunised is called vaccination. The material which is injected into the
bloodstream is called the vaccine. Jenner used pus from the girl's spots as his
vaccine, and he scratched it into the boy's skin with a thorn.
Since Jenner's day immunisation has been extended to many other diseases
both viral and bacterial. When a doctor immunises you, he puts a small
quantity of vaccine into your bloodstream. This is called inoculation (Figure
9). Normally it is done with a hypodermic needle or by scratching the skin,
though in some cases the vaccine can be taken by mouth. The vaccine itself is
made from germs which are dead or at least inactive. The germs must be in
this state, otherwise they might give you the disease the doctor is trying to
protect you from.
When you were a baby you were immunised against various serious
diseases such as diphtheria and polio. Teenagers are usually immunised
against tuberculosis unless a simple skin test shows that they are already
immune to it; and young girls may be immunised against German measles
(rubella): this is a mild disease but if a woman gets it in the early stages of
pregnancy it may damage her baby. These immunisations should protect you
for the rest of your life. However, for diseases like typhoid and cholera,
which you can get immunised against before going abroad, protection only
lasts for a limited time, and you need to be given further doses of vaccine
from time to time to keep up your protection. These are called boosters.

6 Receiving ready-made antibodies

Tetanus is a serious bacterial disease which kills about 100 people each
year in Britain. The muscles, particularly those working the jaws, go into
painful spasms - the disease is sometimes called lockjaw. Tetanus germs can
be picked up if you cut yourself with a dirty instrument such as a penknife.
Suppose you cut your finger with a dirty knife; the doctor wants to make
sure that you don't get tetanus. It's too late to give you an injection of
antigens; by the time your body had made the necessary antibodies you Figure 9 The doctor is inoculating the girl against
would probably be dead! How can the doctor protect you quickly? German measles.
116 Biology for life

The answer is to give you some ready-made antibodies, that is antibodies

which have already been made by someone else or by an animal. It is called
anti-tetanus serum. The doctor injects some of this into your arm and sends
you home. The serum should prevent you getting tetanus.
Giving a person ready-made antibodies is useful in an emergency. How¬
ever, the protection does not last long. This is because the antibodies are
gradually broken down and got rid of from the body. For long-term
protection the person must make his own antibodies.

7 Germs are killed by antibiotics

In 1928 a Scottish bacteriologist called Alexander Fleming was working at St.
Mary's Hospital, London (Figure 10). He was growing bacteria on plates of
agar. The bacteria multiplied and spread over the agar, forming colonies.
Normally Fleming covered his bacteria with a lid to prevent them becoming
contaminated. But one night he forgot to do this, and left one of his dishes
uncovered. When he returned next morning he had a surprise. His bacterial
colonies had been killed.
What had killed them? Fleming had no idea, but he was determined to find
out. After a great deal of searching, Fleming discovered that his bacteria had
Figure 10 Alexander Fleming in his laboratory. been killed by a mould. It seemed that some spores of this mould had got into
the laboratory and had landed on his bacteria; the mould had then destroyed
them.
The mould was identified as Penicillium which grows on the surface of fruit.
Fleming realised that the mould must have produced a chemical substance
which killed the bacteria. If this substance could be extracted from the mould,
it might be used to cure people of bacterial diseases. It took scientists twelve
years to obtain it in a usable form. In 1940 it was tried out on patients in
hospital. The results were dramatic: people who were dying of bacterial
diseases recovered almost immediately. This 'miracle substance' was
christened penicillin.
Today hundreds of substances are used by doctors to treat bacterial
diseases. Some, like penicillin, are obtained from moulds and other microbes:
we call them antibiotics. Others are drugs which are made in chemical
laboratories. These substances have saved countless millions of lives.
Unfortunately antibiotics won't work against viruses. For this reason they
are not used against the common cold and flu, both of which are virus
diseases.

Is the battle won?

Look at Figure 11. This shows the number of people in Britain who died of
diphtheria each year between 1911 and 1961. You will see that there has been
a tremendous fall in the number of deaths from this disease. The same is true
of smallpox and many other infectious diseases. In fact, the World Health
Organisation has declared that smallpox is now extinct.
This happy state of affairs has been brought about partly by immunisation
and antibiotics, but also by improvements in personal and community
hygiene, and by people being better fed. If you are well-fed, clean and
healthy, you are less likely to succumb to disease.
Unfortunately the situation is not so good in many developing countries
where infectious diseases still kill a lot of people. This is due to poor food,
overcrowding and lack of hygiene, and to a shortage of nurses, doctors and
medical supplies.
In advanced countries the main problems are now cancer, heart disease,
mental disease, and diseases which are passed from one person to another by
years sexual contact. Sexually transmitted diseases include syphillis, gonorrhoea
and AIDS. AIDS is a new disease, only discovered around 1980, and it's on
the increase.

Figure 11 Between 1911 and 1961 the number of So there are still battles to be fought. A major difficulty is that new kinds of
deaths each year from diptheria fell from nearly bacteria keep arising which are resistant to the more common antibiotics. For
5000 to only ten. A bacterial disease, diptheria this reason doctors don't prescribe antibiotics unless they are really
used to be a major cause of death among children. necessary.
 Microbes and disease 117

Investigation- Assignments-
Preventing the growth of bacteria 1 Make a list of all the diseases 6 In the Middle Ages soldiers used to
mentioned in this Topic. By each one rub mould on their wounds. Why do
1 Wash your hands, then obtain four
write the name of the organism you think they did this?
petri dishes containing sterile agar.
which causes it, how it is spread,
Label them A, B, C and D. 7 Why is it particularly important that
and howit can be controlled.
the following places should be as
2 Your teacher will give you a tube or
2 Give five examples of places where free of germs as possible:
bottle containing a culture of
diseases are likely to spread by a) operating theatres,
harmless bacteria.
people coughing and sneezing. b) public lavatories,
3 Transfer some of the bacteria to the c) hotel kitchens,
3 What part is played by each of the
agar in each petri dish, using the d) swimming pools,
following in spreading disease:
method shown in the illustration. e) doctors’ surgeries?
a) flies,
b) rats, 8 Until the late 1940s there were
c) mosquitoes, special ‘isolation hospitals' for
d) needles, patients with infectious diseases.
e) aeroplanes? Few such hospitals exist in Britain
'r
now because they are not needed
4 Explain the reason for each of the
any more.
following:
a) Why were isolation hospitals
a) A pet which is brought into Britain
necessary in the old days?
from overseas is put into
b) Why are they no longer needed?
quarantine for six months.
c) Write down three particular
b) If you graze your knee it is
difficulties which you think there
A Cut out four pieces of filter paper, sensible to wash it immediately
might have been in running an
about 1 cm square. and put iodine on it.
isolation hospital.
c) A surgeon wears a mask over his
5 Onto the agar in petri dish A, lay a
mouth and nose. 9 During the influenza epidemic of
piece of filter paper soaked in a
d) Many of the food items in a 1918 people were given face masks
disinfectant, e.g. Dettol.
supermarket are wrapped in like the one in the picture below to
6 Onto the agar in petri dish B, lay a cellophane. protect them from breathing in the
piece of filter paper soaked in an e) ‘ Chlorine is sometimes added to influenza germs. These masks
antiseptic, e.g. iodine. drinking water. proved to be useless. Why do you
think they were of no use?
7 Onto the agar in petri dish C, lay a 5 Mr X makes hamburgers in a small
piece of filter paper soaked in an town. Though he does not know it,
antibiotic, e.g. penicillin. he is a carrier of typhoid. Mr X is
usually very clean, but one morning
8 Onto the agar in petri dish D, lay a
he is late for work so he does not
piece of filter paper which has
bother to wash his hands after going
been soaked in distilled water. This
to the toilet. That day he makes 600
will serve as a control.
hamburgers, all of which are sold in
9 Cover each petri dish with a lid and his shop. Two weeks later several
fix it firmly with sellotape. hundred people in the town go down
with typhoid.
10 Put the petri dishes upside down in
a) There were germs on Mr X’s
an incubator at 37 °C.
hands. Where might they have
11 After a day or two, examine each come from?
petri dish for the presence of b) Name two other ways this
bacteria. disease might be spread round a
town.
Which substances, if any, prevented c) Suppose you were the Health
the growth of bacteria? Officer for the area in which this
town is situated. What steps
CARE Work with bacteria can be would you take to prevent the
dangerous and should be carried out disease spreading further?
under strict supervision by the teacher.

Always wash your hands after

working with bacteria.
—Harmful protists
The malarial parasite
Many protists are Every year about 200 million people get malaria, and about two million die of
parasites. Some of them live it. It is carried from person to person by a certain type of mosquito called
in the human bloodstream, others Anopheles. This mosquito is found mainly in hot countries. Malaria only
occurs in places where the mosquito is found.
in the gut or amongst the cells.
They can do a lot
of harm. What happens when you get malaria?
John is camping in West Africa. During the night he is bitten by an Anopheles
mosquito (Figure 1). During the next two weeks John feels poorly, but he
doesn't realise he has malaria.
One night he wakes up with a terrible fever (Figure 2). His temperature
soars up. He sweats, shivers and becomes delirious. Then suddenly the fever
dies down and he feels better. Exhausted, he falls asleep.
Several days later he has another attack of fever. He goes on having attacks
every few days.
What has been happening in John's body? To understand this we must
study the life cycle of the parasite (Figure 3).

Life cycle of the malarial parasite

When the mosquito bit John, it injected a drop of saliva into his bloodstream.
The saliva contained tiny worm-like parasites.
Once in the bloodstream, the parasites made for John's liver. They stayed
Figure 1 A mosquito sucking blood from a in the liver for the next two weeks, feeding and multiplying. This was when
person’s arm. This type of mosquito carries John felt poorly.
malaria. Only the female mosquito sucks After two weeks, the parasites left the liver and got into John's blood¬
blood, so only the female transmits malaria. stream. They then invaded his red blood cells. Each little worm-like parasite
bored its way into a red blood cell. Once inside it changed its shape. It
became like a little amoeba, and it fed like an amoeba on the contents of the
cell. Gradually it grew, until it just about filled the cell. Then it split into lots
of tiny offspring. Finally the red blood cell burst, releasing the new batch of
parasites (Investigation 1).
This grisly procedure was undergone not just by one parasite, but by
thousands of them all at the same time. John's temperature gradually went
up while the parasites were inside his red blood cells. His fever reached its
height when his blood cells burst and the parasites were released.
After being set free, the new parasites invaded more red blood cells, and
the cycle was repeated. This is why the attacks of fever kept coming back.

What happens inside the mosquito?

When a mosquito bites you, it sucks up your blood. If malarial parasites are
present in your bloodstream, the mosquito takes these up too.
Inside the mosquito's stomach the parasites multiply. They then make their
way to the salivary glands. Here they wait until the mosquito bites another
person. They are then injected into that person's bloodstream with the
mosquito's saliva.
So the mosquito carries the malarial parasite from one person to another.
We call it a vector. The word vector means 'carrier'. It is applied to any animal
which transmits parasites or germs from one individual to another. Vectors
play an important part in spreading disease.

How does the malarial parasite reproduce?

The malarial parasite reproduces at three stages in its life cycle: in the liver, in
the red blood cells, and in the stomach of the mosquito.
The main method is asexual. The parasite grows and then splits into lots of
offspring. The nucleus divides first, then the rest of the cell. This process is
Figure 2 Malaria is characterised by recurring
bouts of fever. called multiple fission.
 Harmful protists 119

parasites multiply
in the liver

rQ° £
00 0 0
00 O
O OO O
OO O
^o
figure 3 This diagram summarises the life cycle of
the malarial parasite. Start at 1 and work your way
round in a clockwise direction. The map shows the
blood vessel main places where malaria occurs or might occur.
It occurs only in hot countries where the anopheles
mosquito is found.
120 Biology for life

Vast numbers of offspring are produced quickly by this method. In the

liver, for example, as many as a thousand offspring may be formed every
time one of the parasites undergoes multiple fission.
The malarial parasite also reproduces sexually. Male and female reproduc¬
tive forms are produced, and these unite with each other. This takes place in
the stomach of the mosquito.

How can malaria be controlled?

John was eventually cured of malaria by being treated with certain drugs.
These killed the parasites in his body.
Such drugs can save lives, but obviously it is better not to get the disease in
the first place. If you are going into an infected area, you can protect yourself
by taking anti-malarial tablets beforehand. Some of the drugs can be taken
daily or weekly in a 'preventive dose'. If you get the disease, a larger 'cure
dose' can be taken. The drugs are compounds of the chemical substance
quinine. Unfortunately the parasite has become resistant to some of these
drugs, so new ones have had to be introduced. In malarial areas people
should sleep under a mosquito net, or have netting placed over the windows.
The best way of conquering malaria would be to get rid of the parasite
altogether. How could this be done?' We know that malaria is spread by
Figure 4 The dysentery amoeba is here seen
feeding on a red blood cell in the lining of the large mosquitoes, so if we could get rid of mosquitoes we would get rid of malaria.
intestine. It is called Entamoeba histolytica. Of course this is easier said than done. It is discussed on page 129.

Other harmful protists

Here are two other parasitic protists that cause unpleasant diseases. One lives
in the human gut, the other in the bloodstream.

The dysentery amoeba

This is like the ordinary amoeba, but instead of living in ponds and streams it
lives in the human large intestine (Figure 4). It feeds on the lining, and causes
bleeding and diarrhoea. If severe it also causes vomiting and fever and can
cause death. The disease is called amoebic dysentery.
Occasionally the parasites pass out with the person's faeces. If they get into
food or drinking water, other people can become infected. The dysentery
amoeba is spread if people eat infected food. In many places it has been
brought under control by improvements in community health and personal
cleanliness. Sulphur drugs and ematine are used to treat it.

The sleeping sickness parasite

Sleeping sickness afflicts many people in tropical Africa. It is caused by a little
worm-like parasite called a trypanosome. This lives in the bloodstream of
human beings, cattle, and wild animals (Investigation 2). The parasite moves
around by flapping a membrane which sticks out from the side of the body
(Figure 5). Unlike the malarial parasite, the sleeping sickness parasites do not
attack the blood cells. Instead they wriggle around in the fluid part of the
blood (the plasma), soaking up its food substances. They release poisonous
substances which get to the brain and cause the person to become uncon¬
scious, hence the name of the disease. Human sleeping sickness can be fatal.
It is treated with various drugs.
The sleeping sickness parasite is passed from one individual to another by
the blood-sucking tsetse fly (pronounced 'tetsy fly'). A lot of progress has
been made in controlling this disease by getting rid of tsetse flies. The trouble
Figure 5 The sleeping sickness parasite is that the parasites live in wild animals such as buffalo Without causing them
Trypanosoma has a worm-like shape with a any ill effects. These animals serve as a kind of 'reservoir' from which the
membrane down one side. It moves by flapping
parasites are carried to humans by the tsetse fly.
the membrane.
Even in mild cases the sleeping sickness parasite weakens people, making
them lethargic and prone to other illnesses.
 Harmful protists 121

Investigation 1 -Investigation 2- -Investigation 3-

Looking at the malarial parasite Looking at the sleeping sickness Looking at live parasitic protists
parasite
1 Obtain a prepared slide of blood Your teacher will give you a watch
taken from an individual suffering 1 Obtain a prepared slide of blood glass containing the contents of the
from malaria. taken from an individual suffering rectum of a toad or frog, mixed with
from sleeping sickness. dilute salt solution.
2 Examine the slide under the high
power of the microscope. 2 Examine the slide under the 1 With a pipette, place a drop of the
3 Observe normal red blood cells first, microscope: low power first, then material on a microscope slide.
high power.
so you know what they look like. 2 Cover it with a coverslip.
3 Find some sleeping sickness
4 Now look for red blood cells which 3 Examine it under the microscope:
parasites (trypanosomes) amongst
appear to have something unusual low power first, then high power.
the red blood cells.
inside them.
4 Look out for small protists covered
Can you see anything which might
4 Make a simple outline drawing of a
with beating cilia.
parasite and a red blood cell side by
correspond to stages 3 and 4 in the life
side to show how they compare in What can you say about their shape
cycle in Figure 3?
* size. and the way they move?

What do the parasites feed on? This organism is called Opalina. We

In some cases a person who has had
malaria may get further attacks every Why does this parasite cause such a don’t know how much harm, if any, it
few years. Why do you think this serious disease? does to the frog. What adaptations
happens? would it need to survive in its
environment?

■Assignments
1 The following words are used in this the characters in the famous horror from a certain kind of malaria.
Topic. What does each one mean? story by Robert Louis Stevenson.
Explain what the malarial parasite is
parasite In what respect does the malarial doing in the person’s body at point
fever parasite resemble them? A on the graph.
delirious
7 The graph below shows the body Why does the temperature keep
life cycle
temperature of a person suffering going up and down?
fission

2 Why does malaria occur mainly in

temperature (°C)
tropical countries?

Occasional cases occur in Britain:

how would you explain this?

3 Why do you think the body

temperature of a person suffering
from malaria goes up during the
disease?

4 What do the malarial parasite, the

sleeping sickness parasite, and the
dysentery amoeba feed on? Be as
exact as you can.

5 What precautions could John have

taken to prevent himself getting
malaria?

6 The malarial parasite has been

likened to ‘Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde’,
 Parasitic worms
The tapeworm
Many people are The animal in Figure 1 is the beef tapeworm. It is a type of flatworm (see
infected with 'worms'. page 16). You can get it by eating infected beef, hence its name. It has a close
These worms are parasites which relative which can be got by eating infected pork: the pork tapeworm.
These two worms both belong to the genus Taenia. They live in man's small
make their home inside human beings
intestine where they soak up his digested food. Although they look alarming,
and other organisms. Some of they don't actually do much harm.
them make people The structure of the tapeworm is shown in Figure 2. It is flat, like a long
very ill. piece of ribbon, and can reach a length of five metres. It hangs onto the wall
of the intestine by its head. To give it a firm grip, the head has four suckers,
and, in the pork tapeworm, hooks as well (Investigation 1).
The body is divided up into a series of segments, about a thousand in all.
The youngest segments are at the head end, the oldest ones at the back.
The worm constantly produces new segments just behind the head. As
new ones are produced, the older ones get pushed further and further back,
and grow larger. The largest ones are about 2 cm long and 1.5 cm wide.

Life cycle of the tapeworm

The life cycle of the beef tapeworm is summarised in Figure 3. Each mature
segment contains a full set of sex organs. Two segments can mate with each
other by the worm doubling back on itself. By the time the segments reach
the rear end of the worm, they are full of eggs.
The segments at the extreme back end drop off and pass out with the host's
faeces, taking their eggs with them.
A person with a single worm may pass eight or nine segments a day,
releasing a total of three quarters of a million eggs.
To continue their development the eggs must be eaten by a cow. The cow is
called the intermediate host. In the case of the pork tapeworm the intermedi¬
ate host is a pig.
The tapeworm's eggs get into the intermediate host if it eats food which is
contaminated by human faeces. In the animal's gut the egg shell dissolves
and a tiny embryo emerges. This bores through the gut wall and gets into the
muscles. Flere it forms a bladder, about the size of a pea.
No further development takes place unless the bladders are eaten by
humans. This can happen if a person eats infected meat which hasn't been
cooked properly. In the person's intestine, the bladder turns inside out and a
young tapeworm pops out. This buries its head in the wall of the intestine,
Figure 1 A beef tapeworm from the intestine of a
human being. and grows to full size.

How is the tapeworm adapted to its parasitic life?

The tapeworm is well-adapted to its parasitic life. Its hooks and suckers allow
it to hold on tightly to the wall of the intestine. Its flat body gives it a large
surface area for absorbing its host's digested food. Of course it does not need
a mouth or gut of its own. It is not itself digested by the host's digestive juices
because it produces a substance which stops this happening.
Spreading from one host to another is difficult for a parasite. The tapeworm
gets round this by producing vast numbers of eggs and by having an
intermediate host to 'carry' it from one human to another.

How can we get rid of tapeworms?

To avoid getting these tapeworms people should make sure that they don't
eat infected meat. In Britain and many other countries meat is inspected to
make sure it does not contain tapeworm bladders. In such countries
tapeworms are rare. Proper disposal of sewage is also important in preven¬
ting these worms from spreading. To some extent infection can be avoided by
cooking meat thoroughly: prolonged heating destroys the tapeworm blad¬
ders.
If a person does get a tapeworm he can be given doses of medicine which
Figure 2 The pork tapeworm. The beef tapeworm
is similar except that its head has no hooks. cause the worm to let go of the wall of the intestine. The worm is then flushed
 Parasitic worms 123

1 the worm
forms a chain
of segments
and grows
to full size

2 the worm
reproduces and
9 a head pops out the segments towards
of the bladder the back become
full of eggs

segments
loaded with eggs
pass out with
the host’s faeces

4 the eggs are eaten

8 infected meat
by a cow
is eaten by human

cow

5 in the cow's intestine

the egg shell dissolves
7 the embryo and the embryo is released
is carried to
the cow's muscles
where it forms
a bladder
6 the embryo
bores through the wall
of the intestine
into a blood vessel

out with the faeces. It is essential that the head doesn't get left behind. If it Figure 3 This diagram summarises the life cycle of
does, a new worm will grow from it. the beef tapeworm. The life cycle of the pork
tapeworm is similar, except that the intermediate
host is a pig.

Other taipeworms
The pork and beef tapeworms are by no means the largest tapeworms. The
world record is held by the broad fish tapeworm which can be 2 cm wide and
over twenty metres long (Figure 4). Being so big, it can block the intestine. It
also has one of the longest scientific names of any organism; it is called
Diphyllobothrium latuml The adult worm lives in the human intestine and the
intermediate host is a fish. People can become infected by eating fish that has
not been cooked properly.
One of the smallest tapeworms is Echinococcus. It is only a few millimetres
long and lives in the intestine of dogs. In this case the dog is the main host
and man is the intermediate host. A person can become infected if he is licked
by a dog which has the tapeworm, for the dog's tongue may have eggs on it.
Inside the human the embryos develop into bladders which in this case are
called hydatid cysts. A single hydatid cyst consists of bladders within
bladders, and the whole thing may be as large as a cricket ball. These cysts
usually develop in the liver, though sometimes they occur in the muscles or
Figure 4 The broad fish tapeworm is ten times as
even in the brain. An operation is needed to remove them. long as a man is tall.
124 Biology for life

Fortunately the fish and dog tapeworms are very rare in Britain. However,
they are quite common in parts of the world where less attention is given to
hygiene.

The blood fluke

This is another kind of flatworm. It occurs in warm parts of Africa, South
America and the Far East, where it causes 'snail fever' (the proper name is
bilharzia or schistosomiasis). People with this disease suffer from sickness,
diarrhoea and loss of blood. It makes the people feel ill and unable to work
properly. Sometimes the body swells up with fluid. The people become
weak, and if they are not treated they usually die.
There are several kinds of blood fluke. The one to be described here lives in
the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine. The worms are one or two
centimetres long. There may be so many of them that they block the blood
vessels.
They have a flat body, rather like a curled-up leaf. There is a sucker near
the front for holding onto the sides of the blood vessels. They feed by sucking
blood through the mouth.

Life cycle of the blood fluke

The blood fluke's life cycle is summarised in Figure 5. The worms mate in the
host's blood vessels. A single female may lay over 3000 eggs a day.
Eventually the blood vessels burst, and the eggs are released into the
intestine. They then pass out of the host with the faeces.
The eggs will only hatch in water. The egg opens, and a tiny larva comes
out. The larva is covered with beating cilia which enable it to swim through
the water in search of a particular kind of water snail, the intermediate host.
If it finds one, it bores into its soft body. Inside the snail the larva reproduces
asexually to form thousands of little organisms called cercarias - these move
Figure 5 This diagram summarises the life cycle of by means of a muscular tail which bends from side to side.
the blood fluke. The cercarias creep out of the snail into the water. If someone is bathing or
paddling in the water, the cercarias attach themselves to the skin and bore
through it into the bloodstream. They are then taken to the blood vessels of
the intestine. Here they feed and grow into adult flukes. The cycle is then
repeated.

How is the blood fluke adapted to its parasitic life?

Like the tapeworm, flukes are well-adapted to a parasitic life. Their slender
shape enables them to live in the host's blood vessels. They produce very
large numbers of eggs, and they multiply even further in the intermediate
host. Can you think of any other ways in which they are adapted?

How can we get rid of the blood fluke?

Drugs can be used to cure people of bilharzia. However, they are not very
successful, and some of them have unpleasant side effects.
A better approach is to get rid of the parasite altogether. This can be done
by killing the snails. People have tried putting chemicals in the water to kill
the snails, but this has not been very successful; and it also kills the fish.
The best solution is to stop people drinking, or paddling in, water which
contains human faeces. In places where sewage is got rid of properly, there is
no problem. But in some parts of the world, particularly the Far East, human
dung is used as manure in the rice fields. The fields are flooded, and the rice
seedlings are planted by farm workers who wade through the water in bare
feet (Figure 6). In such places the chances of infection are very high.

Other flukes
Figure 6 This bare-footed boy is helping to plant
rice in the Far East. When human dung is used as The blood fluke hardly ever occurs in Britain. However, we do have its
manure, this is a sure way of getting bilharzia. relative the liver fluke. The adults are about 5 cm long and 2 cm wide. They
 Parasitic worms 125

live in the liver and bile passages of sheep and cattle, and they cause the
animals to become thin and miserable. The intermediate host is a small snail
which lives in wet fields and water-meadows.
The liver fluke is kept under control by draining the land properly so the
snail cannot live there, and by spraying the ground with copper sulphate,
which kills the snails.

Roundworms
Many children get infected with a type of roundworm called threadworms.
They look like little bits of white thread, about a centimetre long. They live in
the rectum, and can cause itching of the anus.
The worms mate in the host's rectum, and the eggs pass out with the
faeces. It is very easy for other people to get infected. This is the sort of thing
that happens: the child's bottom itches, he scratches it, and gets some eggs
on his fingers; later his mother holds his hands, then puts her finger in her Figure 7 Collection of Ascaris removed from an
mouth; she swallows some eggs and they hatch in her gut. It's quite common infected person. One unfortunate individual is
reputed to have had 5000 worms in his gut.
for an entire family to become infected, even in the cleanest of households.
This sounds alarming but these worms do little harm, apart from making
your bottom itch. Various medicines can be taken to get rid of them: these are
available in tablet form, or as a pleasantly flavoured drink. The itching can be
eased by washing one's bottom regularly and putting on an ointment.
Threadworms are the only kind of roundworms that are common in
Britain. However, in other countries, particularly warmer ones, more serious
roundworms occur. For example, many parts of the tropics are plagued with
hookworms. They have tiny hook-like teeth with which they rasp away at the
lining of the intestine, feeding on the cells and blood. Another serious
roundworm is Ascaris which can be more than 20 cm long; they can occur in
such numbers that they block the host's intestine (Figure 7).
Roundworms also infect plants. An example is the potato root eelworm
which attacks the roots of potato plants and can do a great deal of damage.

Investigation 1- Investigation 2- r-Assignments-

The front and back of a tapeworm Live flukes and roundworms 1 Imagine you are a tapeworm living in
the intestine of a human being.
1 Look at a prepared slide of the head
of a tapeworm under the Your teacher will dissect a frog and What difficulties might you
microscope. take out the iungs. encounter living in such a place?

What structures help it to cling to the 1 Put the lungs in a watch glass with 2 Tapeworms have no gut and no
wall of the host’s intestine? some one per cent salt solution. sense organs.

2 Now look at a prepared slide of a 2 With needles pull the lungs to How do you think they manage
mature segment from the back end pieces. without them?
of the tapeworm.
3 With luck, two kinds of worms may
be released from the lungs: a fluke 3 What advice would you give to
It is full of small round objects: what
and a roundworm (Figure 8). people to prevent them becoming
are they?
infected with (a) the beef tapeworm,
3 Make a sketch of the head and a 4 With a pipette transfer a few of these and (b) bilharzia?
mature segment. Label them. parasites to a slide.
4 Parasites usually produce very large
What may happen to the mature 5 Add a little salt solution and cover numbers of eggs. Why is this?
segments and the things inside them? them with a coverslip.
5 Make a list of the ways that either the
6 Examine them under the tapeworm or the blood fluke are
microscope. adapted to a parasitic life.
In what ways are these two worms 6 In Africa, bilharzia is common in
adapted to a parasitic life? lowland areas, but absent from
mountainous regions.

Suggest reasons for this.

 Parasitic fungi
Potato blight
A number of fungi In 1845 the Irish potato crop was ruined by a disease. Thousands of people
are parasites and cause starved and more than a million emigrated to America. The disease was
diseases in plants and animals. potato blight, which is caused by the fungus Phytophthora infestans.

Here we shall study just

The disease
a few of them. Look at Figure 1. This shows the leaves of a plant with potato blight. They are
covered with brown patches. If you looked at the tubers you would find that
they were soft and rotten. The fungus lives inside the potato plant and
destroys its cells.

The fungus
If you examined a small piece of an infected potato plant under the
microscope, you would see lots of fine threads amongst the cells. These are
called hyphae and they are similar to the threads of pin mould (see page 28).
How did they come to be inside the potato plant?
The potato blight fungus is spread by tiny air-borne spores. If a spore lands
on a leaf it bursts open and sends out a hypha. The hypha gets into the leaf
either by growing through a stoma or by boring through the epidermis. Once
inside, the hypha sends out branches which penetrate the leaf cells and feed
on the contents. The tips of the hyphae produce enzymes which break down
the cytoplasm into soluble substances. These are then absorbed by the
fungus. Not content with feeding on the leaves alone, the hyphae grow down
the stem to the tubers where they continue to invade the cells.

How does the fungus reproduce?

One of the reasons why potato blight is so serious is that it spreads extremely
quickly. This is because of the way the fungus reproduces. In damp weather
some of the hyphae in the leaf grow out through the stomata and form
branches. At the tips of the branches spores are formed (Figure 2). When ripe
they break off and are blown by the wind to other potato plants. If a spore
lands on a leaf, the plant may become infected. If it lands on the soil it may
infect a tuber.
Producing spores is an asexual method of reproducing. The potato blight
fungus also reproduces sexually within the potato plant. However, this does
not happen very often and does not produce anything like^as many offspring
Figure 1 The leaves of a potato plant infected with
as the asexual method.
potato blight disease.
How is potato blight controlled?
Potato blight is far less common now than it used to be. This is because we
understand the life cycle of the fungus and have learned how to control it.
To prevent infection, potato crops are sprayed with a fungicide, that is a
chemical substance which kills fungi. Copper sulphate is particularly effec¬
tive; it kills the spores.
Other ways of controlling the disease are to avoid growing potatoes in
warm, humid areas, and not to plant them down the prevailing wind. If there
is a serious outbreak, all infected crops should be burned. The fungus can
become dormant in the tubers during the winter and it is important not to
plant infected tubers the next year.
By cross-breeding, scientists have developed special varieties of potato
plants which are resistant to the fungus.

Mildew
If you look at certain garden plants in the summer, you may notice a white
powder or fluff on the leaves. These are the spore-forming structures of
mildew, a fungus which is rather like the potato blight fungus but not so
serious. Certain kinds of mildew attack cereals such as wheat and barley. The
Figure 2 Hyphae have grown out of the underside of
this leaf. They are forming spores which may be plants are not usually killed by the fungus, but they are weakened and give
blown on to other potato plants. less grain. Infection can be prevented by spraying with fungicides.
 Parasitic fungi 127

Rusts
Rusts belong to the genus Puccinia. They attack wheat, maize and other
cereals. The fungus causes red or brown spots and stripes on the leaves. This
reduces photosynthesis, and the leaves may die. The spores are shot out and
may travel some distance to infect other plants. After harvesting, the spores
can rest in the soil and infect the next year's crop. The use of resistant
varieties and fungicides help to stop attacks by this fungus.

Dutch elm disease

The sight of bare elm trees is all too common in Britain these days. The
present epidemic of Dutch elm disease started in the late 1960s. By the end of
1975 six million elms had been killed. It is caused by a fungus.
The fungus lives in the woody part of the tree. It causes blockage of the
Figure 3 This elm is being treated with a fungicide to
xylem vessels in the branches, so water and minerals cannot reach the leaves.
protect it from Dutch elm disease
As a result the leaves go brown and die.
The fungus forms spores under the bark and the spores are carried from
one elm tree to another by a type of beetle.
Attempts have been made to control Dutch elm disease by means of
fungicides. The fungicide is introduced into the xylem vessels at the base of
the trunk by means of tubes (Figure 3). Despite these measures, by 1980
about half the elms in Britain were dead.

Ringworm
This is the name of a human disease. It is caused by a fungus that lives just
under the surface of the skin. Often the infected areas are circular, hence the
name ringworm. One kind attacks the skin of the head, causing the hair to
fall out in clumps so bald patches develop. Another kind lives between the
toes where it causes itching: this is known as athlete's foot.
As with other fungi, ringworm forms spores. These quickly spread from
person to person. Athlete's foot can be picked up by walking in bare feet on a
changing-room floor which has been contaminated by the feet of an infected
person.
Ringworm can be cured by antibiotics and by treating the skin with
Figure 4 A fungus growing on a tree trunk.
fungicides.

rInvestigation- Assignments-
Looking at a fungal disease 1 Why does potato blight spread so
quickly once it has started? How can
1 Obtain a plant whose leaves are 5 Place a drop of lactophenol stain
it be brought under control?
covered with mildew. Wallflowers or against the edge of the covership
shepherd's purse are often infected. and let it run underneath. Does this 2 The Irish potato famine of 1845 was
help you to see the fungus more followed by another famine the next
2 Look at the leaves under a hand lens
clearly? year. Suggest reasons for this.
or binocular microscope.
6 Obtain a prepared section of a leaf 3 Look at the fungus in Figure 4.
What can you say about the
that is infected with a fungus. a) What part of the fungus can you
structure of the fungus?
Examine it under high power and see in the photograph?
What part of the fungus are you look for hyphae. b) What do you think the rest of the
looking at? fungus looks like, and where do
Can you see any hyphae inside the
you think it is?
3 With needles tease some of the leaf cells?
c) How could you find out if this
fungus away from the leaf. Mount it
How does the fungus get its food? fungus really is a parasite? What
in a drop of water on a slide and put
else might it be?
on a coverslip. How does it reproduce?
4 An elm tree dies. What would you do
4 Examine the fungus under high In what way does the fungus harm to find out if it was killed by the Dutch
power. the host plant? elm fungus?
What can you see of its structure?
 Insects, harmful
and helpful
The locust is one of
the world's most serious pests.
It is just one of many insects which
are harmful to man. Many other
insects are helpful.

Figure 1 A swarm of desert locusts in North Africa. A swarm like this may contain ten
thousand million locusts.

The locust
Locusts thrive in warm parts of the world such as Africa, the Middle East and
South America. There are several types of locust but they all lead the same
kind of life. Much of the time they live singly or in small groups, feeding on
grass and leaves. But sometimes their numbers build up, and then they do a
great deal of damage to man's crops. Locusts have enormous appetites and a
few of them can strip a plant very quickly.
The female locust lays her eggs in the sand. The eggs hatch into nymphs,
which are called hoppers (Figure 2). They have no wings, and cannot fly. As
their numbers build up, they crowd together. Food begins to run out, and
this causes them to start 'marching' in bands.
They march during the day, eating the leaves of plants as they go. They
move about a kilometre a day. At night they rest in shrubs and small trees.
Every week or so they moult and grow. After about six weeks they undergo
their final moult, their wings expand and they become adults.
They now start to fly. They move across the country in a vast swarm, like
the one in Figure 1. A single swarm may contain ten thousand million
locusts. With the aid of the wind, the locusts fly about 80 km a day. They may
travel several thousand kilometres before settling down to breed.
The swarming locusts will strip a vast area of all its vegetation. A large
swarm may eat 160000 tonnes of food each day. This amount of corn would
feed 800000 people for a whole year.
At one time, locust swarms occurred regularly in many parts of the world.
They caused widespread famine and did millions of pounds-worth of
damage. Fortunately man is now learning how to control them.

How are locusts controlled?

In the old days farmers tried to drive locusts away by lighting fires or beating
drums. The hoppers were driven into trenches, then buried or burned, or
they were killed by putting poisoned bait in their path. Where possible, the
eggs were dug up and burned.
Nowadays crops are sprayed with powerful insecticides which kill the
locusts. The insecticide is sprayed from vehicles or aeroplanes. Spray from an
aeroplane on one flight can kill as many as 180 million locusts.
Figure 2 Locust hoppers on a young maize plant.
Constant watch is kept on locusts and in this way scientists can forecast
These hoppers have moulted four times. Notice their
wing buds. At the next moult the wings will expand when and where swarming is likely to occur, so the crops can be sprayed in
and the hoppers will become adults, capable of good time. This requires co-operation between different countries, and much
flying. of this work is co-ordinated by the United Nations.
 Insects, harmful and helpful 129

The mosquito
In hot countries mosquitoes carry serious disease, such as malaria and yellow
Figure 4 The common British mosquito belongs to
fever. In 1897, a doctor in the Indian Medical Service, Sir Ronald Ross, the genus Culex. It rests with its abdomen parallel to
examined the stomach of a certain kind of mosquito. He found malarial the surface. The mosquito which carries malaria
parasites there. In this way he showed that the mosquito spreads the disease. belongs to the genus Anopheles. It rests with its
It was more difficult to prove that mosquitoes transmit yellow fever. This is abdomen pointing upwards.

because the yellow fever germ, a virus, is too small to be seen under the
microscope. During the building of the Panama Canal, yellow fever killed so
many people that the project had to be abandoned for several years.
Obviously it was important to find the cause. In 1900 an experiment was
carried out by an American army doctor, Jesse Lazear. He suspected that
yellow fever was transmitted by mosquitoes, but he wasn't sure. To settle the
matter, he allowed himself to be bitten by a mosquito. A few days later he
went down with the disease, and three weeks later he died.
The female mosquito lays her eggs on the surface of water. The eggs hatch
into small wriggling larvae. The larva lives in the water; it has a breathing
tube at the back end, by which it hangs onto the surface film.
After several weeks the larva pupates. The pupa hangs onto the surface
film by a pair of breathing tubes on the head. After a few days, the pupa splits
open and the adult mosquito emerges (Figure 3).
We now know that when the female mosquito sucks blood she transmits
the parasites which cause malaria and yellow fever. Fortunately British
mosquitoes do not normally carry diseases (Figure 4).
Mosquitoes need water for breeding: ponds, lakes, water-tanks - any place
where the water is still. Tropical swamps are ideal.

How can we get rid of mosquitoes?

The adult mosquito can be killed by spraying with insecticides such as DDT
(Figure 5). However, DDT is a hazard to health, so it is better to use other
methods.
The larvae can be destroyed by spraying oil on the water (Investigation 1).
The oil lowers the surface tension of the water, causing the larvae to let go.
Water then enters their breathing tubes and they drown. Pupae are destroyed
in the same way. Usually the oil is mixed with an insecticide so as to make
absolutely sure they die.
Another way of getting rid of mosquitoes is to stock up lakes and ponds
with fish that eat the larvae or pupae. Or one can drain swamps, so as to get
rid of the mosquito's breeding areas.
None of these methods on its own is much good, but together they are
quite effective. However, the mosquito is still a major pest in many parts of
the world, and the diseases which it carries have not yet been wiped out. In
the tropics windows are usually covered with a fine-mesh screen to keep Figure 5 Spraying with an insecticide can help to
get rid of mosquitoes.
mosquitoes out, and campers should always use tents with mosquito nets.
130 Biologi/ for life

Summary of how insects affect humans

Here are some ways that insects are harmful:

1 They eat and destroy crops.

Insects like the locust will eat just about anything with leaves on it. Other
insects are more fussy; for example, caterpillars of the cabbage white butterfly
eat nothing but cabbage leaves and closely related plants. They can be killed
by spraying or dusting the leaves with an insecticide before the caterpillars
start eating them.

2 They spread diseases.

Many insects, besides the mosquito, spread diseases from person to person.
Flies, fleas and lice are all guilty (see page 113). Some insects spread diseases
amongst plants. One reason why greenflies (aphids) are such a nuisance to
Figure 6 The body louse, a close relative of the head gardeners is that they carry harmful viruses from one plant to another.
louse, as seen in the scanning electron microscope.
Notice the sharp claws for clinging to the skin and
hairs. The abdomen is bloated as the louse has been
3 They spoil food.
feeding on blood. Sometimes a louse takes in so The housefly and bluebottle lay their eggs on food, particularly meat.
much blood that it bursts. Because of their dirty habits, these insects also bring germs onto our food,
thereby causing diseases such as cholera. Fortunately outbreaks of such
diseases are now rare in Britain.

4 They destroy buildings and furniture.

A major culprit here is the famous death watch beetle, whose larva bores into
wood, weakening it and making it rot. Some insects, such as termites, eat
wood. In Africa, they can completely destroy a wooden building.

5 They ruin clothes.

The larva of the clothes-moth eats the fibres of woollen garments, making
holes in them. You can protect clothes from this insect by means of 'moth
balls'. They contain a chemical substance which kills the larvae.

6 They are irritating.

The head louse occurs in schools and other places where people live or work
close together (Figure 6). It clings to the skin and sucks blood, and can cause
intense itching. The eggs, known as nits, stick to the person's hair. Head lice
can be got rid of by rubbing an insecticide preparation into the hair, and
washing it later. Any remaining nits are then combed out.

Here are some ways that insects are helpful:

1 They pollinate plants.
Insects such as butterflies and bees carry pollen from one flower to another. A
bee may visit hundreds of flowers in one day.

2 They kill harmful pests

You have probably heard that ladybirds are useful insects. This is because
their larvae eat greenflies, thus helping to get rid of this garden pest.
Ichneumon wasps kill cabbage white caterpillars and lay their eggs in them.
In the tropics, the praying mantis eats several insects which destroy crops.

3 Bees make honey.

This is discussed on page 74. Nowadays honey is a luxury food, but before
sugar was discovered it was the only way of sweetening things.

4 Some insects produce silk.

The caterpillar of the silkworm moth makes its cocoon from a single strand of
silk (Figure 7). This may be over a kilometre long. At one time these insects
were cultivated to obtain silk, but nowadays its place has largely been taken
Figure 7 A silkworm caterpillar inside its cocoon. by synthetic fibres.
 Insects, harmful and helpful 131

Investigation 1- Investigation 2-
Getting rid of mosquitoes A look at some harmful insects
1 Obtain a dish containing mosquito Why do you think oil and paraffin have 1 Examine the head of a female
larvae and/or pupae. this effect on the larvae and pupae? mosquito under the microscope.

2 Notice that the larvae and pupae Suggest two other ways the larvae and What does the mosquito feed on?
hang on the surface film. The pupae of mosquitoes might be
Why is it harmful?
slightest disturbance causes them to destroyed.
let go, and dive down into the water. What adaptations can you see which
4 Obtain a preserved adult mosquito,
enable it to live in the way it does?
3 Wait till the larvae and pupae have and put it on a piece of white paper.
settled at the surface. Then very 2 Examine a louse under the
5 Measure its length, and width with
gently run some oil or paraffin onto microscope.
wings outstretched.
the surface of the water.
Where does the louse live?
What advice would you give to the
What happens to the larvae and
manufacturers of mosquito netting to What adaptations can you see which
pupae?
make sure their product is effective? enable it to live in such a place?
Do you think this is a good way of
Suggest two other ways of keeping 3 Examine the head of a cabbage
getting rid of mosquitoes from the
adult mosquitoes under control. white caterpillar under the
world?
microscope.
Can you think of any disadvantages?
What does this caterpillar feed on?

What structures can you see which

enable it to feed efficiently?

rAssignments-
1 Why are the following insects 5 Why do head lice occur particularly a) From an up-to-date map of
regarded as pests: in cold, overcrowded places? Africa, list the names of the
countries in which swarming was
locust, 6 An insect pest may be controlled
observed.
mosquito, either by spraying it with an
b) Suggest reasons why swarming
head louse, insecticide or by bringing in another
occurred in these particular parts
cabbage white butterfly, insect which eats it.
of Africa and not elsewhere.
housefly?
Put forward arguments for and c) The information shown on the
2 Which is best: to spray locusts with against each method. map was obtained some years
an. insecticide from an aeroplane or ago, and swarms of locusts in
7 Below is a map of Northern Africa.
from a vehicle on the ground? these areas are less common
The crosses show the occurrence of
now. Why do you think this is?
3 Suggest reasons why locust swarms of the desert locust during a
hoppers get excited as their particular year.
numbers increase.

What investigations could you carry

out to find out which of your
suggestions is correct?

4 Each word in the'left-hand column is

related to one of the words in the
right-hand column.

Write them down in correct pairs.

locust pollination
death watch beetle insecticide
ladybirds swarms
bees greenflies
DDT furniture
 Feeding is one
aspect of maintaining
life, which is the subject
of the next series
 ■Cells, the bricks-
How were cells discovered?
of the body Cells were discovered in 1665 by the English inventor and scientist, Robert
Hooke. Hooke examined a piece of bark which he stripped from a tree. Near
An organism is made of cells the surface of bark is a layer of cork: Hooke cut a thin slice of the cork and
in much the same way as a house placed it under a microscope which he had made himself. Hooke described
the cork as being made up of hundreds of little boxes, giving a kind of
is made of bricks. This Topic is about
honeycomb appearance (Figure 1). He called these little boxes cells.
cells: how we study them, what As more and more organisms were examined under the microscope, it
they look like, and what goes became clear to scientists that virtually all living things are made of cells. And
on inside them. so cells came to be regarded as the basic unit of which organisms are made.

How can we see cells?

The human body consists of about one hundred million million cells, and
each one is very small. Because they are so small, we usually express their
size in micrometres. A micrometre is one thousandth of a millimetre and is
given the symbol /xm. A typical cell is about 20 /urn wide.
Objects this size are too small to be seen with the naked eye, or even with a
magnifying glass. To see them you must use a light microscope such as the
one shown on page 4.
One of the easiest places to get cells from is inside your cheek. If you scrape
the inside of your cheek, the cells will come away and you can put them on a
glass slide. Adding a drop of dye will stain the cells and make them show up
under the microscope (Investigations 1 and 2).
Sometimes scientists want to look at the cells in the middle of a thick solid
organ such as the liver or kidney. To do this it is necessary to cut thin slices of
the organ. This is done with an instrument which works rather like a
bacon-slicer. It is called a microtome (Figure 2). The slices, or sections as they
are called, are then stained with a dye which makes the cells show up.
Figure 1 The first drawing of cells ever made.
These cells were observed in a piece of cork by Inside a typical animal cell
Robert Hooke. This drawing was published in
Hooke’s famous Micrographia in 1665. Figure 3 shows the structure of a typical animal cell. The cell is bounded by a
thin cell membrane. In the centre is a tiny ball, the nucleus. This is
surrounded by a material called the cytoplasm.

The cell membrane

The cell membrane is very delicate. It holds the cell together and plays an
important part in controlling what passes into and out of it.

The nucleus
It is possible to take the nucleus out of certain cells. If this is done the cell
dies. From this experiment we conclude that the nucleus is essential for the
life of the cell. It controls the various processes which go on inside it.
The nucleus contains a number of threadlike bodies called chromosomes.
However, these can only be seen clearly when the cell is about to split in two.
The chromosomes determine the organism's characteristics such as the colour
of the eyes.
At times when the cell is not dividing, the chromosomes are in the form of
a network of small chromatin granules.

The cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is told what to do by the nucleus. The cytoplasm produces
energy, makes things, and stores food. Hundreds of chemical reactions take
place inside it. Together, these reactions make up metabolism (see page 147).
Scattered about in the cytoplasm are small granules. Seen under the light
microscope, these look like little dots. The larger ones are mitochondria
Figure 2 A technician cutting sections with a
microtome. The specimen has been embedded in
(singular: mitochrondrion). The mitochondria have been described as the
a wax block. When cut, successive sections stick 'powerhouse of the cell': their job is to release energy for the cell.
together in ribbons. The smaller granules in the cytoplasm are tiny particles of stored food.
Many of them consist of a substance called glycogen.
 Cells, the bricks of the body 135

Figure 3 This diagram shows a typical animal cell.

On the left are some cheek cells as they actually
Inside a typical plant cell appear under the light microscope.
A typical plant cell is shown in Figure 4. It differs from animal cells in the
following ways:

1 In addition to the cell membrane, the plant cell has a cell wall. It is made of
cellulose, a rubbery material which helps to make plants tough.

2 In the centre of the cell there is a large cavity called the vacuole, which is
filled with a watery fluid called cell sap. This means that the cytoplasm is
pushed towards the edge of the cell. The nucleus is usually found in this layer
of cytoplasm. However, in some plant cells the nucleus is suspended in the
middle of the vacuole by fine strands of cytoplasm.

3 The cytoplasm contains starch grains. This is how plants store food. The
starch grains are equivalent to the glycogen granules in animal cells.

4 Many plant cells possess chloroplasts. These are located in the cytoplasm,
and they contain the green pigment chlorophyll which is used in
photosynthesis. Chloroplasts only occur in the green parts of the plant which
are exposed to the light. Roots and other underground structures lack them.

Chloroplasts and starch grains are both examples of plastids. These are
small bodies in the cell containing a chemical substance. In the case of
chloroplasts the chemical substance is chlorophyll; in the case of starch grains Figure 4 This diagram shows a typical plant cell.
it is starch. On the left are some leaf cells as they appear
under the light microscope.

cell wall
(cellulose)

O cell membrane
:*:a- starch grain
(food store)
o
it: cytoplasm

ft
O
nucleus

vacuole
o
O' chloroplast
6, mitochondrion
^4o;°-oyo'°7
136 Biology for life

mitochondrion nucleus endoplasmic

reticulum
(■
5/xm

Figure 6 This is a cell from the pancreas as seen in the electron microscope. It is
magnified 10 000 times. The black blobs are substances which the cell produces.

A new look at the cell

In the late 1930s a new kind of microscope was invented: the electron
Figure 5 A scientist about to view a specimen in an microscope (Figure 5). It uses a beam of electrons instead of light rays and is
electron microscope. The material is carefully
much more powerful than the light microscope. It is able to magnify things as
prepared beforehand and placed in a chamber
containing a vacuum. The image shows up on the much as half a million times. Enlarged to this extent, a pinhead would cover ten
fluorescent screen in the centre. football pitches side by side.
Figure 6 shows part of an animal cell as it appears in the electron
microscope. We can now see much more detail. For example, the cytoplasm
consists of a network of membranes and channels. This is called the
endoplasmic reticulum. It helps to transport material inside the cell.
Stuck to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum are minute granules
called ribosomes. They play an important part in the process by which cells
make proteins. The mitochrondria show up as hollow sausage-shaped bodies
with partitions inside them.
If you look carefully at Figure 6 you will see that the nucleus is surrounded
by a clear membrane. This has pores in places for letting things in and out.

How are new cells formed?

New cells are formed by cell division. The cell divides into two daughter
cells. These then grow to full size after which each may divide again. Cell
division enables organisms to grow, to reproduce, and to repair damaged or
worn-out parts.

Different cells for different jobs

Practically all cells contain a nucleus and cytoplasm. However, they vary
tremendously in their shape and form. In the human body there are at least
twenty different types of cell, each with a particular job to do. Three are
shown in Figure 7.
There is thus a division of labour between cells. It's rather like a factory or
body. an office in which each person has his or her own job to do. This is more
efficient than if each individual tried to do everything.
 Cells, the bricks of the body 137

-Investigation 1- Investigation 2- r-Assignments-

Looking at cheek cells Looking at plant cells 1 A typical cell is twenty micrometres
1 Obtain a blunt instrument such as a wide.
1 Slice an onion in two lengthways.
spatula. It must be clean. Suppose that cells of this size were
2 Take out one of the thick’leaves’
2 Gently scrape the inside of your from inside it. placed side by side.
cheek with the instrument. How many would there be in a row
3 With forceps pull away the thin lining
that was the same length as the
from the inner surface of the ’leaf'.
second line of this assignment?

2 Each word in the left-hand column

below is related to one of the words
in the right-hand column.

Write them down in the correct pairs.

3 Put the scrapings onto the surface glycogen inheritance

of a microscope slide. chloroplast energy
mitochondrion sunlight
chromosomes elastic
cellulose storage

3 Which of the structures listed below

are found (a) in animals cells only,
(b) in plant cells only, and (c) in both
animal and plant cells?

4 Add a drop of methylene blue to the cytoplasm

scrapings on the slide. This will stain chloroplasts
the cells and help you to see them. starch grains
nucleus
vacuole
glycogen granules
cell wall
4 With scissors cut out a small piece
chromosomes
of the lining, about 5 mm square.
cell membrane
5 Place the piece of lining on a slide mitochrondria
5 Cover with a coverslip. Lower it and add a drop of dilute iodine.
4 Which of the following structures
carefully onto the slide. The stain will
This will stain the cells and make can be seen with a light microscope
spread out beneath it.
their nuclei easier to see. and which ones can only be seen
with an electron microscope?
6 Put on a coverslip as shown in
Investigation 1. nucleus
endoplasmic reticulum
7 Examine the slide under the
ribosomes
microscope, first under low power,
chromosomes
then high power.
chloroplasts
Which of the structures shown in
5 The picture below shows a group of
Figure 4 can you see?
cells from a certain organ of the
6 Examine the slide under the 8 Draw one of the onion cells and human body. The cells were
microscope. First use low power to
label it as fully as you can. obtained by cutting a very thin slice
find some of the scrapings, then (section) of the organ with a
look at one of the cells under high 9 Place a single leaf of moss or
microtome.
power. pondweed in a drop of water on a
slide and put on a coverslip. Why do some of the cells appear not
Which of the structures shown in to have a nucleus?
Figure 3 can you see? What structures, absent in the onion
cells, can you see inside the moss
7 Draw the cheek cell and label it as
or pondweed cells?
fully as you can.
 -Tissues, organs-
and organisation
In an organism
like man the different kinds
of cells are arranged in a precise
way. The health and well-being of
the individual depend
on this.

Figure 1 (Right) A simple type of epithelium seen

under the microscope. It comes from one of the thin
membranes inside the body.

Cells are grouped into tissues

Cells don't normally float around on their own. Usually large numbers of
them are massed together into a tissue (Investigations 1 and 2).
One of the simplest tissues in shown in Figure 1. It is called epithelium. It
consists of a sheet of cells. The cells fit neatly together, like paving stones.
This kind of tissue forms the lining of spaces and tubes inside the body and is
also found on the surface of the skin. Plants have a similar surface tissue
called epidermis (Figure 2). An important function of epithelial and
epidermal tissues is to protect the structures underneath.
In Figure 3, an epithelial tissue is compared with two other kinds of tissue:
smooth muscle and nerve tissue. Smooth muscle consists of lots of slender
Figure 2 Plant epidermis from the surface of a leaf muscle cells packed together. You find this tissue in the wall of the gut,
seen under the microscope. amongst other places. Its job is to squeeze the food along. Nerve tissue

epithelial tissue (epithelium)

to form an epithelial tissue to form smooth muscle tissue

smooth muscle

nerve tissue

the epithelial
and smooth muscle tissues
combine together
in the wall of an organ
such as the gut

Figure 3 Three types of tissue found in the human Figure 4 This diagram shows in a simplified way how cells combine to form tissues, and
body. how tissues combine to form organs.
 Tissues, organs and organisation 139

consists of a network of nerve cells connected with one another. This kind of
tissue occurs in the brain. It carries messages from place to place, as in a
complicated telephone system. It thus allows different parts of the body to blood vessel voice box
communicate with each other. (larynx)

windpipe
The main tissues of animals and plants are summarised in Tables 1 and 2.
Some of them consist of just one type of cell. However, most of them contain
two or three types of cells mixed together.

heart

Tissues are combined into organs

In most animals, including man, tissues are combined together to form stomach
organs (Figure 4). An organ is a complex structure which has a particular job liver
to do. The main organs in the human body are shown in Figure 5. Look at
some organs obtained from the butcher (Investigation 3), and examine thin
sections of them under a microscope (Investigation 4).
Some organs do just one job. For example, the only job the heart does is intestine
pump blood round the body. Other organs do more than one job. For
example, the kidneys get rid of poisonous \yaste substances and control the
amount of water in the body. The organ with the greatest number of jobs is
the liver: scientists have worked out that it does about 500 jobs altogether.

Organs are grouped into systems

In the human body certain tasks are carried out by several different organs
working together. These organs all belong to a system. An example is the
digestive system. This consists of the gut, together with the liver, pancreas Figure 5 This diagram shows some of the main
and gall bladder. Its job is to digest and absorb food. organs in the human body, as seen from the belly
(ventral) side

Animal tissues (based on human)

Name of tissue What it consists of Main functions

Epithelial tissue Sheets of cells To line tubes and spaces and form the skin

Connective tissue Tough flexible fibres To bind and connect tissues together

Skeletal tissue Hard material To support and protect the body and permit movement

Blood tissue Runny fluid containing loose cells To carry oxygen and food substances round the body

Nerve tissue Network of threads with long extensions To conduct and co-ordinate messages

Muscle tissue Bundles of elongated cells To bring about movement

Table 1 Summary of the main tissues found in animals

Plant tissues (based on flowering plant)

Name of tissue What it consists of Main functions

Epidermal tissue Sheets of cells To line and protect the surface of the plant

Photosynthetic tissue Cells with chloroplasts To feed the plant by photosynthesis

Packing tissue Round balloon-like cells To fill in spaces inside the plant

Vascular (conducting) tissue Long tubes To transport water and food substances

Strengthening tissue Bundles of tough fibres To support and strengthen the plant

Table 2 Summary of the main tissues found in plants

140 Biology for life

Systems in the human body

Name of system Main organs in the system Main functions

Digestive system Gut, liver and pancreas To digest and absorb food

Respiratory system Windpipe and lungs To take in oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide

Blood (circulatory) system Heart, blood vessels To carry oxygen and food round the body

Excretory system Kidneys, bladder, liver To get rid of poisonous waste substances

Sensory system Eyes, ears, nose To detect stimuli

Nervous system Brain and spinal cord To conduct messages from one part of the body to another

Musculo-skeletal system Muscles and skeleton To support and move the body

Reproductive system Testes and ovaries To produce offspring

Table 3 Summary of the systems in the human body.

The various systems found in the human body are summarised in Table 3.
Some organs belong to more than one system. The liver, for example, belongs
to the digestive and excretory systems.

Division of labour
In most organisms we see a division of labour between different kinds of
cells. We also see a division of labour between different tissues, and between
different organs. They all work in harmony. This is essential for the smooth
running of a complex animal like man.
Division of labour is only possible in an organism whose body is made up
of many cells. Such organisms are described as multicellular.
There are a few multicellular plants whose cells are all identical. And there
are some simple organisms which consist of only one cell. In these simple
organisms there is obviously no division of labour between cells: all jobs have
to be carried out within the one cell.

The shapes of living things

A plant such as a tree has a rather irregular shape, with branches sticking out
all over the place. Animals, on the other hand, are more regular and compact.
Most animals move with one end of the body in the lead. This is the front
or anterior end. The other end is the posterior end. In most animals there is
some kind of head at the anterior end.
The lower side of the body, that is the side closest to the ground, is known
as the ventral side. The upper side is known as the dorsal side (Figure 6).
Most animals, man included, have more or less symmetrical right and left
sides. Many of the structures on one side are repeated on the other so that the
two sides of the body are mirror images of one another. We call this bilateral
symmetry. You can see this kind of symmetry in Figure 6.
In contrast, some animals have their structures arranged all round a central
point, rather like the spokes of a wheel. Sea anemones and jellyfish are
examples. We call this radial symmetry. Plants tend to be radially
symmetrical too; think, for instance, of the way the petals and sepals are
arranged in a typical flower. If you look at the internal structure of the stem
and root of many plants, you will see that they, too, are radially symmetrical.
There are a few organisms which have no symmetry at all. They are
Figure 6 Most animals have an anterior and
posterior end and dorsal and ventral sides. They
asymmetrical. One example is Amoeba. This is constantly changing its shape
are also bilaterally symmetrical: the two sides of and does not have permanent right and left sides.
the body are mirror images.
 Tissues, organs and organisation 141

Investigation 1- Investigation 2- PAssignments--

Looking at epithelium Looking at plant packing tissue
1 Explain each of these words: tissue,
1 Put a drop of stain on the surface of 1 Obtain a soft fruit such as a tomato. organ, muscle, epithelium,
a microscope slide. multicellular.
2 Cut the fruit in half.
2 Your teacher will provide you with a 2 Each of the tissues listed in the
piece of frog’s skin. 3 With a knife remove a small piece of
left-hand column is related to one of
the soft pulpy material from inside.
the words in the right-hand column.
3 With a knife or scalpel gently scrape This is packing tissue.
Write them down in the correct
the surface of the frog’s skin. This
4 Put the tissue on a slide and spread pairs.
will remove the epithelium.
it out.
photosynthetic tissue transport
4 Dip the knife in the drop of stain. The
5 With a pipette add a drop of water to epithelial tissue protection
epithelium will come off the knife
the tissue. connective tissue messages
and float in the stain,.
blood tissue feeding
6 Cover it with a coverslip.
5 Cover it with a coverslip. nervous tissue strength
7 Examine your slide under the
6 Examine your slide under the 3 What kind of tissue:
microscope: low power first, then
microscope: low power first, then a) fills spaces inside a plant stem,
high power.
high power. b) carries oxygen round the
How does the tissue compare in human body,
How does the tissue compare with the
appearance with the epithelial tissue in c) brings about movement in
one shown in Figure 1?
Investigation 1? animals,
Draw a small group of cells, showing d) supplies a plant with food,
Draw a small group of the cells.
how they fit together. e) transports water in a plant,
What job does this tissue do? f) supports your body,
What job does this tissue do?
g) lines the surface of a leaf,
h) conducts messages from one
part of your body to another,
i) binds other tissues together,
j) lines an animal’s body cavity?

Investigation 3- Investigation 4- 4 Why is it an advantage to have a

division of labour between different
Looking at organs Examining the inside of an organ
organs in the body?
1 Examine some or all of the following Your teacher will give you a thin section
5 Why is photosynthetic tissue not
organs obtained from a butcher: of an organ which has been cut with a
found in animals, and why is muscle
lungs, stomach, intestine, tongue, microtome, mounted on a microscope
tissue not found in plants?
liver, pancreas, heart, kidney, slide, and stained to show up the cells.
muscle, brain and eye. 6 Name two organs in Figure 5 which
1 Look at your section under the low
occur in pairs and two which occur
2 Try tearing, or cutting, each organ to power of the microscope.
singly.
see how tough it is.
2 Firstly try to see the cells of which
Why is it an advantage to have pairs
3 Cut open each organ with a sharp the organ is composed.
of organs rather than single ones?
knife in order to see its inside.
You should be able to recognise
7 Make a list of all the functions you
4 Describe what each organ looks them from their nuclei which will be
can think of which are performed by
and feels like. darkly stained.
your head.
5 Find out what each organ has to do 5 Make a list of particular kinds of
Why is it an advantage to an animal
in the body. tissue which you think you can see
to have its head at the anterior end
in your section.
In what ways does the structure of of its body?
each organ suit it to its job? 4 Find out the main function of the
8 What is the difference between
organ from which your section was
6 For each organ write down the main bilateral and radial symmetry?
obtained.
tissues which are found in it. Give one example of each.
Make a list of the ways the internal
How would you relate the presence of Is the human body bilaterally
structure of the organ seems to be
the particular tissue to the job which symmetrical in every respect? Explain
suited to carrying out its function.
the organ has to do? your answer.
 -Molecules in¬
Diffusion
motion Suppose you are sitting at one end of a room. A lady wearing a lot of perfume
comes in and sits down at the other end. Before long the smell of her perfume
In this Topic we shall
fills the room and reaches your nose. Why does this happen?
see how molecules and other Molecules in a gas or liquid are constantly moving about freely, bumping
tiny particles move about, and into one another and bouncing this way and that. This takes place randomly,
why this is important and it results in the molecules being spread out evenly. We call this kind of
in biology. movement diffusion. It is the tendency for molecules to become distributed evenly
throughout the space they occupy.
The way a smell spreads through a room is an example of molecules
diffusing through air, i.e. through a gas. However, diffusion also takes place
in liquids, and this is its main importance in biology.
■N r

_t
molecules gradually move Diffusion in a liquid
away from the crystal where
they are highly concentrated
You can watch diffusion taking place in a liquid by dropping a crystal of
potassium permanganate into a bowl of water. Gradually the purple colour of
the permanganate spreads through the water until eventually all the water is
the same shade of purple.
What exactly has happened? In the crystal, the permanganate molecules
^^
are packed tightly together, i.e. they are very concentrated. However, to
begin with, the surrounding water contains no permanganate molecules at
* s all. As a result the permanganate molecules move away from the crystal until
until they are evenly spread they are evenly distributed throughout the water (Figure 1). In actual fact the
through the water in the ♦ ' I * \\\ •' permanganate molecules move randomly in all directions. However, at any
beaker
given moment more of them will be moving away from the crystal than
towards it. In other words there is a net movement away from the crystal.
So diffusion is a net movement of molecules from a region where they are highly
* * • * • * * * ••*.*•*. V concentrated to a region where they are less concentrated. The difference in
concentration between the two regions before diffusion occurs is known as
the diffusion gradient. Provided such a gradient exists, molecules (or
particles derived from them) will always tend to diffuse in this way.
Figure 1 An example of diffusion in a liquid; this is
what happens when you drop a crystal of
potassium permanganate in water. If you are doing
chemistry, you may know that the potassium
An example of diffusion in biology
permanganate molecules split up into potassium In an organism such as amoeba, oxygen is continually being used up. The result
and permanganate ions, and it's really these which
diffuse rather than the whole molecules. is that oxygen molecules are less concentrated inside the body than in the
surrounding water. As a result, oxygen molecules constantly diffuse in
(Figure 2A) and in this way the amoeba gets all the oxygen it needs for
respiration.
Meanwhile carbon dioxide is continually being formed. The result is that
carbon dioxide molecules are more concentrated inside the body than in
the surrounding water. As a result, carbon dioxide molecules constantly
diffuse out (Figure 2B) and in this way the amoeba gets rid of carbon dioxide.
In order for molecules to diffuse like this, the cell membrane must let them
pass through without hindrance - in other words the membrane must be
permeable to them. Moreover, for diffusion to take place, the molecules must
first go into solution, and so the membrane must be moist.

How fast is diffusion?

Diffusion is a rather slow process. However, it can be speeded up by raising
the concentration of the substance which is diffusing - in other words by
making the diffusion gradient steeper. Diffusion can also be speeded up by
moving the molecules in some way. For example, stirring or heating the
contents of the beaker would help to spread out the permanganate
Figure 2 Amoeba takes in oxygen and gets rid of molecules, and a gentle breeze would help to spread a lady's perfume around
carbon dioxide by diffusion. Many other cells and the room. The size of the molecule is also important; small molecules such as
organisms carry out gas exchange in this way. oxygen diffuse more rapidly than large molecules such as glucose. Why do
you think this is?
 Molecules in motion 143

Diffusion and surface area

Imagine that the box below is an organism. It is a cube whose sides are all one
centimetre long:

/ ~7

/
Its surface area is 6 cm2, and its volume is 1 cm3.

Now suppose we double the size of the box like this:

A 7
*
1 cm
♦ X
-*—2 cm—►

By how much have we increased its volume and its surface area? Well, its
volume is now 2 cm3, twice what it was. However, its surface area is 10 cm2,
which is less than twice what it was.
In other words, we have doubled its volume, but its surface area is less
than doubled. This is because in the process of doubling the volume, we have
lost part of the original surface (the part shaded in the first diagram), so we
can make this statement: as an object increases in size the amount of surface relative
to volume (the surface-volume ratio) gets smaller.
This is extremely important to organisms which take things in by diffusion.
Figure 3 These diagrams show how a large
Think of it this way. A small organism, like an amoeba, has a large
organism can overcome the problem of having a
surface-volume ratio, and so it can take in all the oxygen it needs by diffusion small surface to volume ratio.
across the body surface. However, a large organism, like a mammal, has a
much smaller surface-volume ratio, so it cannot get all the oxygen it needs in
this way. Such large organisms need special respiratory organs such as lungs
for taking in oxygen. These respiratory organs consist of a sheet of tissue
which is folded many times so that it provides a large surface area across
which oxygen can be absorbed (Figure 3). Moreover, if the organism is bulky
it will need a special transport system to carry oxygen quickly to the furthest
tissues. Diffusion would be far too slow.

Osmosis
Carry out Investigation 1. This involves making a bag out of a thin
membrane, filling it with sugar solution and suspending it in a beaker of
water. After a short time, water enters the bag from the beaker, passing
through the membrane.
To understand why this happens, look at Figure 4. The sugar molecules are
larger than the water molecules. The bag itself has tiny holes in it which are
large enough to let the small water molecules through, but too small to let the
larger sugar molecules through. Such a membrane is described as a
selectively permeable membrane.
Now the presence of the sugar molecules in the bag means that there isn't
as much room for water molecules there. So the water molecules inside the
bag are less concentrated than in the beaker outside. As a result, water
molecules diffuse into the bag.
This movement of water is called osmosis. Osmosis is the net flow of water
through a selectively permeable membrane. It's really a special case of diffusion, in
which only the water molecules move from one region to another. A real-life
example of osmosis is explored in Investigation 2.

Strong and weak solutions

Look at Figure 4 again for a moment. For water to move into the bag from
outside, the fluid in the beaker doesn't have to be water. It could be another
sugar solution. All that's necessary is that the solution inside the bag should Figure 4 Osmosis, a special case of diffusion
144 Biology for life

have a greater concentration of sugar molecules, i.e. be stronger, than the

solution in the beaker.
What would happen if the situation was reversed, and the solution in the
beaker was stronger than the one in the bag? The answer is that osmosis
would occur in the other direction, and water would flow out of the bag. As a
result it would lose mass and volume and go flabby.

Osmosis and animal cells

The effect of osmosis on an animal cell can be investigated by putting red
blood cells in solutions of different strengths.
As with other types of animal cells, red blood cells contain a solution of
salts and other substances. These are enclosed inside the cell membrane
which is selectively permeable.
If a red blood cell is put in water, water enters the cell by osmosis. This is
called endosmosis. The cell swells up and eventually bursts, just as a balloon
would do if you blew too much air into it.
However, if you put a red blood cell in a salt solution which is stronger
than that inside the cell, water leaves the cell by osmosis. This is called
exosmosis. As a result the cell shrinks and crinkles (Figure 5).
This is very important in our bodies. It means that the fluid part of the
blood (the plasma), in which the cells float around, must have just the right
strength to prevent osmosis occurring in either direction. In a later Topic we
shall see how this is achieved.

Figure 5 These diagrams show what happens if

you put a red blood cell in water or a strong salt Osmosis and plant cells
solution.
Now consider what happens if you put a plant cell in solutions of different
strengths.
A plant cell has a cellulose wall outside the cell membrane. In the centre of
the cell there is a vacuole which contains a solution of salts and so on. The
thin layer of cytoplasm surrounding the vacuole acts as a selectively
permeable membrane. The cellulose wall, however, is fully permeable to
salts, as well as water.
If you put a plant cell in water, water enters by osmosis and the cell swells
up. However, it doesn't burst. This is because the cellulose wall is tough, like
elastic: it stretches but does not break. Eventually the cellulose cannot stretch
any more and so the cell stops swelling. It's like trying to blow up a football
into which no more air can be pumped. When this point is reached, we say
the cell is turgid. Turgidity, or turgor as it's called, is very important in plants
because it helps to make them firm.
Now what happens if you put a plant cell into a solution which is stronger
than that in the vacuole (Investigation 3)? In this case water is drawn out of
the vacuole and the cell shrinks: it loses its turgor and becomes flabby or
flaccid. If the external solution is strong enough, the cytoplasm eventually
pulls away from the cellulose wall as shown in Figure 6. We call this process
plasmolysis.

Active transport
In living things molecules and ions are sometimes pumped across the cell
membrane. This is called active transport. No one knows exactly how it takes
place, but it needs energy from respiration. Active transport can move
chemicals from a region of low concentration to a region of higher
concentration; that is, against the concentration gradient. For example, this is
how plant roots obtain some of their mineral salts from the soil (see page 247).

In this Topic we have seen how molecules move as a result of diffusion,

Figure 6 These diagrams show what happens if
osmosis and active transport. You will find many examples of these processes
you put a plant cell in water or a strong sugar
solution.
in action in other parts of this book.
 Molecules in motion 145

Investigation 1 r Investigation 2-
Watching osmosis Osmosis in a potato
1 Peel a potato and cut it in two.
2 With a knife or scalpel make a cup¬

rh shaped cavity in one half of the

potato.

U 3 Half fill the cavity with a strong

solution of sugar and stand the
potato-cup in a dish of water (see
1 Cut a length of visking tubing about measure the distance which the illustration).
8 cm long. sucrose solution has risen from the
original mark. Write down the
2 Wet it thoroughly with water.
distance in millimetres.
3 Tie one end with strong thread, so
that it forms a bag. 9 Re-measure the distance every five
minutes for about half an hour. In
4 Fill the bag with a twenty per cent ' each case write down the distance
solution of sucrose (Illustration 1). the sucrose has risen from the
original mark.
5 With a piece of thread, tie the bag to
the bottom of a capillary tube 10 Plot your results on graph paper:
(Illustration 2). put the distance the sucrose has
4 Mark the level of the sugar solution
risen on the vertical axis, and time
6 Clamp the capillary tube to a stand, by sticking a pin in the inside of the
on the horizontal axis.
and lower the bag into a beaker of potato-cup.
water (Illustration 3).
Why does the sucrose solution rise in What happens to the level of the sugar
7 Mark the level of the sucrose the capillary tube? solution in the next 30 minutes? Explain
solution in the capillary tube. your observations.
What property of the visking tubing
8 Five minutes later, with a ruler, makes this happen?

-Investigation 3- -Assignments-
The effect of osmosis on a plant cell
1 Suggest an explanation for each of
the following:
a) If certain kinds of lettuces get
floppy, they can be made firm
and crisp by putting them in cold
water for a while.
b) If you sprinkle sugar on a bowl of
1 Obtain a stem of rhubarb or some 6 With a pipette, place a drop of strawberries, the juice comes out
other plant with a red epidermis. strong sucrose solution against one of them.
side of the coverslip (Illustration 1).
2 With forceps, strip off a piece of the 2 A pupil in a school carried out the
The sucrose solution will flow under
coloured epidermis. following experiment. He cut out a
the coverslip by capillary action.
3 Trim the piece of epidermis with rectangular piece of potato 20 mm
7 Put a piece of filter paper against long and put it in a dish of strong
scissors so that it is about one
the other side of the coverslip, and sucrose solution. Four hours later
centimetre square.
draw the sucrose solution across he found that the piece of potato
4 Put the piece of epidermis in a drop (Illustration 2). had shortened so that it was now
of water on a slide, and cover it with only 16 mm long.
8 Look at the epidermal cells under
a coverslip.
the microscope.
a) Suggest an explanation for this
5 Look at your slide under the low result.
Flow does their appearance change?
power of the microscope. Can you b) What should the control be in this
see the cells clearly? Notice that What happens to the coloured experiment?
each cell is filled with a coloured substance inside them?
substance: this is inside the
Explain your observations.
vacuole.
 The chemistry
What are living things made of?
of life Look at Figure 1. The pie chart shows the main substances which make up
the human body, and their relative amounts (Investigation 1). You may be
Organisms are surprised to see that we consist mainly of water! The three main organic
like chemical factories. What substances are carbohydrate, fat and protein. Their properties are related to
are the chemicals and what their functions in the body (Investigation 2). Let's look at each of them.
happens to them ?
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate contains the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. One of
the simplest carbohydrates is glucose, which is a type of sugar. Its chemical
formula is C6H1206. It is typical of a carbohydrate that it contains twice as
many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms.
Glucose occurs in practically all living things. It dissolves very easily in
water; in other words, it is very soluble. It is present in your cells and is
circulating in your bloodstream at this very moment. It is the main substance
from which living things obtain energy.
Another well known carbohydrate is starch. It is solid, and if you try to
dissolve it in water you get a paste-like suspension. Starch consists of lots of
glucose molecules linked together in a chain, like a string of beads. When
glucose molecules join together like this; water is taken away from them. This
kind of chemical reaction is called condensation.
The reverse can also occur: starch is broken down into glucose. This is like
breaking a string of beads so that all the beads fall apart. For the glucose
molecules to be separated from one another water has to be added. This kind
of reaction is called hydrolysis.
Glucose is known as a single-sugar or monosaccharide. Starch, with its
many glucose molecules linked together, is called a multi-sugar or
Figure 1 This pie chart shows the relative amounts polysaccharide. Some carbohydrates consist of two glucose molecules linked
of the main substances which make up the human together: we call them double-sugars or disaccharides. Ordinary table sugar
body. Organic substances are complex carbon- is a double-sugar called sucrose. These three kinds of carbohydrate are
containing chemicals. Inorganic substances are illustrated in Figure 2.
simple chemicals such as salts.
How are individual carbohydrates made up? Well, sucrose consists of a
glucose molecule linked to another monosaccharide called fructose. Fructose
is found in plants, particularly fruits. Another disaccharide is maltose: this
consists of two glucose molecules joined. And the disaccharide lactose (milk
sugar) consists of glucose linked to a monosaccharide called galactose.
Polysaccharides include glycogen and cellulose, as well as starch. They all
consist of glucose molecules linked together in chains.

Fat
Fat is like carbohydrate in that it contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
However, fat contains much more carbon and hydrogen relative to oxygen.
Some fats are liquids. We call them oils (see page 150).
A fat molecule consists of two parts. The main part is called glycerol.
Attached to the glycerol are chains called fatty acids (Figure 3). The fat can be
split into its glycerol and fatty acid parts by adding water (hydrolysis). And
these parts can be linked together by taking water away (condensation).
Different kinds of fat contain different fatty acids. Their main job is to give
us energy. In mammals fat under the skin helps to keep the body warm as
well as serving as an energy store. Fat is an important component of cell
membranes. It also occurs on the surface of the body where it helps to keep
water out.

Protein
Protein contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but it also contains nitrogen
and sometimes sulphur too.
A protein molecule is composed of lots of building blocks linked together in
Figure 2 These three kinds of carbohydrate occur chains. The building blocks are called amino acids and the links between
in nature. They are interchangeable as indicated them are called peptide links. About twenty amino acids exist in nature. The
by the arrows. particular amino acids present, and the order in which they occur, vary from
 The chemistry of life 147

one protein to another (Figure 4). In a complete protein molecule the amino
acid chain is coiled, folded and cross-linked in various ways. X / X
Proteins can be split into their amino acids by adding water (hydrolysis). fatty acid
This takes place in two steps: first the protein is broken down into shorter
_y
chains called polypeptides. Then the polypeptides are broken down into
A
separate amino acids. If water is removed (condensation), the amino acids
glycerol fatty acid
link together to form polypeptides and eventually protein.
Some proteins are tough and fibre-like. They form the main structures of the V /

body: bones, muscle, skin and so on. Others exist in solution, for example, in / \
the blood and in our cells. These soluble proteins include a very important fatty acid
group of chemicals called enzymes. We shall study enzymes separately. V_ _J _y
If a protein is heated much above 40°C, the molecule's shape changes; we
say the protein has been denatured, this can ruin its functions.
Figure 3 A typical fat or oil consists of a molecule
of glycerol linked with three molecules of fatty acid.
Chemical reactions in the human body
Chemical reactions occur in two main places: in the gut and in the cells. The
reactions occurring in the gut are concerned with digesting our food. For
example, solid starch is hydrolysed into soluble glucose which can then be
absorbed into the bloodstream and taken to the cells.
The reactions occurring inside the cells are called metabolism. Some of the Figure 4 Part of a protein molecule, showing how it
reactions build things up: for example, glucose is built up into the multi-sugar is made up of a chain of amino acids. The different
shapes represent different kinds of amino acids.
glycogen for storage, and amino acids are linked together to form proteins for
body-building. Other reactions break things down: for example glucose is
broken down into carbon dioxide and water to produce energy. —Assignments -
All these chemical reactions are catalysed by enzymes. The warmer it is,
1 Give two functions in the human
the faster the reactions go. Ffowever, if the temperature gets much above
body of each of the following:
40 °C the enzymes are destroyed and the reactions stop.
carbohydrate, fat, protein, water.
Within the cells the reactions take place in a watery solution. Water is the
medium through which the chemical substances move and in which they are 2 What is the difference between
dissolved. This is one reason why we need plenty of it. condensation and hydrolysis? Why
are they important in biology?
■Investigation 1 - 3 Starch, glycogen and cellulose all
What are you made of and how much are you worth? consist of chains of glucose
molecules, and yet these three
1 Weigh yourself. 5 Find out the cost of each of the substances differ from each other.
substances in the shops. Assume How would you explain the
2 Write down your mass in kilograms.
that all the carbohydrate is sugar, all differences?
3 Study Figure 1. This tells you the the protein is meat, and the
inorganic substances are all table 4 How do you think the chain of amino
percentage of different substances
salt. Ignore the ‘other organic acids is arranged in a fibrous
in an average human being.
substances’. protein such as hair? Give reasons
4 Assuming that you contain these for your answer.
substances in the same 6 Work out the value of your body in
pounds and pence. 5 What does metabolism mean? Give
proportions, work out the mass of
two reasons why metabolism is
each substance in your body. Do you think this is a valid way of
important.
expressing the value of a person?

- Investigation 2 What happens? 4 Examine a soluble protein such as

albumen.
Some biologically important Why is it more difficult to dissolve
Does it mix easily with water?
chemicals and their properties starch than sugars?
What happens if you heat it gently?
1 Dissolve some solid glucose 3 Examine some fat and oil.
(dextrose) and sucrose in water. 5 Examine a fibrous protein such as
What do they feel like and what hair.
Do they dissolve equally easily? happens when you mix them with How does it differ from a globular
water? protein?
Explain the differences between
them. How do their properties fit in with Relate the differences to their
their functions in the body? functions in the body.
2 Try dissolving some starch in water.
 —Enzymes-
Why are enzymes important?
Enzymes speed up In the last Topic we saw that starch can be broken down into glucose by
the chemical reactions that adding water (hydrolysis). However, if you mix starch and water in a test
occur in living things. tube, no reaction can be seen. How can we make the reaction go? Well, one
way would be to boil the starch with an acid. However, we could do the same
thing more quickly and at a much lower temperature by using an enzyme.
Enzymes are biological catalysts. They speed up the chemical reactions
which go on inside living things (Investigation). Without them the reactions
would be so slow that life would grind to a halt!

Types of enzymes
Enzymes are made inside cells. Once formed, the enzyme may leave the cell
and exert its action outside. Such enzymes are called extracellular enzymes.
They include the digestive enzymes which break down food substances in
our gut.
Other enzymes exert their action inside the cell. They are called
intracellular enzymes. Their job is to speed up the chemical reactions
occurring in our cells. But they do more than just speed up the reactions; they
also control them. This is because every enzyme occurs in a particular place.
At this moment thousands of chemical reactions are taking place in your
body. Each reaction is controlled by a particular enzyme. Our enzymes make
sure that the right reactions occur in the right place and at the right time.
Figure 1 The effect of heat on the action of trypsin,
a protein-digesting enzyme in the gut. In the left
tube a piece of egg-white was covered with trypsin
which had been heated to 50°C beforehand and
then allowed to cool. In the right tube a piece of An enzyme-controlled reaction.
egg-white was covered with trypsin which had not
been heated beforehand. Here is an example of a reaction which is controlled by an enzyme:

maltase
(enzyme)
maltose -glucose
(substrate) (product)

The substance which the enzyme acts on is called the substrate - in this
case maltose. The new substance or substances formed as a result of the
reaction are the products. In this case there is just one product: glucose. The
enzyme catalysing this particular reaction is maltase. For convenience
enzymes are usually given a name similar to that of the substrate but with the
ending 'ase'.
Notice that the arrows in the above reaction point in both directions. This
means that the reaction is reversible: maltose can be turned into glucose, or
glucose into maltose. The enzyme will work either way. If there's a lot of
maltose present compared with glucose, the reaction will go from left to right;
if there's a lot of glucose present compared with maltose, it will go from right
to left. Most metabolic reactions are reversible like this.

The properties of enzymes

Enzymes have five important properties:

1 They are always proteins

This is one reason why we need proteins in our food.

2 They are specific in their action

What this means is that each enzyme controls one particular reaction, or type
of reaction. Thus maltase will only act on maltose, and sucrase on sucrose.

Figure 2 How an enzyme works. The substrate fits 3 They can he used over again
into the active site where the reaction takes place. This is because they are not altered by the reaction in which they take part.
 Enzymes 149

4 They are destroyed by heat

This is because enzymes, being proteins, are denatured by heat (see page
rInvestigation-
147). Most enzymes stop working if the temperature rises above about 45 °C Watching an enzyme in action
(Figure 1). However, certain microbes have enzymes which can work at
higher temperatures 1 Obtain two test tubes.
Pour hydrogen peroxide solution into
one of them to a depth of about 2 cm.
5 They are sensitive to pH
Pour water into the other test tube to
The term pH refers to the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Most
serve as a control.
intracellular enzymes work best in neutral conditions, i.e. conditions that are
neither acidic nor alkaline. However, the digestive enzymes in the stomach 2 Drop a small piece of liver into each
work best in acid conditions, and those in the small intestine work best in test tube.
alkaline conditions.
Watch carefully and describe what
How do enzymes work? happens.

Look at Figure 2. This shows in a very simple way how enzymes are believed Liver contains a powerful enzyme
to work. As you know, molecules are constantly moving about and bumping called catalase. This breaks down
into each other. Now when a substrate molecule bumps into a molecule of the hydrogen peroxide into water and
right enzyme, it fits into a depression on the surface of the enzyme molecule. oxygen.
This depression is called the active site. The reaction then takes place and the Do your observations agree with this
molecules of product leave the active site, freeing it for another substrate statement?
molecule. 3 Take another piece of liver and put it in
The active site of a particular enzyme has a specific shape into which only a beaker of boiling water for about
one kind of substrate will fit. The substrate fits into the active site rather like a three minutes.
key fits into a lock. This is why enzymes are specific in their action.
4 Drop the piece of boiled liver into a test
When an enzyme is destroyed by heat, the shape of the active site is
tube containing fresh hydrogen
changed so that the substrate no longer fits. A change in the pH has a similar
peroxide.
effect.
What happens?

Helping and hindering enzymes Explain the result.

Anything which helps substrates to come into contact with the right enzymes 5 Carry out experiments to find out if
will make enzyme-controlled reactions go faster. For example, raising the catalase occurs in other things, e.g.
temperature will increase the random movements of the molecules and kidney, muscle and potato.
increase the chances of substrate and enzyme colliding - but of course the
How could you find out if the gas that is
temperature must not be raised too much or the enzyme will be destroyed.
given off really is oxygen?
Certain vitamins and mineral elements also help enzymes by making it
easier for the substrate to fit into the active site. Describe an experiment which you could
On the other hand various poisons such as cyanide and arsenic inhibit do to find out if catalase prefers acid or
enzymes by blocking the active site. Some poisons block the active site alkaline conditions.
permanently, others only temporarily. Either way the substrate finds it
difficult or impossible to enter the active site.
r-Assignmen ts-
The uses of enzymes
1 Biological washing powders contain
Enzymes can be extracted from organisms in a purified form and then used in protein-digesting enzymes. What
all sorts of scientific and industrial processes. An everyday use in the home is advice would you give to the public on
in biological washing powders. A variety of protein-digesting enzymes how to get the best results with a
(proteases) are added to the washing powder, and these are supposed to biological washing powder? Back up
dissolve protein stains. your answer with reasons.
The advantage of biological washing powders is that they work at relatively
2 Look at Figure 1 and read the caption
low temperatures. This makes them particularly useful for delicate fabrics,
carefully. Describe an experiment
and it saves electricity too. However, some people are allergic to them and
which you would do to find out the
they can cause skin trouble.
exact temperature at which trypsin is
Enzymes have many other uses. For example proteases are used for
destroyed.
tenderising meat, skinning fish and removing hair from hides. Cellulose¬
splitting enzymes (cellulases) are used for softening vegetables, removing 3 Describe the effect of gradually
seed coats from cereal grain, and extracting agar jelly from seaweed. Starch¬ increasing the temperature on the
splitting enzymes (amylases) are used for making syrups, fruit-juices, rate of an enzyme controlled
chocolates and other food products. These are just a few of the ways enzymes reaction.
are useful to us.
 Food and diet
Our diet
In the course of a lifetime,
The food we consume each day makes up our diet. This includes things we
a person may eat as much as drink as well as those we eat. Whatever we choose to eat, our diet must
100 tonnes of food. This Topic include the following substances: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water,
is all about food: what minerals and vitamins. A diet which contains all these substances in the right
it is, and what it proportions is called a complete or balanced diet (Figure 1). The study of food
and diet is known as nutrition.
does for us. A person who has a poor diet suffers from malnutrition. A general
shortage of food substances, particularly those that give us energy, leads to
marasmus. This is a general wasting of the body. It is explained further on
page 164.
Various tests can be done to find out which particular chemical substances
are present in different foods. Simple tests which you can do yourself are
described in Investigation 1. Now let's look at each substance in turn.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include sugar, starch and cellulose.

Sugar
Different kinds of sugar occur in different foods. In fruit the sugar is fructose
or glucose, in milk it is lactose. Ordinary table sugar is sucrose, obtained from
sugar cane and sugar beet. Normally sugar tastes sweet, which is why it is so
popular. Sugar gives us energy, so we call it an energy food.
In its natural state, sugar is normally in solution - think of the sugar in
orange juice for example. However, when sugar loses water, it forms crystals.
This is what happens when table sugar is made. Juice is extracted from sugar
cane or beet and then it is purified (refined). After that, water is evaporated
from it, so sugar crystals are formed. The crystals quickly dissolve if placed in
water, for example when you put sugar in a cup of tea.
Brown sugar is less refined than white sugar: it contains various impurities
which make it brown and slightly sticky. These impurities do us no harm,
indeed they make the sugar better for making cakes, biscuits and toffee.

Starch
Starch is found in bread, potatoes, cereals and many other plant foods. It
Figure 1 A balanced diet is a varied diet: it should exists naturally in the form of small granules called starch grains (see page
contain many different kinds of food such as the
135). We can digest starch easily once it is cooked. Each starch grain is
ones shown here.
enclosed within a membrane and cooking causes the starch grains to swell up
and burst. Like sugar, starch gives us energy.

Cellulose
Cellulose forms the cell walls of plants, and is very tough. For this reason,
plants are often difficult to chew, but cooking softens the cellulose and makes
it easier to eat.
Man cannot digest cellulose - we don't have the necessary enzymes in our
gut for breaking it down. This means that we cannot get energy from it, but it
still performs a useful function: it forms dietary fibre (roughage). This keeps
food moving along the gut and prevents constipation.
In industrialised countries people tend to eat a lot of highly refined foods
which contain little or no fibre. Unrefined foods such as wholemeal bread,
bran cereals and fresh fruit and vegetables contain plenty of fibre. This is one
reason why such foods are good for us.

Fats
Fats occur in both animals and plants. Butter, lard and dripping are all animal
fats obtained from pigs and cattle. These fats are solid at room temperature,
though if you heat them they go into liquid form. Plant fats, on the other
Figure 2 A quarter of a litre (half a pint) of milk and a hand, are normally in liquid form at room temperature. We call these oils.
quarter of a kilogram (eight ounces) of meat per day Two well known examples are sunflower oil and corn oil, both of which are
give a person all the protein needed for a healthy life. used a lot in cooking.
 Food and diet 151

Margarine, in contrast to butter, consists of mainly vegetable oils. These

oils are obtained from groundnuts, soya beans etc., and are then turned into
solid fat by chemical treatment. Other treatments give it the right colour,
make it easy to spread, and are supposed to make it taste like butter.
The main function of fats is to give us energy so — like carbohydrates — they
are energy foods. In man and other animals fat is stored under the skin: this
helps to keep the body warm, as well as serving as an energy store.
There are many different kinds of fat. Each contains particular fatty acids
(see page 146). Now some fatty acids are described as saturated, others as
unsaturated. A saturated fatty acid cannot possess any more hydrogen
atoms: the molecule is 'full up', like a saturated sponge full of water. An
unsaturated fatty acid, on the other hand, has room for more atoms.
Foods vary in the amount of saturated and unsaturated fat they contain. In
general animal foods contain mainly saturated fat, whereas plant foods
contain mainly unsaturated fat. Some scientists claim that the more
unsaturated, as opposed to saturated, fat we eat, the healthier we are likely to
be. Table margarines contain a lot of unsaturated fat and are thought to be Figure 3 This child is suffering from kwashiorkor
better for us than butter (see page 215). caused mainly by lack of protein. The child is
miserable, listless and weak. He looks fat because
fluid has collected in the tissues. This is one of the
Proteins
commonest types of malnutrition in poorer countries.
A certain amount of protein is present in most foods, but it is particularly It is often seen in babies who are being breast-fed
by an undernourished mother, particularly if she is
abundant in milk, eggs and meat. In milk and eggs the protein is in liquid
carrying another child.
form. In meat it consists of solid thread-like fibres.
Proteins form the main structures of our body. We therefore need protein
for growth and body-building, and for repairing worn-out or damaged
tissues. We also need protein to make enzymes. In addition proteins give us a
certain amount of energy, but they are not as important in this respect as
carbohydrates and fat.
How much protein do we need? Doctors recommend about 70 grams per
day (Figure 2). In fact we could probably manage with a lot less than this. In
rich countries people tend to eat much more protein than they need. On the
other hand, in poor countries many people get hardly any.
A growing child who does not get enough protein develops a disease called
kwashiorkor: growth is retarded and the child is weak and listless (Figure 3).
Proteins are composed of amino acids. Certain amino acids can be made by
our bodies, so we do not need them in our diet. Others cannot be made so we
must get them in our diet. These are called essential amino acids. They are Type of protein Marks out of 10
vital for good health and absence of just one can have severe consequences.
Mother’s milk 10
Now look at Table 1. This shows how useful the proteins are in different
Eggs 10
foods. As you will see, animal proteins come out on top, so they are
Fish 8
particularly good for us; plant proteins come lower down, so they are less
Meat 8
useful.
Cow’s milk V/2
Notice that soya bean protein is one of the best plant proteins, not far
Potatoes 7
behind meat itself. Also the total amount of protein in soya beans is greater
Liver (beef) 6V2
than in most plants. Soya beans are therefore used a lot for manufacturing
Rice 5V2
artificial meat, or textured vegetable protein as it's called. Potato protein in
Soya beans 5V2
also valuable, but the total amount of protein in a potato is very small.
Maize 51/2
Wheat (white flour) 5
Water Peas 4V2
Beans 4V2
Water is essential for life, so it must regularly be included in our diet. One can
go without food for several weeks without being permanently harmed, but a Table 1 In this table each food is given marks out
of ten depending on how good it is at giving us the
person can die in a few days from lack of water. amino acids we need. A high mark means that the
We take in water mainly by drinking. However there is plenty of water in protein contains all the esential amino acids in the
most solid foods: 90 per cent of a lettuce or cabbage is water, and even bread right proportions for human beings. A low mark
contains about 40 per cent. Some animals get all their water from solid food means that it is short of certain amino acids. Note
that plant proteins have a smaller range of
and never drink, but human beings normally need to drink about a litre of
essential amino acids than animal proteins.
liquid every day. However, the amino acids missing from one plant
Shortage of water in our environment (drought) is one of the main causes protein are not necessarily the same as those
of famine. It kills domestic animals, and causes crops to fail. missing from another.
152 Biology for life

Minerals
Minerals contain certain chemical elements. All these elements have
particular jobs to do. Some of them give the blood its correct composition.
Others belong to important structures such as bones and teeth. Others help
to control the chemical reactions which occur in the body. Here are some of
the most important ones:

Sodium
We take in sodium when we eat salt, for common salt is sodium chloride. Salt
is present in most foods, though some are saltier than others.
Our blood must contain the right amount of salt. It helps our nerves to
transmit messages and our muscles to contract. If a person runs short of it, he
gets a sharp pain in his muscles: we call this cramp. People lose salt when
they sweat. Miners, and other people who work in hot places, eat salt tablets
to make up for the salt they lose by sweating. However, it's important not to
take too much because it may cause high blood pressure.

Calcium
Calcium is needed for hardening our bones and teeth. When a baby is born,
its bones are soft. To become hard they must take up calcium salts. These
salts are calcium phosphate and carbonate, and the process is called
calcification. A similar process causes hardening of teeth.
Calcium occurs in foods such as milk, cheese and fish. If a child does not
Figure 4 A severe case of rickets.
get enough calcium, his bones remain soft and become deformed. This
condition is known as rickets (Figure 4). Calcium is also needed for making
muscles contract, and it helps blood to clot when you cut yourself.

Phosphorus
The main calcium salt in bone and teeth is calcium phosphate, so we need
phosphorus as well as calcium in our diet. Phosphorus also occurs in cell
membranes and is a constituent of many important chemical substances in
the body. Fortunately it is present in most foods.

Iron
Iron is present in haemoglobin, the red pigment in blood. Haemoglobin
carries oxygen round the body, so iron is very important in the diet.
Iron occurs in a number of foods, especially liver and kidneys. Small
amounts occur in most drinking water, and we get quite a lot of it from metal
utensils used in cooking: the amount of iron in a piece of beef can be doubled
by mincing it in an iron mincer.
Shortage of iron results in the blood containing too little haemoglobin. This
is a type of anaemia. The oxygen-carrying power of the blood is cut down,
resulting in tiredness and lack of energy . People who are anaemic may need
to take iron tablets.

Iodine
Some elements are needed in only the tiniest quantities. These are called trace
elements. One such element is iodine.
Iodine is present in most drinking water and in sea foods. We need iodine
for making the hormone thyroxine. This is produced by the thyroid gland
which is situated close to the 'adam's apple' in the neck.
Thyroxine speeds up chemical reactions in the body, making us more
active. If we do not get enough iodine, the thyroid gland cannot produce
thyroxine. As a result the gland enlarges, causing the neck to swell. This
condition is called goitre (Figure 5).
There are places where the drinking water lacks iodine. One such place is
Figure 5 This person is suffering from goitre caused Derbyshire in the middle of England. In the old days it was common for
by iodine deficiency. people in that area to have enlarged thyroid glands, so the condition was
 Food and diet 153

called Derbyshire neck . Nowadays, iodine is added to the salt, so the

condition no longer occurs. Old portraits, such as the one in Figure 6, show
people with swollen necks: almost certainly this was caused by too little
iodine in the water.

Fluorine
Fluorine is another important trace element. No one knows for certain what it
does, but it seems to prevent tooth decay (see page 178). Small amounts of
fluorine occur in most drinking water. Nowadays dentists encourage children
to clean their teeth with fluoride toothpaste, and to suck fluoride tablets. In
some places where it does not occur naturally, fluorine is put into the
drinking water.

Vitamins
In the early 1900s a famous English scientist. Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins,
fed some rats on a special food mixture. The mixture contained plenty of
carbohydrate, fat, protein and minerals - all the things thought to be
necessary for healthy life. After a few weeks the rats were dead. However a
second group of rats was given exactly the same food mixture, plus a very
small amount of milk. They flourished. Apparently the milk contained
something extra which the rats needed. We now know that this extra
'something' was vitamins (Figure 7). Figure 6 The person in this portrait by Leonardo da
Vinci may have lived in an area where there was no
Vitamins are a collection of organic substances which are needed in the iodine in the water.
diet. Each has a specific job to do, but their overall function is to help control
the chemical reactions which take place in the body. Each one occurs in
particular kinds of food. If any of them are missing from the diet, we become
ill and may die.
Vitamins are known by letters: ABC etc. This way of naming them was
introduced before their chemical structure was known. It is still used, though
we can now give them proper chemical names.
For vitamins to do their job they must be in solution. Some of them dissolve
in water, others dissolve in fat. This is one reason why we need water and fat
in our diet.
Now let's look at some of the most important vitamins in detail.

Vitamin A (fat soluble)

Vitamin A (retinol) is important for our eyes. It protects their surface, and
helps us to see in dim light.
The best source of this vitamin is fish liver oil. We can also get it by eating
carrots: the orange pigment in carrots (called carotene) is turned into vitamin
A inside our bodies. Red peppers and mangoes are also good sources.
Shortage of vitamin A makes it hard to see in dim light. This is known as
night-blindness. Severe lack of it causes the cornea to become thick and dry,
a condition known as xerophthalmia. In extreme cases this can lead to total
blindness.

The B vitamins (water soluble)

In 1916 an American doctor, Joseph Goldberger, came across some convicts
who had a strange disease. They had swollen tongues, skin rashes, upset
stomachs and headaches. Some of them were mentally ill.
Now this disease might have been caused by germs, but Goldberger
suspected it was due to their diet. To prove this he carried out a brave
experiment. He took some blood from one of the convicts and injected it into
himself. He ate the skin rash of one of the others and swallowed some
discharge from the intestine of another. Goldberger reasoned that if the
disease was caused by a germ, he should catch it. On the other hand, if it was
caused by poor diet, he should remain healthy. Goldberger did not get the Figure 7 The two rats at the top were fed on a full
disease. We now know that these convicts were suffering from lack of the diet including vitamins. The two rats at the bottom
vitamin niacin (nicotinic acid). There is plenty of this vitamin in liver, meat were given a full diet minus vitamins.
154 Biology for life

and fish - just the kind of food which the unfortunate convicts were not
getting. The disease resulting from its absence is called pellagra (Figure 8).
Niacin belongs to a group of vitamins called the B vitamins. All the B
vitamins assist the process by which energy is produced in our bodies.
One of the most important B vitamins is vitamin Bj (thiamine). This
vitamin was discovered by a Polish scientist called Casimir Funk. It occurs in
yeast and cereals. Lack of it causes a serious disease called beri-beri. This
word means 'I cannot'. It starts with stomach trouble and weakness of the
muscles; in the end the person becomes paralysed and may die.
There is a lot of vitamin B} in rice: it occurs in the husk, the tough coat
surrounding the grain. When rice is prepared, the husk is usually stripped off
and the grain polished, but this removes the vitamin. Beri-beri is therefore
common in places where people live on polished rice.
Another important B vitamin is vitamin B2 (riboflavin). It is found in a
number of foods, particularly leafy vegetables, eggs and fish. Lack of it causes
sores in the skin and round the mouth, and poor growth.

Vitamin C (water soluble)

In the 1740s Anson, the famous British Admiral, led a fleet into the Pacific to
fight the Spanish. In the course of the voyage, 626 of his 961 men died of a
disease called scurvy. In this disease bleeding occurs in various parts of the
body, particularly the gums (Figure 9).
Scurvy is caused by lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). This vitamin keeps
our epithelia in a healthy state. It is abundant in green vegetables such as
spinach, and citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons and limes (Investigation).
If people eat this kind of food, they will not get scurvy. Admiral Nelson
Figure 8 This child is suffering from pellagra caused
realised this, and he always insisted that his ships should carry an ample
by lack of the vitamin niacin (nicotinic acid). Notice
the marks on the neck, shaped like a necklace. This
supply of limes. This is why British sailors were called 'limeys'.
is a feature of the disease. One snag about vitamin C is that it is destroyed by heating. As a result a lot
of it can be lost during cooking and while the food is being kept hot
afterwards. In restaurants and canteens, where the food is kept hot for a long
time, over 90 per cent of the vitamin C may be lost.

Vitamin D (fat soluble)

We have seen that as a child grows, his bones become hard by taking up
calcium salts. For this to happen vitamin D (calciferol) is needed. If the child
does not get enough vitamin D he will develop rickets, the same disease that
occurs if he doesn't get enough calcium.
Vitamin D occurs in fish liver oil. A certain amount of vitamin D can be
made by the body itself; it is made in the skin provided sunlight is present. In
a sunny climate an adult can get all the vitamin D he needs this way.
Vitamin D is one of the few vitamins that you can have too much of. Very
large doses can cause tissues other than the bones to become calcified, for
example the kidneys and lungs.

Vitamin E (fat soluble)

This vitamin is found in milk and egg yolk and in many plant foods including
lettuce. Lack of it in animals can cause the ovaries and testes to wither so that
eggs and sperms cannot be produced (sterility).

Vitamin K (fat soluble)

In the 1930s some chickens in America were being fed on a diet of pellets.
Unfortunately they died from internal bleeding. It was found that this could
be prevented by including vegetables in their diet. Scientists later discovered
that vegetables, particularly spinach, contain a chemical substance which
helps the blood to clot. This is vitamin K.
Figure 9 Lack of vitamin C causes scurvy, which is
characterised by bleeding gums. Vitamin C helps
our cells to stick together, and when we don’t get You will now realise how important vitamins are, and how serious it can be if
enough of it the cells come apart.
we don't get enough of them. Unfortunately vitamin deficiency diseases are
 Food and diet 155

common in poor countries. Even in rich countries they occur from time to Figure 10 This chart shows the relative amounts of
time. Those at risk include pregnant women, old people living alone, and different nutrients in some well-known foods. The
numbers alongside each bar are the percentages.
people who refuse to eat certain kinds of food - vegetarians for example. It's a
good idea for such people to take vitamin tablets.

Composition of different foods

Analyses can be carried out to find how much of each chemical substance is
present in different foods (Figure 10). This information is valuable because it
tells us what each kind of food is useful for. For example maize contains a lot
of carbohydrate and is a good energy food, whereas meat contains a lot of
protein which makes it useful for growth and body-building.

Vegetarians
A vegetarian is a person who eats plant foods but not meat. The diet may
include animal products such as milk, eggs and butter, but not the animals
themselves. Some very strict vegetarians, known as vegans, don't even eat
animal products.
A vegetarian diet can provide all the nutrients needed for a healthy life if
E412: Guar gum E202: Potassium sorbate
dairy products are included. Plants also provide lots of fibre and vitamins, so
a vegetarian diet is good in that respect. However, a diet consisting of
nothing but plants needs to be bulky and varied if it is to supply all our needs.

Food additives
Nowadays, all sorts of chemical substances, natural and synthetic, are added
to food. These are called food additives. They serve many different purposes.
Some of them sweeten, flavour or colour the food. Others preserve the food
or give it the right consistency, that is stabilise it.
Food additives are tested thoroughly before being used, in case they might
have any harmful effects on people. Nevertheless some people are allergic to
particular additives, and in rare cases children may be made over-active by
them. Such additives include the colourings tartrazine and sunset yellow. El 10: Sunset Yellow FCF El 02: Tartrazine
Another additive with a cloud over it is monosodium glutamate. This
occurs naturally in a Japanese seaweed but is made commercially from sugar Figure 11 Additives present in a typical cartonned
beet and wheat gluten. It is used to flavour various meat products. It gives orange drink. Potassium sorbate is prepared from
some people headaches and nausea, the so-called 'Chinese restaurant sorbic acid and is an anti-bacterial and anti-fungal
agent. Guar gum is extracted from the seeds of a
syndrome'. However some people are allergic to certain natural foods as well.
plant native to India, belonging to the pea family.
All packaged foods and drinks in EEC countries are required to display a Tartrazine and sunset yellow are synthetic dyes.
full list of additives, either by name or 'E number'. This enables shoppers to Saccharine is a synthetic substance about 300 times
know exactly what they are buying. An example is shown in Figure 11. sweeter than sugar.
156 Biology for life

^-Investigation 1- PInvestigation 2-

To find out what substances are Fat Testing food for vitamin C
present in various foods 1 Obtain a lemon, and squeeze
Simple test
You can do this by carrying out the some of its juice into a beaker.
1 Rub the food onto a piece of thin
following tests. Try them on orange
paper. 2 Pipette one drop of blue DCPIP
juice, banana, bread, milk, egg
solution onto a white tile*.
white, butter or margarine, a 2 Hold the paper in front of a light,
breakfast cereal and baby food. so light shines through it. 3 With a pipette or syringe add
lemon juice to the DCPIP
Sugar If the food has left a translucent
solution, drop by drop, and stir
mark on the paper, fat is present.
1 If the food is not already in liquid
form, mash it up with a pestle More complicated test
and mortar, and add a little water 1 Pour about 1 cm3 of absolute
to make a suspension. ethanol into a test tube.

2 Pour about 2 cm3 of the food into 2 Add a small amount of the food
a test tube. to the ethanol. (If the food is a
liquid, just add one or two drops;
3 Add about 2 cm3 of Benedict’s or
if it is solid, cut it up into very
Fehling’s solution to the test tube,
small pieces first.)
and shake.
3 Shake the test tube.
4 Boil some water in a beaker over
a bunsen burner. 4 Add about 1 cm3 of water to
the test tube.
5 Put the test tube in the beaker of
boiling water, and leave it there If a cloudy white precipitate
for a minute or two. develops, fat is present.

If a precipitate develops, sugar is Protein

present. (The precipitate is usually Count how many drops of lemon are
1 If the food is not already in liquid
green or brown.) needed to make the DCPIP solution
form, mash it up with a pestle
turn colourless.
Starch and mortar, and add a little water
to make a suspension. The disappearance of the blue
1 Obtain a small quantity of the
colour tells us that vitamin C is
food: it can be in liquid or solid 2 Pour about 2 cm3 of the food into
present in the lemon juice.
form. a test tube.
4 Use this test-to compare the
2 With a pipette add 2 or 3 drops of 3 Add a little sodium or potassium
vitamin C content of different
dilute iodine to the food. hydroxide till the solution clears.
foods. In each case get some
If a blue-back colour develops, starch is 4 Add a few drops of dilute copper juice out of the food. Then find
present. sulphate, and shake. out how many drops of the juice
are needed to decolourise one
If the solution goes purple, protein is
drop of DCPIP solution.
present.
Do you think this is an accurate way
of comparing the vitamin C content
Additional notes on testing for sugar of different foods?

Benedict’s and Fehling’s solutions contain copper sulphate. The sugar How could you make the
reduces the copper sulphate on heating, forming a precipitate. Sugars which experiment more accurate?
do this include glucose, fructose and lactose: we call them reducing sugars. Why can’t this test be done with
Sucrose is not a reducing sugar. It will give a precipitate with Benedict’s or blackcurrant juice?
Fehling’s solution only if you first break it down into glucose and fructose. To do 5 Boil some lemon juice in a test tube
this, boil it with a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid for several minutes. Add' and then test it for vitamin C with
a few drops of sodium or potassium hydroxide to neutralise the solution, and DCPIP solution.
then carry out the Benedict’s or Fehling’s test as described above.
What effect does boiling have on
(Fehling’s solution consists of two separate solutions, A and B. These should vitamin C?
be mixed together in equal amounts immediately before use.)
*DCPIP is short for 2,6-dichlorophenol
indophenol
 Food and diet 157

:Assignments
1 Give four reasons why we need 9 Each of the diseases in the 13 Scientists carried out an
food. left-hand column is caused by experiment to find the effect of
lack of one or more of the cooking a finely shredded
2 In what kind of food is each of the
substances in the right-hand cabbage on the amount of
following substances found:
column. Which causes which? vitamin C in it. They put the
a) lactose, b) sucrose, c) cellulose,
d) sunflower oil, e) liquid protein? cabbage in boiling water and
night-blindness iron
continued to boil it for 10
rickets vitamin A
3 What effect does cooking have on minutes. They estimated the
anaemia calcium
each of the following: vitamin C content at intervals,
goitre vitamin D
a) starch, b) cellulose, c) butter, expressing it as a percentage
xerophthalmia iodine
d) sunflower oil, e) liquid protein? of the amount in the uncooked
10 Explain the reasons for each cabbage.
4 Explain each of the following
of the following statements.
statements. Here are their results.
a) Carrots are good for you.
a) A child suffering from
b) A person who has been sun¬
shortage of protein does not Time after putting Vitamin C
bathing all day eats a salt the cabbage in content
grow as quickly as he should.
' tablet. the water
b) Eggs are better for body¬
c) A mother may give her child
building than bread.
orange juice. 0 min 100%
5 Look at Figure 10, then answer d) Old people who live alone V2 min 66%
1 min 55%
these questions. tend to get scurvy towards the
4 min 49%
a) Which food contains most end of the winter. 7 min 43%
protein? 10 min 37%
11 Read how Goldberger
b) Which food contains most
discovered the cause of pellagra
carbohydrate?
on page 154, then answer these a) Plot these results on graph
c) Which food contains most water?
questions. paper.,
d) Which food would you
b) Suggest reasons why the
recommend for a child a) Does the fact that Goldberger
vitamin C content of the
suffering from kwashiorkor did not get the disease prove
cabbage falls.
and why? that it was caused by a poor
c) What experiments could you
e) Which plant food would be diet? Explain your answer
do to test your suggestions?
best for a vegetarian, and b) Suggest one way in which
d) What advice would you give
why? Goldberger might have
to a chef about cooking
confirmed his conclusions.
6 Each of the foods in the left-hand vegetables?
list is closely related to one of the 12 Describe an experiment
14 The graph (left) shows the body
words in the right-hand list. Write which could be done to find
mass of a little girl, Sarah, in a
them down in the correct pairs. out if the husk surrounding the
developing country in Africa. The
rice seed contains a
wholemeal bread protein solid curve shows her actual
substance which prevents
sugar insulation mass. The dotted curve shows
beri-beri.
butter artificial meat what her mass should have been
eggs roughage if she had been well fed. At the
soya beans energy point marked C she was taken to
a clinic and cared for.
7 The amount of protein present in
a) What do you think Sarah was
a particular food, and how good suffering from? Explain your
that protein is for body-building, answer.
are two quite different things. b) Suggest reasons why Sarah's
Explain what this statement means. mass
i) was below normal before she
8 Vegetarians can get all the
was taken to the clinic,
nutrients they need provided that ii) decreased immediately after
the diet is varied. Why must the
12 3 4 she went to the clinic,
diet be varied? (Hint: Look at iii) returned to normal by the time
age (years)
Table 1, page 151). she was three years old?
 - How are -
Why do organisms store substances?
substances We know that plants and animals use their food for providing energy and

stored? doing various other jobs. But any food left over is stored in their bodies. This
enables them to survive when food is unavailable or scarce. In fact, by using
the food stores in his body, a man can live for several weeks without eating
The carrot anything. Many animals, particularly hibernating ones, can survive for much
shown is one of the largest longer than this and many of them get through the winter or dry season in
ever grown. It weighs 3.5 kilograms! this way.
Why should the carrot plant
produce a structure Where are substances stored?
like this? Organisms store substances all over their bodies to some extent. However,
most of it is packed away in special places. In man one of the main storage
places is the liver.
In plants food is often stored in special storage organs which are formed by
part of the plant swelling up. Storage organs may be formed from the roots,
stems or leaves. The carrot in Figure 1 is a swollen root, and so is the radish.
The potato, on the other hand, is a swollen stem, and the onion is a mass of
swollen leaves (Figure 2).
A plant's storage organs can survive the winter or dry season and give rise
to new plants the following year. When a new plant sprouts from a carrot,
potato or onion, food moves into it from the storage organ, giving it
nourishment until it can make its own food by photosynthesis.
Plants also store substances in their seeds and fruits. When a seed
germinates, food passes from it into the new growing plant, giving it
nourishment until it can support itself.
The same thing applies to the eggs of animals. Birds' eggs, for instance,
contain a rich store of food in the yolk which is used by the growing chick
before the egg hatches.

In what form do plants store substances?

Green plants make glucose by photosynthesis. Some of this is used straight
away. The rest is usually turned into starch. The starch is converted back into
glucose when it's needed.

GLUCOSE ^ STARCH
Figure 1 In 1979 Mr A. Howcroft grew a record¬
winning carrot which weighed 3.5 kg (7 lb 11 Vz oz),
Some plants turn their surplus glucose into other substances, such as oil, and
some store it in the form of sugar itself. You can find out what kind of food is

Figure 2 The onion is an example of a plant storage

organ. It is a closely packed bundle of swollen
leaves. The onions in the photograph were grown in
the garden and are ready to be harvested.
 How are substances stored? 159

present in a particular plant by doing chemical tests on it (see page 156).

Although other substances are often present, starch is the main storage © ©
O Oo O O glucose
substance of plants. Starch gives a blue-black colour with iodine and this is an O
© © O o O^O mo|ecules
easy way of showing where it occurs.
°gg O

What is needed for glucose to be turned into starch?

What do you think happens if you mix a small amount of glucose with some
potato juice? (Investigation 1). The answer is that the glucose is turned into join up in a
starch. chain

Obviously, then, the potato juice contains something which turns glucose
into starch. Scientists have discovered that this 'something' is an enzyme.
The same enzyme is also present in leaves. You can show its action by
putting a piece of de-starched leaf into a glucose solution and keeping it in the
dark (Investigation 2). The leaf takes up the glucose and turns it into starch.
which curls up
to form starch
How is glucose turned into starch?
The glucose in a plant is in solution. Starch, on the other hand, is in the form
of solid grains (Investigation 3). When glucose is turned into starch, the
glucose molecules join up to form a long chain like a string of beads
(condensation), and this chain curls up like a spring. In this way thousands of
glucose molecules get packed into a solid grain of starch (Figures 3 and 4).
When starch is converted back into glucose, the chain uncoils and the
glucbse molecules separate (hydrolysis).

How do animals store substances?

Animals get glucose from the food they eat. What do they do with surplus
glucose which they do not need straight away? They turn it into a substance
called glycogen. The glycogen is converted back into glucose when it's
needed: which is
packed
GLUCOSE ^ GLYCOGEN into a starch
grain with
other chains
Glycogen is equivalent to starch in plants - in fact it is sometimes called
'animal starch'. Both are carbohydrates. Like starch, glycogen is made by
glucose molecules joining together. Glycogen takes the form of tiny granules
which are stored in the body's cells, particularly in the liver. Animals also
store food as fat which is laid down beneath the skin, where it performs the
additional function of keeping the body warm.

Figure 3 Starch is a convenient way of storing

glucose molecules.

Figure 4 Starch grains from inside the cells of a

potato seen under the microscope. They have been
stained with iodine to show them up. The larger
grains are more than ten micrometres wide.
160 Biology for life

Figure 5 This diagram shows what happens to the

stored food when a new plant sprouts from a storage
organ such as a potato tuber.

new plant
the solid starch
grains are broken °0°ocF
down into soluble
glucose
the glucose is then
transported into the
new plant

storage organ

Mobilising food stores *

When food is stored it is usually in a solid form, but when the stored food is
needed, it must first be made into a solution. Starch and glycogen are broken
down into soluble glucose; fat is broken down into soluble fatty acids and
glycerol. Only then can the stored food be moved to where it is needed.
When stored food is changed into a form which can be moved, we say the
food is being mobilised. It's rather like mobilising an army so that it can be
moved into action. Figure 5 shows this happening in a potato plant.

Why are food stores important to man?

When an organism stores food, the food substances are usually packed
together in one place, often in concentrated form. Any part of an organism
where food is stored can therefore be a rich source of food for man.
Take potatoes for example. We have seen that they contain starch, which
makes them a useful energy food; they also contain small amounts of other
important nutrients. Potatoes are one of our most important food crops. They
are easy and cheap to grow and are cultivated commercially as well as in
people's gardens. Each plant bears about six to eight potatoes (Figure 6).
Figure 6 Potatoes being harvested These can be eaten, or planted so as to grow new potato plants.
Even more important are wheat and rice, which are two of the most widely
grown crops in the world. Here starch, protein and a number of other useful
nutrients are packed into the ripe seeds (the grains) which are clustered at the
tops of the stems (Figure 7).
Wheat and rice are a more concentrated food than potatoes, because the
grains contain less water - in fact one kilogram of wheat has more food in it
than three kilograms of potatoes. It is a general rule fhat seeds, being drier,
are a more concentrated form of food than storage organs.
Another important food plant is sugar cane. This is a giant grass, like
bamboo, and may grow to a height of six metres. Sugar, in the form of
sucrose, is stored in its thick stem. Much of the world's sugar comes from
sugar cane, but it will only grow in hot countries. Sugar beet, on the other
hand, will grow in cooler climates. This stores sugar in large swollen roots.
Sugar beet is becoming more and more important as a source of sugar for
man, particularly in temperate countries.
What about animal food stores - to what extent do we use them as a source
of food? Two of the most valuable animal foods are eggs and liver, which
both contain many useful nutrients.
Many other examples could be given, but the important principle is that
any localised store of food in an organism can provide us with a valuable
Figure 7 Rice flower heads with ripe grains. source of food.
 How are substances stored? 161

-Investigation 1- -Investigation 2- Assignments-

To see if potato juice will turn To see if a leaf will turn glucose into 1 Where, and in what form, do the
glucose into starch starch following store food?
a) man,b) a potato plant, c) a rice
1 Put a few pieces of potato pulp (not 1 Detach a leaf from a potted plant
the skin) in a mortar. Add a pinch of plant, d) sugar cane, e) sugar beet.
which has been kept in the dark for
washed sand and a little water. at least three days. 2 Give two reasons why it is useful for
organisms to be able to store food.
2 Grind up the potato pulp with a 2 Test a small piece of the leaf with
pestle. iodine to be certain there is no 3 Which is better as a source of food
starch present (see page 225). for man: grain or storage organs?
3 Filter the contents of the mortar into
Give reasons for your answer.
a test tube. This is your potato juice. 3 Place several small pieces of the
leaf in a dish of five per cent glucose 4 When a potato sprouts into a new
4 Put a drop of the potato juice onto a
solution. Label this A. plant, the starch has to be turned
white tile. Test it for starch by
into glucose before it can be moved
adding a drop of iodine solution. 4 Place several more pieces of leaf in
into the new plant.
(There should be no starch present a dish of water. Label this B: it is
in the potato juice.) your control. a) Why is this necessary?
b) What is present in the potato
5 Put six drops of 0.5 per cent 5 Put the dishes side by side in a dark which enables the starch to
glucose-1 -phosphate, side by side place. be turned into glucose?
on a white tile.
6 After several days test the two 5 Describe an experiment which
(Glucose-1-phosphate is an
groups of leaf-pieces for starch (see you would carry out to see
■•activated form of glucose.)
page 225). whether or not the stem of a
particular plant is able to convert
Has either group of leaf-pieces turned
glucose into starch.
black? If they have, starch has been
formed. 6 The graph below shows the
relative amounts of carbohydrate
What is present inside the leaf which
in leaves and tubers of a potato
turns glucose into starch?
plant towards the end of the
growing season.

6 To each drop of glucose-1-

phosphate add a drop of potato
juice and mix.
-Investigation 3-
Looking at starch in a potato

1 Slice open a potato to expose the

white pulp

2 Scrape off a little of the pulp and

place it on a slide.

3 Put a drop of iodine solution onto the

tissue.

7 To each drop Of the mixture in turn, 4 Cover the tissue with a coverslip.
add a drop of iodine solution after 2,
4, 8, 10 and 12 minutes. 5 Examine it under the microscope.
Can you see starch grains? (They Explain the changes in the potato
should have stained blue-black with plant which are illustrated by this
What happens to the colour of each
the iodine solution.) graph.
drop?
Can you see that they are located 7 Why is food stored in each of the
If it turns blue-black it means there is
inside the cells? following?
starch present. In which drops has
a) a tomato,
starch been formed? Approximately how many are there
b) a hen’s egg,
What is present in potato juice which inside the cells?
c) a bean,
turns glucose into starch? In what respect do they differ frpm one d) a coconut,
another. e) a carrot?
Should this experiment have any
further controls? If so, what should they What is their approximate size?
be?
 -Getting energy-
Does food really contain energy?
from food How can we show that a piece of bread, for example, contains energy? One
way is to burn it. When the food is burned the energy contained inside it is
We need energy to move,
set free as heat.
grow, mend our tissues when We can use this to find out how much energy a particular piece of food
they are damaged, and just to keep contains. We set fire to it, and estimate how much heat it gives out. This can
ourselves alive. We get energy be done simply, as in the Investigation, or more accurately by the method

from our food. shown in Figure 1.

A known mass of food is burned. The heat given out heats up a known
quantity of water. From the rise in temperature of the water we can work out
the amount of energy released by the food. The energy contained in food can
be expressed in kilojoules (kj)*. 4.2 kj of energy are required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water through 1 °C.
The three main kinds of food are carbohydrate, fat and protein. If we
estimate the amount of energy in each of these, we can compare their energy
kJ/g values. Here they are:
margarine 32.2
butter 31.2 Carbohydrate 1 g contains 17 kj
peanuts/groundnuts 24.5
Fat 1 g contains 39 kj
chocolate (milk) 24.2
cake (plain) 18.0 Protein 1 g contains 18 kj
sugar (white) 16.5
sausages (pork) 15.5 You will see that fat contains the greatest amount of energy. Carbohydrate
cornflakes 15.3
and protein contain about half as much as fat.
rice 15.0
bread (white) 10.6
chips 9.9
chicken (roast) 7.7
How much energy do different foods contain?
eggs (fresh) 6.6 Look at Table 1. This tells us how much energy there is in some everyday
potatoes (boiled) 3.3
foods. The amount of energy in a particular food depends on the substances
milk 2.7
beer (bottled) 1.2 which it contains. Thus margarine and butter contain a lot of energy because
cabbage (boiled) 0.34 they consist almost entirely of fat. At the other extreme, cabbage contains
Table 1 How much energy is there in various
very little energy because it consists of a high percentage of water.
everyday foods? You can find out by looking at this Another thing which determines how much energy a particular food
list. contains is how it is cooked. For example there is three times as much energy
in chips as there is in boiled potatoes. Why do you think this is?

kj/day

Newborn baby 2000

Child 1 year 3000
Child 2-3 6000
Child 5-7 7500
Girl 12-15 9500
Boy 12-15 12 000
Office worker 11 000
Factory worker 12 500
Heavy manual worker 15 000
Pregnant woman 10 000
Woman breast-feeding 11 000
Table 2 Approximate amounts of energy required
daily by different types of people.

*The unit of energy used to be the kilocalorie, and

in fact this unit is still used in some circles.
However, it has now been officially replaced by Figure 1 The apparatus can be used to find out how much energy there is in a sample of
the kilojoule. food. It is called a food calorimeter.
 Getting energy from food 163

How much energy do we need each day?

Imagine someone lying in bed doing nothing. Even in such an inactive state
energy is needed to breathe, make the heart beat, and drive all those
countless chemical reactions which keep us alive. The rate at which these
'ticking over' processes take place is called the basal metabolic rate.
How much energy is needed to maintain the basal metabolic rate? It is
difficult to say, because it varies from one individual to another. Very roughly
the amount needed is 7000 kj per day. This is about the same amount of
energy that would be needed to boil enough water for 100 cups of tea.
This figure applies to a person who is completely at rest. It doesn't even
include the energy he needs to feed himself. Scientists have tried to work out
how much energy an average person needs to get through the day with the
minimum effort, i.e. to get up in the morning, eat and drink and do other
essential tasks, but no more. The figure is about 9200 kj per day. A person
could get enough energy to satisfy this need by eating one large white loaf a
day, though of course this would not be a balanced diet.
Few of us spend our days like that - most of us do something. Look at
Table 2. This tells us roughly how much energy is needed each day by
different people. You will see that the amcfunt depends on the person's age,
sex and occupation. A person who spends most of the time sitting down
needs far less energy than a very active person.

What happens when we eat too much? Figure 2 Going on a diet can be a good way of
losing weight. This particular person reduced her
Suppose a person eats more food than is needed for producing enough
weight from 183.5 kg (28 st 12 lb) to 64 kg (10 st 1 lb)
energy. What happens to the food left over? Most of it is turned into fat and in under a year, a loss of 119.5 kg (18 st 11 lb). By
stored beneath the skin. The result is that body weight* increases, and he or trick photography she is seen in this picture before
she runs the risk of becoming fat (or obese). Obesity is caused by a person's and after losing weight.
energy input being greater than the energy output.
The most 'fattening' foods are those which provide the most energy, such
as bread and margarine, cake and sweets.
How can a person lose weight? The only way is by making his or her
energy input less than the output. This can be done in two different ways:

1 By taking more exercise: this will increase the energy output.

2 By eating less energy-containing food: this will decrease the energy input.

The first method is not very effective - I've tried it! A person has to take a lot
of exercise to make much difference to his or her weight. For example, a man
trying to lose weight may play a game of tennis for half an hour. In doing so
he loses about 700 kj of energy. After the game he feels thirsty and has a glass
of beer. The result is that he puts back all the energy he has just lost.
The second method is very effective if carried out properly. A person on a
well planned weight-reducing diet can lose about 1 kg per week. Such diets
contain relatively little high-energy food and a lot of low-energy food; the
result of going on such a diet is shown in Figure 2.
The best results can be obtained by combining both methods, i.e. by going
on a weight-reducing diet and taking more exercise.
For everyone there is a 'correct' weight. This will depend on his or her age,
height and build.
Look at the bar chart in Figure 3. It is based on data obtained in the United
overweight overweight overweight
States for people between the ages of fifteen and seventy. It shows that there
are more deaths amongst people who are overweight than amongst people of
normal weight. In other words, overweight people do not live as long, on Figure 3 This bar chart shows the relationship
between people’s body weight and the death rate in
average, as people who are the normal weight. An overweight person has a
the United States.
greater chance of having a stroke or a heart attack (see page 215). Other
illnesses, too, are connected with overweight. The risk of death is greater for
men than for women, and it increases with the amount of overweight.
In our bodies fat is stored in fat cells under the skin. An overweight person ‘Strictly speaking we should call this the body
mass. However, the word 'weight' is normally
has too much fat in these cells, and their total number may be too high. used in this context, and so we shall use it here.
164 Biology for life

What happens when someone starves?

What happens if a person eats nothing at all? To begin with he or she will get
energy from the body's fat stores. As a result weight is lost.
Eventually all the fat gets used up. In order to stay alive the body then
starts getting energy from the tissue proteins, particularly the muscles. As a
result he or she 'wastes away', becoming thin and weak. Death usually
occurs after about 60 days. This may happen to victims in concentration
camps, and in areas where there is a severe famine. Occasionally it happens
to a person who goes on a 'hunger strike' in prison.
Some people suffer from a mental condition in which they lose their
appetite and eat very little. This is called anorexia nervosa. It sometimes
happens to people, particularly young women, who are suffering from
emotional stress. Such people often become thin and frail and can die.
There are many countries in the world where people do not get enough to
eat. Although they may not die from lack of food, they become thin and weak
and find it difficult to work. The wasting of the body resulting from general
starvation is called marasmus (Figure 4).
Don't confuse marasmus with malnutrition diseases such as kwashiorkor
(page 151). A child with kwashiorkor may be getting enough energy food;
what it lacks mainly is protein. In practice it is often difficult to distinguish
between starvation and malnutrition, because the person may be short of all
sorts of different nutrients and the effects may be complex. A person who is
not getting enough protein or vitamins may be just as much lackingin energy
as a person who is not getting enough energy food.
Figure 4 This little girl is suffering from general
starvation (marasmus).
How many people are starving in the world?
We saw earlier that to get through the day a person needs at least 9200kJ of
energy. Anyone who receives less than this can be said to be starving.
Figure 5 This map shows the approximate Now look at Figure 5. From this you will see that in many places people get
percentage of the population who are starving in less than this minimum amount of energy. However, in other places there are
different parts of the world. The red area in the pie many people who get much more than they require.
chart denotes the proportion of the adult population
who receive less than 9200 kilojoules of energy per
day from their food.
 Getting energy from food 165

-Investigation -Assignments-
A simple way to find out how much 1 What mass of roasted peanuts 7 The following table shows the
energy a piece of food contains (groundnuts) would the heavy approximate amounts of energy
manual workers referred to in Table used up in different activities by a
2 have to eat in a day to just satisfy normal person.
their energy needs?

2 Work out the total amount of energy

sleeping 4.5 kJ/min
you take into your body in a
sitting 5.9 kJ/min
particular day. To do this you will
standing 7.1 kJ/min
need to weigh each item of food
washing and dressing 14.7 kJ/min
before you eat it, then look up Table
walking slowly 12.6 k/min
1 on page 162 to find out how much
walking fairly fast 21.0 kJ/min
energy it contains.
walking up stairs 37.8 kJ/min
Are you getting more, or less, carpentry 15.5 kJ/min
energy than the amount playing tennis 26.0 kJ/min
recommended in Table 2? playing football 36.5 kJ/min
1 Measure out 20 cm3 of water with a
crosscountry running 42.0 kJ/min
measuring cylinder, then transfer it 3 The table below gives the
to a large test tube. percentages of carbohydrate, fat
a) From these figures work out the
and proteins in three chocolate
2 Clamp the test tube to a stand, and approximate total amount of
products.
put a thermometer in it, as shown in energy which you yourself use
*•
the illustration. up in 24 hours. Show your
carbo¬ working in full.
3 Record the temperature of the
hydrate fat protein b) Using Table 1 draw up a menu
water. % % %
for breakfast, lunch and supper
4 Weigh a peanut (groundnut), then which would give you just
plain chocolate 59 33 4
stick it onto the pointed end of a milk chocolate 54 36 8 enough energy to satisfy your
mounted needle. cocoa powder 36 26 19 need. Give the amount of each
food item which you would need.
5 Hold the nut in a bunsen flame until
c) A person who ate the food lifted
it starts to burn, then place it under
Which one contains the most in your menu might still be'
the test tube as shown in the
energy, and which one contains the getting an inadequate diet. Why?
illustration.
least?
6 When the nut stops burning, record 8 The table below shows the daily
the temperature of the water again. 4 The figures given in Table 1 are the energy requirements of people of
amounts of energy actually present different ages.
By how much has the temperature of
in carbohydrate, fat and protein as
the water risen? measured with a food calorimeter.
Energy released from the nut in joules In practice the amount of energy our
Age (years) Energy requirements
(J) = mass of water in grams x rise in bodies get out of each one is slightly
less than the figures given. Suggest (kJ/day)
temperature in °C x 4.2.
reasons for this. 1 3000
Work out the amount of energy in joules
5 The data summarised in Figure 3 2 6000
released from the nut.
were compiled by an American life 6 7500
Convert the joules into kilojoules (kJ) by 12 10 000
insurance company.
dividing by 1000. a) Explain in full how you think the 15 12 000
data were obtained. 18 13 000
Knowing the mass of the nut, work out
how much energy in kilojoules is b) Why should a life insurance
a) Plot these figures as a graph.
contained in one gram of peanut. company want to compile such
b) How would you explain the
data?
Compare your figure with others in your shape of the graph?
class and find the average. 6 Give examples of the sort of food c) What assumptions are made in
you would recommend to (a) drawing up figures of this sort?
How does the class average compare someone who is going on a hiking d) What can you say about a
with the figure given in Table 1 ? holiday and (b) someone who person’s energy requirements
Do you think this is an accurate way of wishes to lose weight. after the age of 18?
finding out how much energy there is in
a piece of food?
 -How is energy-
What happens when a piece of food is burned in the laboratory?
released ? What happens when a piece of food is burned? For the food to burn, certain
things are necessary and certain things are produced. Thus food will only
First we will find out what
burn if oxygen is present. The more oxygen that's present, the better it will
happens when we burn a piece of burn. One of the best ways of putting out a fire is to stifle it, i.e. to deprive it
food in the laboratory. Then we will of oxygen.
see if the same thing happens in In the chemical reaction which takes place when a piece of food burns, a
our bodies. gas is given off. If this gas is bubbled through lime water, the lime water goes
milky (Investigation 1). This tells us that the gas is carbon dioxide. So burning
food produces carbon dioxide.
We know, too, that burning food produces some water and of course it also
produces energy in the form of heat.
So, to sum up, when a piece of food is burned oxygen is used up, carbon dioxide is
given off, water is formed and heat energy is produced.

How is energy produced in the body?

We have seen what happens when food is burned in the laboratory. Does the
same thing happen in our bodies?
It has been known for a long time that living organisms generate heat
(Investigation 2), and that they take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide
(Investigations 3 to 5 for example). But how can we find out if taking in
oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide are connected with the breaking down
of food?
One way of doing so is to use suitable radio-active tracers. In an experiment
scientists made some glucose in which the normal carbon atoms were
replaced with the radio-active isotope of carbon. In other words, the carbon
atoms in the glucose were 'labelled'. They then fed this labelled glucose to a
mouse and traced what happened to it (Figure 1). The radio-active carbon
was detected by means of a Geiger counter.

this mouse is fed with this mouse is fed with

glucose containing radio¬ normal (non-radio-active)
active carbon (14C) glucose
1 mouse fed with glucose
from a pipette

2 mouse’s expired air

bubbled through lime water
which absorbs carbon
dioxide

3 lime water tested for

radio-activity with Geiger
counter

Figure 1 Experiment showing that the carbon dioxide which an animal breathes out comes from its food.
 How is energy released? 167

The scientists found that after a short time the mouse started breathing out
radio-active carbon dioxide. They concluded that the carbon dioxide breathed
out came from the glucose.
We now know that in our cells glucose is oxidised to give carbon dioxide
and water. In this process energy is set free, just as it is when a piece of food
is burned in the laboratory.
We can summarise what happens like this:

CeH^Og 4- 602 —* 6C02 + 6H20 + energy

glucose oxygen carbon water
dioxide

This process takes place in practically all living cells. We call it respiration. It
is vitally important because it gives us energy.

What is the energy used for?

Here are some of the things that organisms need energy for:
Animals need energy for movement (muscle contraction), for sending
messages through nerves, for transporting things inside the body, and for
keeping warm.
Plants need energy for taking up mineral salts from the soil, for opening
and closing their stomata, and for transporting food substances.
All organisms need energy for growth, for cell division, for moving
molecules and ions against a concentration gradient, and just for staying
alive.
We can sum up by saying that our food serves as a fuel. The oxidation of
the food in respiration drives our bodies, just as the burning of petrol drives a
car.

The chemistry of respiration

You can measure an organism's rate of respiration by measuring how quickly Figure 2 Simplified diagram showing how glucose is
it takes up oxygen: the apparatus is called a respirometer (Investigation 6). broken down in cells to produce energy.
Now if you measure the rate of respiration at different temperatures, you find
that it increases as the temperature rises. In fact a rise of 10 °C doubles the
rate. This is true of chemical reactions in general, and it shows that
respiration is basically an ordinary chemical process.
If the temperature rises much above 40 °C respiration slows down rapidly
and then stops altogether. This is the temperature at which enzymes are
destroyed (see page 148), and it suggests that respiration is a chemical
process which is catalysed by enzymes.
We now know that respiration is very complex. Scientists have shown that
glucose is not broken down in one jump as the equation given above
suggests. It is broken down in a series of small steps, each catalysed by a
particular enzyme. The energy is released bit by bit (Figure 2). Why is this
important? Think of it this way. A slice of pizza or apple pie contains as much
energy as a stick of dynamite. If the energy was set free in one go, as when
dynamite explodes, the person's body temperature would shoot up by at
least 10 °C and he would die.
The energy produced by the breakdown of glucose is not used directly. It is
linked to activities such as muscle contraction by another chemical substance
known as adenosine triphosphate, or ATP for short.
The breakdown of glucose releases energy which is used for making lots of
ATP. The ATP then transfers the energy to the muscle, making it contract
(Figure 3). It is interesting that if you put a drop of ATP on an isolated muscle
fibre, it will contract; but if you put some glucose on it, nothing happens. This
shows that glucose, by itself, cannot provide the energy needed for muscle
contraction. It's the ATP, made as a result of breaking down glucose, which Figure 3 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is thought to
be a link between the breakdown of glucose and the
provides the energy for this and all other biological functions.
contraction of muscles.
168 Biology for life

Investigation 1- Investigation 3-
To find out if burning food produces To find out if a person breathes out
carbon dioxide carbon dioxide
1 Put one level teaspoonful of sugar
(sucrose) into a large test tube.
2 Set up the test tube as shown.
3 Place a bunsen burner under the
sugar and heat it with a moderate
flame.
If the lime water turns milky, this means
when you breathe
that carbon dioxide gas is being given in you will take
off by the burning sugar. in air through this when you breathe
bottle out your expired
air will go through
this bottle

sugar

-l lime water to remove._' Jime water to test

te._J'.ii.- carbon dioxide from if your expired air
the air you breathe in contains carbon dioxide

1 Set up the apparatus shown in the What happens to the lime water?
illustration.
If it turns milky, the air you breathe out
lime water. 2 Breathe in and out of the tube. contains carbon dioxide.
i———i c

Investigation 2- Investigation 4-
To find out if germinating peas give To find out if a small mammal gives out carbon dioxide
out heat (This experiment should be done as a demonstration by the teacher.)
air
1 Put some moist cotton wool at the
bottom of a thermos flask, then fill
I
the flask with germinating peas and
set it up as shown in the illustration.

2 Set up a second flask in the same

way but use germinating peas
which have been killed by boiling.

3 Leave the two flasks side by side for

24 hours, then note the temperature
in each flask.
What conclusion do you draw?
Why were thermos flasks used?
Why was the second flask needed?

Put a small mammal such as a What happens to the lime water in

mouse or gerbil on a glass plate the right-hand jar?
under a bell jar.
If it turns milky, the animal has been
Set up the apparatus shown in the giving out carbon dioxide.
illustration. Use vaseline to make
sure the three jars are airtight. Where is the control in this
experiment?
Turn on the suction pump and draw
air through slowly.
 How is energy released? 169

Investigation 5- Assignments-
To find out if small animals and plants give out carbon dioxide 1 What would you conclude from
stopper__
~1 c each of these observations?
a) A piece of food will only burn if
oxygen Is present.
muslin bag
suspended, b) When food is burned a gas is
by thread given off which turns lime water
milky.
small animals_
hydrogen carbonate 2 Describe a simple experiment
indicator solution_
w which could be done to find out if a
piece of burning food produces
1 Put some small animals such as 6 Leave the three test tubes for about water.
woodlice, or a cockroach, in a an hour.
muslin bag. 3 In order to show that the air we
7 After about an hour give each of the breathe out contains carbon
2 Obtain a green leaf. test tubes a quick shake.
dioxide, a teacher blows bubbles
Pour a little hydrogen carbonate What has happened to the through a drinking straw into a glass
indicator solution into three test hydrogen carbonate indicator in of lime water.
tubes. Notice that the indicator is each test tube?
Why is this not as good an
reddish-orange.
If it has turned from reddish-orange experiment as the one given in
4 Set up the three test tubes as shown to yellow, it means that carbon Investigation 3?
in the illustration. dioxide has been given off.
4 Your uncle did not do any science at
5 Put test tube B in the dark, e.g. What is the purpose of test tube C? school, and he does not believe that
under a cardboard box. the air he breathes out contains
Why did you put test tube B in the carbon atoms from the food he eats.
dark?
Write a short letter to convince him.

5 Give two differences between the

rInvestigation 6- way a piece of food releases energy
when you burn it in a test tube and
To find out if small animals take up oxygen
when it is broken down inside our
cells.

6 The graph below shows the effect of

temperature on the rate of
respiration of a small animal. The
respiration rate is expressed as the
volume of oxygen consumed per kg
of body mass per hour.

1 Put some small animals, e.g. Has the water risen in the glass
woodlice, or a cockroach, in a test tube? If it has, it could be caused by
tube. the animals taking up oxygen.

2 Set up the test tube as shown in the Can you think of any other possible
illustration. Make sure the system is explanation of your results?
air-tight by sealing the stopper with
This apparatus is called a
vaseline.
respirometer. How could you use it
to: temperature (°C)
3 Set up another test tube exactly like
the first one but without any animals
a) compare the rate of respiration of a) What do we call the apparatus
in it. This is your control.
different animals, and that was used in this experiment?
4 Close the screw clip and find out b) find the effect of varying the b) What conclusions would you
how far the coloured water rises up temperature on the rate of draw from the graph about the
the capillary tube in 30 minutes. respiration? general nature of respiration?
p-How do we digest
our food? mouth cavity (buccal cavity) hard palate 1 roof f mouth cavitv
soft palate J

Have you ever wondered

what happens to the food you
eat? In this Topic we will follow what
tongue
happens to an egg sandwich
mouth throat (pharynx)
after it has been put in the salivary gland
mouth.
gullet (oesophagus)

GUT

large complex molecule

liver
gall bladder ring of muscle
bile duct (pyloric sphincter)
abdominal cavity

small intestine

the smaller molecules can

pass through the lining of
the gut into the bloodstream

large intestine

ring of muscle
(anal sphincter) anus

Figure 2 Digestion involves breaking down large Figure 1 This diagram shows the main regions of the human gut.
molecules into smaller, soluble ones which can
then be absorbed into the bloodstream.

The structure of the gut

The mouth leads into the gut or alimentary canal. This is really a tube running
from the mouth to the anus. It's between eight and nine metres in length -
that's about four times an average person's height. Being so long, much of it
is coiled up and this enables it to fit into the abdominal cavity (Figure 1).

What happens in the gut?

An egg sandwich contains starch, fat and protein: the starch is in the bread,
the fat is in the margarine and the protein is in the egg.
All three of these substances are solids, but as they pass along the gut they
are broken down into soluble substances. This process is called digestion.
The soluble substances are then absorbed through the lining of the gut into
the bloodstream, and carried round the body to where they are needed
(Figure 2).
Digestion is brought about by two distinct processes which occur in the
gut:

1 Breaking the food up into small pieces by chewing it and churning it up.
This has no effect on the chemistry of the food; it merely breaks it up
physically.
2 Mixing the food with digestive enzymes which dissolve it and break it
Figure 3 Chopping up food into small pieces down into a simpler chemical form. Large molecules such as starch are
increases its surface area.
hydrolysed into smaller soluble molecules such as glucose.
 How do we digest our food? 171

nasal cavity

hard palate

. soft palate
food- .tongue
2 .epiglottis
.glottis

\ ' gullet
iWmm
Figure 4 These diagrams show how swallowing
takes place. Notice how the glottis is closed off so
These two processes go on at the same time. Chopping up the food makes it the food is prevented from getting into the
easier for the enzymes to work, because it mixes them with the food and windpipe.
increases the surface area over which they can act (Figure 3). The enzymes are
produced by various glands which open into the gut.
Now let's look in detail at what happens in each part of the gut.

In the mouth cavity

First the sandwich is taken into the mouth, i.e. it is ingested. You bite off
pieces of the sandwich with your front teeth, and chew them with your back
teeth. At the same time your mouth waters - in other words it becomes filled
with saliva or 'spit'. This is produced by several salivary glands, each of
which is connected to the mouth cavity by a tube, or duct, and it has the effect
of moistening the food.
Actually your mouth starts watering before you begin to eat the sandwich.
This is because the sight, smell and even the thought of food is enough to
start saliva flowing. However, the greatest flow occurs when the food is
actually in the mouth.
Saliva contains water together with two other main substances:

1 Mucus
This makes the food slippery so it slides easily through the throat when it's
swallowed. Swallowing a piece of dry food, such as a digestive biscuit,
without moistening it with saliva first, can be an uncomfortable experience!

2 Amylase (ptyalin)
This is the first enzyme which the sandwich meets as it travels through the
gut. It acts on starch, breaking it down into a type of sugar called maltose
(Investigation 1). If you chew a piece of bread for long enough, you can
actually taste the sweetness as the maltose is formed.
Saliva also contains a chemical which kills many germs, preventing them
getting into the stomach.

Through the throat and down the gullet

When you swallow, the food is pushed down your throat into your gullet.
Figure 4 explains what happens.
Once swallowed, the food passes down the gullet to the stomach. The
gullet has muscles in its wall. A ring of contraction moves slowly
downwards, pushing the food in front of it. This process is called peristalsis
(Figure 5). The mucus from the saliva acts as a lubricant so that the food slips Figure 5 Food is pushed down the gullet by a ring
of contraction called a peristaltic wave.
down easily.
172 Biology for life

In the stomach
The stomach wall is thick and muscular, and its inner surface has numerous
holes which lead into narrow cavities called gastric glands (Figure 6).,
The gastric glands produce a fluid called gastric juice. This contains an
enzyme called pepsin which helps to dissolve the protein in the egg by
breaking it down into simpler substances called polypeptides (see page 146).
Pepsin is quite different from saliva in its action; whereas saliva attacks
starch, pepsin only goes for protein (Investigation 2).
If you were to cut open the stomach of, say, a rat and test the contents with
pH paper, you would find it to be acidic. This is because the gastric glands
produce large amounts of hydrochloric acid. Pepsin works best in these
conditions (Investigation 3). The acid also helps to kill germs.
The wall of the stomach also produces lots of mucus which protects the
stomach lining from being damaged by the acid in the gastric juice.
The food spends three or four hours in the stomach. Every now and again a
wave of contraction passes along the stomach and churns the food up. As a
result of all these actions, the food is turned into a mushy fluid.
Between the stomach and small intestine there is a ring of muscle, the
Figure 6 The structure of the wall of the stomach. pyloric sphincter. Occasionally this opens and a wave of contraction sweeps
some of the food into the first part of the small intestine. If there is anything
wrong with the food, violent contractions in the other direction shoot it up
the gullet and out through the mouth. This, of course, is vomiting, and it is
an important way of getting rid of germs or poisons from the body.

In the small intestine

The small intestine, despite its name, is the longest part of the gut and may be
over six metres in length. Here the digestion of the egg sandwich is
completed, and the soluble products are absorbed into the blood.
The small intestine receives fluids from three different places.

1 The liver
This produces a fluid called bile. The bile is stored in the gall bladder and
after a meal it is squirted, bit by bit, into the duodenum. Bile contains
substances called bile salts. These act on the fat, breaking it up into small
droplets. The same kind of thing happens when washing-up liquid comes
into contact with fat. We call this process emulsification (Investigation 4).

2 The pancreas
This produces a fluid called pancreatic juice which flows down the pancreatic
duct into the duodenum. It contains three important enzymes:
Amylase breaks starch down into maltose, and thus continues the process
which was begun by saliva in the mouth cavity.
Trypsin breaks down protein into polypeptides, as pepsin does in the
stomach.
Lipase attacks fat, breaking it down into fatty acids and glycerol. This
completes the digestion of the fat. The action of lipase is made easier by the
fact that the fat has already been broken up into droplets by the bile.

3 Intestinal glands
These glands are situated in the wall of the intestine itself. They produce the
enzyme maltase which breaks maltose down into glucose, thereby finishing
off the digestion of starch. They also produce several enzymes called
peptidases which complete the digestion of protein by breaking up the
polypeptides into amino acids.
If you were to test the contents of the small intestine with pH paper, you
would find them to be alkaline. This is because the various fluids which are
Figure 7 The structure of the wall of the small secreted into the small intestine contain a lot of sodium hydrogen carbonate.
intestine is well suited to its job of completing the This neutralises the acid from the stomach, which is necessary because
digestion and absorption of food.
trypsin and the other enzymes in the small intestine will only work properly
 How do we digest our. food? 173

in alkaline conditions (Investigation 5). villi

While all this is going on, wavelike contractions of the small intestine move
the food about and finally sweep it on towards the large intestine.
The egg sandwich has now been more or less completely dissolved. The
soluble products of digestion are now absorbed through the lining of the
small intestine into the blood vessels within its wall.
The structure of the wall of the small intestine is shown in Figure 7. It is
well suited to carry out its jobs. It contains numerous pouch-like glands for
producing intestinal juice. Thousands of finger-like projections called villi
(singular: villus) stick into the cavity, greatly increasing the surface area for
absorption (Figure 8). Each villus is covered with tiny 'hairs' called
microvilli, they increase the surface area even more. Within the villi there are
numerous blood capillaries for taking up the absorbed food. Towards the
outside of the wall there are muscles for bringing about the contractions
mentioned earlier.
Table 1 summarises the various enzymes and other secretions which have
helped to digest the egg sandwich.

What happens in the large intestine? *

The bread which was used for making the egg sandwich contained a certain
amount of cellulose. We refer to this as fibre or roughage (see page 150).
Human beings don't have an enzyme to break this down, so it cannot be
digested. Along with some fluid, it passes on to the colon.
As material passes along the colon, water is absorbed from it, so it becomes
more solid. This solid matter then passes on to the rectum where it is stored
as faeces. The lining of the rectum produces mucus which eases the passage
of the faeces along it. Eventually the faeces are egested through the anus by
powerful contractions of the wall of the rectum accompanied by opening of
the anal sphincter. We call this defaecation.
Although there is much variation, it normally takes between 24 and 48
hours from the time the food is eaten to the time when the faeces derived
from it are ready to be voided through the anus. Figure 8 Looking into the small intestine. Notice
the finger-like villi projecting into the cavity. The
bottom picture, taken with a scanning electron
The caecum and appendix microscope, shows the villi in surface view.

The caecum and appendix are an offshoot from the first part of the large
Table 1 Summary of the main digestive enzymes
intestine, a kind of blind alley. They have no function in humans, but in
found in the human gut. Bile salts are included
grass-eating mammals such as rabbits they contain large numbers of bacteria though they are not really enzymes. The stomach of
which can digest cellulose and break it down into glucose (see page 180). calves produces an additional enzyme called
rennin. Rennin turns soluble milk protein into a solid
which is then attacked by pepsin. Rennin is not
produced by the human stomach.

Where it comes from Where it works Name of enzyme Food acted on Substances produced

salivary glands mouth cavity amylase starch maltose

stomach wall stomach pepsin protein polypeptides

liver small intestine bile salts fat fat droplets

(not enzymes)

pancreas small intestine amylase starch maltose

trypsin protein polypeptides
lipase fat fatty acids >
and glycerol
can be
wall of small intestine small intestine maltase maltose glucose absorbed
sucrase sucrose glucose and fructose
peptidases polypeptides amino acids >
174 Biology for life

Things that can go wrong with the gut rInvestigation 1-

In humans the appendix occasionally gets infected with germs. As it is an
To find out if saliva breaks down
offshoot from the main part of the gut, the germs do not get flushed out by
starch
the normal passage of material along the gut. So they multiply there and may
cause severe inflammation leading to appendicitis. Normally appendicitis is 1 Collect your saliva in a test tube to a
cured by removing the appendix in an operation. depth of 2 cm.
People often complain of 'indigestion'. This is usually caused by eating
2 Half fill another test tube with a four
food too quickly and not chewing it enough. The gastric glands produce extra
per cent starch solution.
large amounts of gastric juice with the result that the stomach contains a lot of
acid. If a person belches, some of the acid comes up into the gullet giving a 3 With a pipette place fifteen drops of
burning sensation which is sometimes called 'heartburn'. Indigestion can be iodine solution, side by side, on a
counteracted by taking a tablet or drink which will neutralise the acid. white tile.
A person who constantly has too much acid in his stomach may get an
4 With a glass rod lift a drop of the
ulcer. The gastric juice starts to eat into the lining of the stomach which
starch solution from the test tube
becomes raw and painful. Ulcers tend to develop in middle-aged and elderly
and mix it with the first drop of iodine
people, and they often seem to be brought on by overwork and worry.
on the white tile. A blue-black colour
A doctor can find out if a person has an ulcer by getting him to drink a thick
indicates starch. This will serve as
fluid containing barium. This is called a 'barium meal'. The barium is opaque
your control.
to X-rays, and if the patient is X-rayed the inside of his gut shows up dearly
(Figure 9). An ulcer will appear as a bump in the lining. 5 Pour your saliva into the test tube of
Most people suffer from constipation at some time or another. The faeces starch suspension, and shake
move too slowly along the large intestine, with the result that more water is quickly.
absorbed from them than usual and they become hard and dry. Constipation
6 With the glass rod place a drop of
is often caused by bad bowel habits. People usually feel the need to defaecate
the starch-saliva mixture with a drop
after a meal, particularly breakfast: this is a natural reflex arising from the
of iodine on the white tile, and mix
stretching of the gut wall. If you persistently suppress this reflex, the faeces
them together.
are held in the large intestine and constipation may result.
Doctors believe that constipation is also caused by eating over-refined 7 Repeat step 6 with the other drops
foods which don't contain enough fibre. Fibre adds to the bulk of material in of iodine at half-minute intervals.
the large intestine, stretching its wall. This stimulates the muscles to contract, Note the colour given each time.
pushing the faeces along and keeping them moving.
Explain the colour reactions as fully as
The opposite of constipation is diarrhoea. This results from faeces moving
you can.
too quickly along the large intestine so there isn't time for the usual amount
of water to be absorbed. Diarrhoea is often caused by germs which irritate the Approximately how long does it take for
lining of the gut. This causes the lining to produce a lot of watery mucus and your saliva to break down the starch?
sets up waves of contraction which sweep the contents along very quickly.

-Investigation 5-
To find out if trypsin works best in
alkaline conditions
Follow the same instructions as in
Investigation 3, but use trypsin instead
of pepsin.

What happens to the egg white in each

test tube?

Does trypsin work best in acid or

alkaline conditions

How does trypsin compare with pepsin

as regards the conditions in which it
works best?

How would you explain the difference?

Figure 9 An X-ray photograph of the human gut taken after a barium meal.
 How do we digest our food? 175

-Investigation 2- Investigations- Investigation 4-

To compare the actions of saliva and To find out if pepsin works best in Observing emulsification
pepsin acid conditions
1 Obtain three test tubes, and label
1 Obtain four large test tubes. Label 1 Obtain four large test tubes. Label them A, B and C.
them A to D. them A to D.
2 Pour some corn oil into each test
2 Collect some saliva in a test tube. 2 Obtain some hard-boiled egg white tube to a depth of about 3 cm.
(albumen) and cut it up into four
3 Obtain some acidified pepsin 3 To A add a few drops of water.
pieces.
solution. To B add a pinch of powdered bile
3 Place one piece of the egg white in salts.
4 Obtain some hard-boiled egg white
each test tube. To C add a few drops of washing-up
(albumen) and some white bread.
liquid.
4 Cover the egg white with one of the
5 Set up the four test tubes like this:
following solutions: 4 Shake the test tubes, then let them
A bread covered with saliva stand for a while.
A pepsin plus acid
B bread covered with pepsin
B pepsin plus alkali What has happened to the oil in each
C egg white covered with saliva
C water plus acid test tube?
D egg white covered with pepsin
D water plus alkali
How do bile salts help digestion?
6 Leave the test tubes in a warm
5 Leave the test tubes in a warm
place, preferably in an incubator at How does washing-up liquid help with
place, preferably in an incubator at
37 °C for 48 hours. washing up?
37 °C for 48 hours.
7 After 48 hours examine the contents 5 Half fill a test tube with water and
6 After 48 hours examine the contents
of the test tubes. add a small piece of solid fat. Shake
of the test tubes.
well.
In which test tubes has the food
What has happened to the egg white in
material disappeared? 6 Half fill a second test tube with a
each test tube?
solution of bile salts and add a small
Which of the two food materials is
What is the point of setting up test piece of fat. Shake well.
acted upon by:
tubes C and D
What happens to the fat in each test
(a) saliva, and (b) pepsin?
Does pepsin work best in acid or tube? Explain your observations.
alkaline conditions?
What conclusions do you draw from
this experiment?

vAssignments-
1 Which region of the human gut: destroyed and the inner lining of the glucose has leaked out, but
small intestine becomes smooth. As starch has not?
a) absorbs water from indigestible
a result the animal gets weak and b) How would you explain this
material,
wastes away. Why do you think the result?
b) receives bile from the bile duct,
disease has this effect? c) To what extent is this similar to
c) contains the enzyme pepsin,
what happens in the human gut?
d) is normally acidic? 5 It has been suggested that saliva
produced during a meal digests
2 Put forward a reason for each of the
starch faster than saliva produced
following:
before the meal. Describe an
a) A piece of food is dissolved by experiment which could be done to
digestive enzymes more rapidly find out if this is true.
if it is chewed first.
6 The diagram, right, shows an _distilled water
b) Eating plenty of roughage (fibre)
experiment which is intended to
helps to prevent constipation. Jest tube
show what happens in the human
3 What job does mucus do in (a) the gut. _mixture of starch
and glucose
throat, (b) the stomach, and (c) the
After being set up, glucose, but not
rectum? _bag made out of
starch, passes out of the bag into
visking tubing
4 There is a disease of cattle in which the surrounding water.
the villi in the small intestine are
a) How could you show that
 -Teeth-
_UPPER JAW
Teeth are one of our most
valuable possessions. Here we _gum with bone beneath
incisors-
shall look at their structure, and see
canine-
what happens if we don't look .hard palate
after them properly. premolars- roof of
cheek mouth
teeth
molars- .soft palate

-tonsil

molars-
cheek
teeth
premolars_ -tongue

canine.
incisors_C .gum with bone beneath

L_LOWER JAW

Figure 1 Open wide! Looking inside the mouth of an adult human to see the teeth and
other related structures.

What kind of teeth do we have?

Figure 1 shows the inside of the mouth of an adult man with a full set of
teeth. Figure 2 shows some of the teeth as a dentist might see them.
On both sides of the upper and lower jaws there are, from the middle
outwards:

TWO incisor teeth which are shaped like chisels and are used for cutting
food;
ONE canine tooth which is shaped like a dagger and also cuts food;
FIVE cheek teeth which have broad tops with bumpy surfaces and are used
for grinding food.

The first two cheek teeth are known as premolars, and the last three as
molars. There are 32 teeth altogether.
Now compare the teeth in Figure 1 with your own teeth (Investigation 1).
When the mouth is closed the upper and lower teeth fit together as shown
in Figure 3. This biting action is brought about by powerful muscles which
run from the lower jaw to the side of the skull.

Looking at the outside of our teeth

If you look at teeth which have been extracted by a dentist, you will see that
they can be divided into two parts: the crown and the root (Figure 4). The
crown is the part of the tooth which you can see inside the mouth, that is the
part above the gums. The crowns of the cheek teeth have several cusps like
little mountains on them. The premolars usually have two cusps each,
whereas the molars have four.
The root is normally buried in a socket in the jaw bone and is therefore
hidden from view. The incisors and canines have roots which consist of a
single projection, but the cheek teeth, being larger, generally have two or
three projections.

The inside of a tooth

Figure 2 A dentist's view of a person’s teeth.
Notice the shape and form of the different teeth. Figure 5 shows the inside of our teeth. The crown is made up of three layers.
Some of them have had fillings, but on the whole On the outside is a thin layer of extremely hard enamel. Beneath this is a
they are in good condition. layer of hard ivory-like dentine. In the centre is a soft area called the pulp
 Teeth 177

these muscles
pull the lower
jaw up and close
the mouth
Figure 4 This is what teeth look like after they have
been extracted from the jaw.

Figure 3 When the mouth closes and you bite something, the teeth fit together as shown
in this picture. INCISOR TOOTH

_enamel

cavity which contains small blood vessels and a nerve. Tiny channels
containing extensions of living cells run out from the pulp cavity into the . dentine
dentine. This makes the dentine very sensitive. The enamel and dentine both
contain calcium phosphate, and it is this that makes them hard.
On the outside of the root is another hard material called cement. Attached
to the cement are tough fibres which run into the jaw bone. These fibres hold
the tooth in its socket, but they permit it to move very slightly and cushion it
from excessive jarring when it hits something hard.

When do we get our teeth?

A baby is born without teeth. During the next few years it develops a set of
twenty milk teeth. The first tooth breaks through when the baby is about six
months old, and usually the set is complete by the age of two or three. There nerve and blood
vessels
are two incisors and one canine on either side of each jaw, but there are only
two cheek teeth as the baby's jaws are too small for any more. fibres connecting cement
to jaw bone
Between the ages of six and twelve the milk teeth fall out, one by one, and
are replaced by a set of permanent teeth. There are four cheek teeth on either
side of each jaw. A fifth cheek tooth may be added after the age of seventeen.
MOLAR TOOTH
These are known as wisdom teeth. The person now has a full set of 32 teeth.
This is the final set; if any teeth are lost now, they will not be replaced.
If a person's jaws are small, a wisdom tooth may break through behind the
fourth cheek tooth and push it against the third. This is called an impacted
wisdom tooth and it can be very painful. Usually the dentist extracts the
wisdom tooth together with the tooth immediately in front of it.

Tooth decay
In developed countries tooth decay is a serious problem. In Britain, for
example, eight out of ten children have tooth decay by the age of five; and by
the age of twenty, three people in ten have lost all their teeth and wear 'false
teeth' or dentures.
Why do our teeth decay? Saliva is normally slightly alkaline, but after a
meal, bacteria in the mouth feed on any sugar present and turn it into acids.
The acid eats into the teeth. After an hour or so the saliva neutralises the acid
projections
and washes it away, but by then the rot has begun.
If you look at some teeth which have been pulled out by the dentist, you Figure 5 These diagrams show the internal
will see what decay can do to them. Decay usually starts in the crevices structure of teeth.
178 Biology for life

and eventually allowing germs

and is eating
through the reaches the to get to the
dentine pulp base of the tooth
the enamel
forming an abscess
NO PAIN SLIGHT TOOTHACHE SEVERE TOOTHACHE
EXCRUCIATING PAIN!

Figure 6 The progress of decay in a cheek tooth.

between the cusps on the surface of the crowns, and also between the teeth.
The acid eats through the enamel into the dentine, thereby enabling the
bacteria to infect the pulp cavity (Figure 6). This causes toothache. In severe
cases the pulp may be killed and the infection may spread to the base of the
tooth, causing an abscess. This can be extremely painful.
Provided the decay hasn't gone too far, the tooth can be repaired by a
dentist (Figure 7). The dentist cuts away the decayed part of the tooth with a
drill, and fills the hole with a substance which hardens quickly. The hole is
always made wider at the bottom than the top: this prevents the filling from
falling out.
Normally back teeth are filled with a mixture of metals such as silver and
tin, but front teeth are filled with porcelain or a plastic-like material which is
the same colour as the teeth.
If the decay has got right into the pulp cavity, the dentist may be unable to
save the tooth and he may have to pull it out. Sometimes the dentist will take
an X-ray of the person's teeth to find out what state they are in (Figure 8).
Two other common conditions are gum disease and pyorrhoea. Gum
disease, as the name implies, is infection of the gums. In pyorrhoea the fibres
which hold the tooth in its socket get infected, with the result that the tooth
becomes loose and eventually falls out.

Tooth decay and the diet

Many studies have been made which show that tooth decay is caused by
eating sugary foods such as cakes, ice cream and sweets, and by drinking
sugary drinks. The amount of tooth decay in children in Britain has greatly
increased over the last twenty years - so has the amount of sweet-eating. In
contrast, the incidence of tooth decay amongst African tribes who don't eat
sweets is low. It's also interesting that during World War 2, when few sweets
and the hole is were available in Britain, tooth decay was much less common than it is today.
filled with a
substance which
hardens quickly
How can we prevent tooth decay ?
The bacteria which cause decay form a thin layer of scum over the surface of
the teeth. This scum is called plaque (Investigation 2). Tooth decay can be
prevented by removing this plaque or stopping it being formed. It takes about
24 hours for plaque to be re-formed after it has been removed, so it's essential
to remove it at least once a day.
Here are some tips recommended by dentists:

1 Clean your teeth regularly, particularly after breakfast and before going to
bed at night. Use dental floss as well as a toothbrush.
Figure 7 These diagrams show what happens 2 If possible finish your meal with a rough vegetable such as a carrot, then
when a dentist fills a tooth. rinse your mouth out with water.
 Teeth 179

3 Don't eat sweets or drink sugary drinks between meals, and above all
don't hold sweets in your mouth and suck them for a long time. Research
shows that reducing sugar intate is even more important than cleaning
teeth.
You should visit the dentist every six months, even if you think there's
nothing wrong with your teeth. Decay may have started without you
realising it.
There is a growing belief amongst dentists and scientists that fluoride
helps to prevent tooth decay by strengthening teeth, particularly when they
are forming. It may also stop plaque formation. Fluoride occurs naturally in
the drinking water in some parts of the world, and in these areas the amount
of tooth decay is said to be less than elsewhere. In some places very small
amounts of fluoride are added to the drinking water, and it's claimed that this
has reduced the incidence of tooth decay. However, some people feel that it
is wrong for the authorities to add fluoride to drinking water, even though it Figure 8 An X-ray picture of human teeth. The
may be beneficial. What do you think? white areas are fillings.

Investigation 1- Investigation 2 ■Assignments

Looking at human teeth to see the plaque on your teeth 1 Each structure in the left-hand
column below is related to one of
1 Look at the inside of your mouth with This can be done using plaque-staining
the words on the right.
a mirror. tablets available from a pharmacy.
Write them down in the correct
Which structures shown in Figure 1 1 Chew a tablet and spread it over pairs.
can you see? your teeth with your tongue. Then
spit it out. (These tablets are not enamel crushing
How many teeth have you got pulp sharp
meant to be swallowed, but it will do
altogether? tooth fibres hard
you no harm if you swallow them.)
canine sensitive
Identify your incisors, canines and
2 Rinse your mouth with water. molar pyorrhoea
cheekteeth.
3 Look at your teeth in a mirror. Any 2 In about 100 words, give advice to
Which of the teeth shown in Figure 1
plaque will be stained pink. Where the general public on how to clean
have you not got?
is the plaque located? their teeth so that as much plaque as
Which of your teeth are permanent possible is removed from them.
4 Brush your teeth with toothpaste in
and which ones, if any, belong to
the usual way, then rinse your mouth 3 You are employed by a research
your milk set?
out with water. organisation to test the claim that
2 Examine healthy human teeth in small amounts of fluoride in drinking
5 Look at your teeth in the mirror
detail. water help to prevent tooth decay.
again.
How would you tackle this problem?
Using Figure 1 to help you, decide
Has all the plaque been removed? If
whether each tooth is an incisor, 4 The‘dental formula’of an adult
not, where is it still left?
canine or cheek tooth. human is
6 Brush your teeth again. Work the
Draw each type of tooth, showing as if cl pmf m§
toothbrush this way and that, and try
many of the structures in Figure 4 as
hard to remove all traces of plaque. i stands for incisors, c canines,
you can see.
Then rinse your mouth out with pm premolars, m molars. The top
3 Examine a human skull and lower water. figures denote the number of teeth
jaw. 7 Look at your teeth in the mirror on one side of the upper jaw, the
bottom figures denote the number
Whereabouts does the lower law again.
of teeth on one side of the lower jaw.
move against the upper jaw?
Has all the stained plaque been
a) What is your own dental formula
Where would the muscles which removed now?
at the moment?
close the mouth be attached? 8 If there is still some plaque between b) Which teeth, if any, do you lack
4 Examine decayed teeth which have your teeth, try removing it with and why?
dental floss. This is thread-like c) What was your dental formula
been extracted by the dentist.
material which can be pulled likely to have been when you
Compare them with healthy teeth. backwards and forwards between were five years old?
Whereabouts is the decay? the teeth. d) Explain what has happened to
Why do you think the decay is your teeth since you were five.
Does dental floss remove the
situated where it is? plaque?
 ■Feeding in other-
mammals
All mammals digest their
food in basically the same way
as man does. However, the structure
of the gut and teeth vary according
to the kind of food each
animal eats.

Figure 1 The stomach of a ruminant has four chambers.

Who eats what?

Animals can be split into carnivores, herbivores and omnivores. Carnivores
eat other animals: examples include dogs, cats, lions, tigers and wolves.
Herbivores eat plants: they include rabbits, cows, sheep and horses.
Omnivores eat other animals and plants: humans and pigs are examples.

Differences in the structure of the gut

Omnivorous and carnivorous mammals have guts which are similar to man's:
there is no need for them to be different. Herbivores, however, have a
problem because much of their food consists of cellulose which is tough and
difficult to digest. Mammals do not possess the necessary enzyme for
breaking down cellulose - in fact the only organisms to possess this enzyme
are certain microbes.
Herbivorous mammals have three special features which enable them to
digest cellulose:
1 They have a very long small intestine - as long as 40 metres in the case of
the cow. Digestion is slower than in other mammals, and having a long
intestine ensures that digestion is complete before the food reaches the
end.
2 They have a large caecum and appendix which contain numerous bacteria
capable of breaking cellulose down into sugar. Some of the sugar is used
by the bacteria, but the rest is absorbed by the herbivore. This is an
example of two organisms helping one another: the microbes get shelter
and protection, and in return the herbivore gets sugar from cellulose. This
kind of partnership is called mutualism.
3 Some herbivorous mammals have a special kind of stomach. Such
mammals are called ruminants and they include cows and sheep. The
stomach consists of four chambers, the first of which is called the rumen
and is very large (Figure 1). The animal eats grass and swallows it into the
rumen without chewing it first. After a while it stops eating, and
regurgitates the grass, a little at a time, into the mouth cavity where it is
chewed. This is called chewing the cud. In the rumen the food is churned
up by contractions of the muscles, and the cellulose is broken down by
microbes. The food is then passed on to the other chambers where it is
further processed, before entering the small intestine.
Figure 2 A young male lion showing its teeth.
 Feeding in other mammals 181

Figure 3 The skull of a lion. Notice the large

dagger-like canines. They can cut right through the
neck of a zebra or antelope. In Africa more humans
have been killed by lions than by any other wild
animal. In one area a pair of lions terrorised the
local people for nearly a year before being shot.
During this time they killed and ate numerous
people, including 28 workmen who were building a
new railway.

Differences in the teeth

The' structure of teeth is closely related to the diet (Investigation). Thus lions
and tigers have large dagger-like canines for killing their prey and tearing its
flesh (Figures 2 and 3). Dogs have an extra-large cheek tooth on either side of
each jaw for scraping flesh off bones. They are called carnassial teeth. If you
watch a dog chewing a bone you can see the way it uses its various teeth
(Figure 4). When it gnaws with the side of its mouth it is using its carnassials.
Rabbits, mice and squirrels have sharp chisel-like incisors for cutting or Figure 4 These diagrams show the structure and
r ° action of the teeth of a carnivore such as the dog.
182 Biology for life

Figure 5 The teeth of a rabbit are used for gnawing

and grinding plant food. The diastema provides a
space in the mouth cavity where food can be held
before being ground up.

This is how the enamel ridges are formed:

the tooth starts off with a

covering of cement

but as it grows and is

used it gets worn down and
the hard enamel ridges are
exposed

ridges for grinding grass as

the jaws move from side to side

Figure 6 These diagrams show the structure and action of the teeth of a herbivore such as the sheep.
 Feeding in other mammals 183

gnawing, and a row of file-like cheek teeth for grinding their food; they have
no canines; instead there is a gap called the diastema (Figure 5).
Horses, sheep and cows have blunt incisors for cropping grass, and cheek
teeth with ridges on the surface for grinding it up. The ridges result from the
teeth gradually being worn down; the enamel wears down more slowly than
the other materials, so it stands up above the rest of the tooth (Figure 6).
If you watch a sheep chewing its food, you will see that its lower jaw moves
from side to side. The same is true of many herbivores such as cows and deer.
This fits in with the structure of the cheek teeth whose enamel ridges run
longways along the length of the jaw as shown in Figure 6. Obviously the
grinding effect will be greatest if the jaw moves from side to side.
Certain herbivores, such as the rhinoceros, have enamel ridges which run
transversely across the cheek teeth. For them the best grinding effect will be
achieved if they move the lower jaw backwards and forwards - and that's
Figure 7 Notice the enamel ridges on these teeth
exactly what they do. belonging to a horse.
One of the most efficient herbivores is the horse. The enamel ridges on its
cheek teeth form a complicated pattern and are very good at grinding up
grass (Figure 7).

Investigation- Assignments-
Comparing the teeth of different 1 Why is it that: d) a horse’s cheek teeth that
animals a) man cannot digest cellulose, enables it to eat grass?
b) herbivores have a particularly
1 Examine the skull of a carnivore 4 Mammals other than humans rarely
long small intestine,
such as a dog. Identify the incisors, suffer from tooth decay. Why do you
c) a sheep's jaw moves from side to
canines and cheekteeth. think this is?
side when it chews,
How do the teeth differ from yours? d) the cow has a hard pad at the 5 Many animals use their teeth for
What job does each type of tooth front of its upper jaw? purposes other than feeding. Write
do? down the names of two such
2 In what way does (a) chewing the
animals, and in each case suggest
2 Repeat the above with the skull of a cud, and (b) the grinding up of
one use of the teeth apart from
herbivore such as a sheep or rabbit. grass by the teeth, help digestion in
feeding.
a herbivore such as the cow?
How do its teeth differ from 6 The photograph below shows the
(a) a human’s, and (b) a dog’s? 3 What is it about the structure of: front part of the skull of a certain
a) a lion’s canine teeth that enables mammal
3 Look at the skulls of other animals
it to tear flesh, a) What kind of mammal do you
which your teacher gives you. In
b) a dog’s carnassial teeth that think it is?
each case look carefully at the
enables it to scrape all the flesh b) What do you think it feeds on?
teeth, and suggest what kind of food
off a bone, c) What do you think it uses its teeth
the animal feeds on.
c) a dog’s back molar teeth that for?
4 Write down the dental formula of enables it to break a stick in two,
each animal (see Assignment 4 on Give reasons for your answers.
page 179). Are any types of teeth
(incisors, canines, etc.) missing?

How do you think the animal

manages without them?

5 When you get an opportunity, watch

various mammals eating. Observe
the action of the jaws and relate it to
the structure of their teeth.
 -How do other-
How do bacteria feed?
organisms feed? Bacteria have two quite different ways of feeding: some feed like animals,
others like plants. Through their feeding activities these bacteria play an
Having studied important part in the cycling of elements in nature.
feeding in mammals, we will
now see how it occurs in a variety
Bacteria that feed like animals
of other organisms. These bacteria feed on ready-made organic food. They get their food from the
bodies of living or dead animals and plants. Those that feed on dead material
are saprotrophs; they help to bring about decay. Those that feed on living
organisms are generally parasites and cause disease.
To feed on solid material, bacteria must first break it down into soluble
substances. They do this by shedding digestive enzymes through their body
surface. These enzymes break the food down outside the bacteria. This is
called extra-cellular digestion. They then soak it up (Figure 1). A large
population of bacteria can eventually turn a solid object into a liquid. This is
what happens when things decay.

Bacteria that feed like plants

Figure 1 Some bacteria feed like animals.
These bacteria make their own organic food from simple substances like
Complex food substances, which may be in solid
form, are broken down into a liquid and then carbon dioxide and water (Figure 2). Many of them get the necessary energy
absorbed. from sunlight just as green plants do, by a type of photosynthesis, and they
possess a special kind of chlorophyll for carrying it out.
Some bacteria which can make their own food do not get energy from
sunlight. Instead they produce energy by special chemical reactions which
take place inside their bodies. We call this chemosynthesis. Many of these
bacteria put useful nitrogen compounds into the soil - compounds which
plants need.

How do fungi feed?

Fungi feed on ready-made organic food in much the same way as bacteria do.
Figure 2 Some bacteria feed like plants. Simple
They get their food from two sources. Some of them feed on dead material:
substances such as carbon dioxide gas and water
are built up into complex food substances. these are saprotrophs. They make food go mouldy and help to bring about
decay.
Other fungi feed on living organisms: they are parasites. Some of them do
a lot of harm, damaging crops and killing trees.

How does Amoeba feed?

Amoeba feeds on tiny organisms in the water, mainly bacteria and green
protists. Suppose a little organism of this kind comes close to an amoeba. The
amoeba's cytoplasm flows round it, forming a cup (Figure 3). Eventually the
prey becomes completely trapped in the cavity. We call this a food vacuole.
Figure 3 Above: an amoeba, seen in section under Here the prey is killed and digested, and the soluble products are absorbed
the microscope, taking in a larger piece of food than into the surrounding cytoplasm. Any bits and pieces that cannot be digested
it can manage. Below: what happens when an are got rid of across the cell membrane.
amoeba feeds.
 How do other organisms feed? 185

How does Euglenafeed?

When the sun is shining and there is plenty of light, Euglena feeds like a
plant. Using its chloroplasts, it makes it own food by photosynthesis.
To help it do this, Euglena always swims towards well-lit places. It has a
special mechanism which guides it towards light.
When it's dark, or the light is dim, Euglena can feed by taking in organic
substances from the surrounding water. It cannot take in solid food, but it can
absorb dissolved substances across its surface.

How does Hydra feed?

Hydra feeds on small animals like water fleas. When the animal bumps into
the hydra's tentacles, it is in for trouble (Figure 4). You can watch what
happens by putting a water flea in a dish with a hungry hydra (Investigation
1).
The moment the water flea touches the tentacle, the sting cells leap into
action. Each one shoots out a thread, like a harpoon (Figure 5). The thread
has a pointed tip which pierces the prey's skin. A drop of poison then oozes
out of the tip: this paralyses the water flea, stopping it moving. Other similar
cells have a long coiled thread which wraps itself round the water flea's
bristles, holding it firm.
Meanwhile the tentacles close round the unfortunate animal, and pull it
towards the mouth. It is then forced into the digestive cavity.
Inside the digestive cavity, the prey is broken down into pieces by
digestive enzymes produced by the gland cells. The pieces are then taken up
by the absorptive cells which engulf them rather like the amoeba does. When
the cell has done this, it develops a flagellum. This waves about and stirs up
the digestive fluid.
Finally bits which cannot be broken down are forced out of the mouth.
Figure 4 The top photograph shows hydra
capturing a water flea. The bottom photograph
shows the hydra after it has swallowed the water
flea.

Figure 6 The sea anemone is a relative of Hydra. Here a dahlia anemone is seen feeding Figure 5 The sting cell of a hydra before and after
its thread is shot out.
on a blenny, a small fish.
186 Biology for life

How do insects feed?

For feeding, insects have special structures round the mouth. These are called
mouth parts. Different insects have mouth parts which are adapted for
feeding on different foods (Investigation 2). Here are four examples.

labrum
(upper lip)
The locust chews plants
raised The locust's mouth parts include a pair of powerful jaw-like mandibles
(Figure 7). These cut off pieces of leaf, and grind them up. Behind the
mouth mandibles are structures which push the food into the mouth. Sensitive
saliva tube finger-like palps hang down on either side: with these the insect tastes the
mandible
(jaw)for biting
food to see if it is suitable for eating. While the food is being chewed, it is
and chewing moistened with saliva, which comes from a pair of salivary glands in the
food
thorax.
palp-
for tasting food
The mosquito sucks blood
| maxilla_labium |
The mosquito's mouth parts take the form of a needle-like proboscis (Figure
for pushing food
8). When a mosquito lands on a person's body, it pushes its proboscis
into mouth
through the skin. The proboscis is protected by a sheath which holds it in
place when it is being driven into the skin. It then injects a drop of saliva into
Figure 7 The mouth parts of an insect such as the
the wound. This stops the blood congealing, otherwise it might block the
locust, cockroach or grasshopper. In reality, the
mouth parts are closer together than shown here, proboscis. The mosquito then sucks blood through its proboscis.
but they have been separated to show them
clearly.
The butterfly sucks nectar
The butterfly has a long proboscis like a tongue (Figure 9). It pushes this into
flowers in order to suck up the nectar. It coils its proboscis up when not in
use.
palp-
sheath for holding proboscis
in place The housefly sucks solids
The housefly has a proboscis which acts like a vacuum cleaner (Figure 10). It
proboscis. has a pair of swollen pads at the end. The pads are covered with narrow
tube through which_ grooves which are connected with a tube that runs up the middle of the
blood is sucked li proboscis to the gut. Flies can feed on solid things like lumps of sugar. The fly
saliva tube_ puts its pads in contact with the sugar. A drop of saliva flows down the
proboscis. This dissolves the sugar and then the fly sucks it up. The
sheath. narrowness of the grooves prevents any solid matter getting into the
proboscis.
needle-like stylets_
for making hole in skin

Figure 8 The mouth parts of a mosquito.

sucking tube
leading to gut
saliva tube,
palp

pad with grooves

proboscis long and flexible through which food
is sucked

short portion of proboscis enlarged

tube through which

nectar is sucked—

there are muscles in here for

moving the proboscis

Figure 10 Left: The mouth parts of a housefly. Right: Photograph, taken down the
Figure 9 The mouth parts of a butterfly microscope of one of the pads at the end of the proboscis. Notice the food grooves.
 How do other organisms feed? 187

How do fish feed?

Most fish feed on small organisms such as plankton, worms and crabs
(Investigation 3). As food passes through the pharynx, it is prevented
from getting between the gills by the gill rakers: these are slender bars which
stick out from the bases of the gills.
Some fish eat much larger prey, which they bite into pieces or swallow
whole (Figure 11). Scientists have opened up the stomachs of sharks and
found such surprising objects as buckets and old petrol cans. The stomach of
a large specimen, caught in the 18th century, is said to have contained an
entire suit of armour!
For hunting down their prey, sharks use their excellent sense organs. Take
the great white shark for example. This huge fish is extremely sensitive to
movements of the water: it can detect a moving object, such as a swimmer,
over a kilometre away. As the shark moves closer to its prey, its sense of
smell takes over. As it closes in for the kill, it depends mainly on its eyes.
Finally, when it is almost on top of its prey, it closes its eyes and opens its
mouth: it now relies on an 'electrical' sense which works rather like radar. As
soon as the shark feels the pressure of the prey on its teeth, its jaws
automatically snap shut. ' Figure 11 Teeth of the great white shark.

Investigation 1- -Investigation 2- -Assignments-

Watching hydra feeding Examining the mouth parts of 1 Describe how an amoeba ingests its
insects food. What happens to the food
1 Obtain a watch glass containing a
after it has been ingested?
hydra which has been starved for 1 Obtain a preserved locust,
several days. grasshopper or cockroach. 2 Give the name of an organism which
has two alternative methods of
2 Obtain a jar containing water fleas. 2 With a needle lift up the labrum
feeding. What are the advantages of
(‘upper lip’).
3 With a pipette transfer one or two having two methods?
water fleas from the jar to the watch Can you now see the mandibles
3 How is the feding of bread mould (a)
glass. (jaws)?
similar to, and (b) different from that
4 If a water flea bumps into the 3 Now try to find the other feeding of a mammal?
tentacles, the hydra may catch it structures shown in Figure 7.
4 How do:
and eat it.
4 Look at the mouth parts of other a) fishes stop bits of food getting
If this happens, watch the hydra’s insects, such as the mosquito, into their gills,
feeding behaviour. butterfly and housefly, under a b) houseflies liquefy their food
microscope. before ingesting it,
5 Make drawings every now and
c) mosquitoes prevent blood from
again to show what happens. Which of the structures shown in
clotting inside the proboscis,
Figure 8 to 10 can you see?
Someone has suggested that hydra d) sharks iocate their prey?
must suffer from severe indigestion. How are the mouth parts suited to 5 Describe an experiment which you
Why should this be? dealing with the kind of food which could do to find out if a sea
each insect eats? anemone prefers to eat shrimps or
small fish.

6 When a water flea bumps into a

hydra’s tentacles, the sting cells
Investigation 3 send out their threads. However,
when the hydra touches the ground
Examining the gut of a fish
with its tentacles while it is moving
1 Obtain a bony fish, preferably one 3 Identify the main regions of the gut. the sting cells do not send out their
which is used as food by humans. How does it differ from a mammal’s threads.
gut?
2 Slit open the ventral (belly) side and Put forward explanations of why the
remove the gut. This is called 4 Cut open the stomach and examine sting cells respond differently to the
‘gutting’ and it has be done before a its contents. What has the fish been water flea on the ground.
fish is cooked for eating. eating?
 —How do we—
What happens to the air we breathe in?
breathe? Air is a mixture of gases which includes oxygen and carbon dioxide. What
happens to these gases when we breathe in? You can find out by comparing
Breathing is the process the air we breathe in (inhaled air) with the air we breathe out (exhaled air)
by which we draw air into our Table 1 shows the results of an accurate comparison. You will see that
bodies. It is an essential part of exhaled air contains less oxygen and more carbon dioxide than inhaled air.
respiration. A person who is prevented
from breathing is likely to
die within a few
The lungs
minutes.
When we breathe in, air is sucked into our lungs. The lungs are the main
organs of our respiratory system. The butcher calls them Tights'. If you
examine them you will see why (Investigation 1). They are light and soft, and
are riddled with spaces like the sponge. These spaces contain air. From this
air oxygen is taken up into the blood, while carbon dioxide passes in the
opposite direction. We refer to this movement of gases as gas exchange.
We have two lungs, situated side-by-side in the chest or thorax. The sides
of the chest are bounded by the ribs, which are joined to the backbone
(vertebral column) at the back and the breastbone (sternum) at the front.
Between the ribs are muscles called intercostal muscles. The thorax is
Inhaled air Exhaled air
separated from the abdomen below by the diaphragm. This is a sheet of
Oxygen 20.93 16.4 muscular tissue, shaped like a dome, which is stretched between the
Carbon dioxide 0.03 4.1 bottom-most ribs. You can see some of these structures in Figures 1 and 2.
Nitrogen (and argon) 79.04 79.5
Each lung is surrounded by two thin sheets of tissue, called the pleural
Table 1 The percentage composition of inhaled and membranes. The inner one covers the lungs, the outer one lines the inside of
exhaled air of a resting human. the thorax. Between them is a narrow space containing a fluid. This fluid
serves as a lubricant, allowing the membranes to slide over each other
smoothly as we breathe in and out.

The route by which air reaches the lungs

Figure 1 The lungs are located inside the chest Air is sucked into the lungs through a series of cavities and tubes which
cavity as shown in this diagram. together make up the respiratory system (Figure 3).

windpipe
(trachea)
collar bone

pleural membranes
cut away to show
lung underneath_
chest cavity
(thorax)
surface of lung
rib

breastbone
(sternum)

the diaphragm
is under here

backbone
 Hoiv do we breathe? 189

Here are some notes on the main structures which make up the respiratory
system.

The nose
Air is drawn into the nose through the nostrils. At the back of the nose there
is a large space called the nasal cavity. The inside of the nasal cavity is moist
and warm. It is moist because its lining produces mucus. It is warm because
there are numerous blood vessels close to the surface. If you've ever had a
nose-bleed you will know what a lot of blood there is in the nose.
The nasal cavity is divided up by several bony shelves called turbinates
which give it a large surface area rather like the radiator of a car. The air is
warmed and moistened as it passes over these surfaces, and it is cleaned at
the same time. Dust and germs get caught in the mucus and are wafted
towards the throat by beating cilia. The mucus, like saliva, contains a
substance which kills germs. The mucus is then swallowed or coughed up -
unless of course you expel it beforehand by blowing your nose. The lining of
the nose is also very sensitive to touch, and this may make you sneeze. These
are all ways of preventing germs getting into the lungs. Figure 2 X-ray of the human chest. How many of
In the lining of the nasal cavity there afe sensory cells sensitive to smell. the structures shown in Figure 1 can you see in this
photograph?
Our sense of smell tells us whether or not the air is suitable for breathing. It
therefore enables us to test the air before we take it into our lungs.
We can sum up the functions of the nose by saying that it warms, moistens,
cleans and tests the air we breathe in. It protects the lungs from germs and
harmful substances which might injure them or start an infection.
You can, of course, breathe through your mouth. If you do this the
protective functions of the nose are not carried out and the risk of infection is
increased. We all breathe through our mouths when we have a cold in the
nose, but in general it is a bad habit.
Leading from the nasal cavity at the front of the skull are a number of
cavities called sinuses. The sinuses produce mucus which normally drains
into the nasal cavity. However, the holes connecting the sinuses with the
Figure 3 The respiratory system of a human. The
nasal cavity are small, and if a person has a cold they get swollen and
lungs are located in the chest cavity or thorax.
blocked. The sinuses then fill up with fluid, and the pressure may cause a There are really far more alveoli than are shown in
headache. this simplified diagram.
190 Biology for life

The throat
The throat, or pharynx, belongs to both the respiratory and alimentary
systems (see page 170). Food passes from the mouth'cavity into the gullet and
thence to the stomach. Air, on the other hand, passes from the nasal cavity
ring of gristle in
into the windpipe and so to the lungs.
wall of windpipe
The air enters the windpipe through a small hole called the glottis.
gullet Obviously it is important that food should not get into this hole. This is
prevented by the epiglottis, a small flap of tissue stiffened with gristle. When
we swallow, the glottis becomes closed off by the epiglottis, and breathing
stops. Despite this mechanism, a piece of food may sometimes get stuck in
the glottis: we say it has gone down the wrong way. It can usually be
dislodged by coughing, helped if necessary by a pat on the back.

FRONT OF BACK OF
NECK NECK The voice box
The glottis opens into the voice box or larynx. This shows up at the front of
your neck as your 'Adam's apple'. It feels hard because there are pieces of
gristle in its wall. The voice box enables us to talk, sing and shout. Thin
membranes, formed from its lining, are stretched across the cavity. They are
food bulge called vocal cords. When air is forced through the voice box the cords vibrate,
passing
producing sounds in much the same way that a piano produces sounds when
down gullet
the strings vibrate.

The windpipe
If you put your finger below your 'Adam's apple', you can feel your windpipe
or trachea. It is a straight tube, about 12 cm long, situated just in front of the
gullet.
Figure 4 The rings of gristle keep the windpipe For air to pass freely to and from the lungs, it is important that the
open even when food passes down the gullet.
windpipe should be open all the time. To keep it open, its wall is stiffened by
rings of gristle. These rings are like a pile of Cs which face towards the centre
of the neck so the open side of the C is next to the gullet: this allows the gullet
to expand when food passes down it (Figure 4).
The inner lining of the windpipe produces mucus and is covered with cilia.
Some of the dust particles and germs which have escaped being caught in the
nasal cavity get caught in this mucus. The cilia waft the mucus upwards to
the glottis so that it can be either swallowed or coughed out. The windpipe
thus helps to prevent germs and harmful substances getting to the lungs.

The bronchi
After the windpipe has entered the chest, it splits into two short tubes called
bronchi (singular: bronchus), one to each lung. The bronchi are similar to the
windpipe, ^xcept that they are narrower.

The bronchioles
Within each lung the bronchus splits into numerous branches, like a tree: the
whole structure is called the bronchial tree (Figure 5). The branches are called
bronchioles, and they get very narrow towards the ends. Their walls are not
surrounded by rings of gristle; instead they contain smooth muscle which
allows them to widen or get narrower depending on circumstances.

The alveoli
Each bronchiole leads to a bunch of tiny sacs called alveoli (singular:
alveolus). The alveoli are surrounded by a network of blood capillaries, rather
like a string bag (Figure 6). The capillaries are in close contact with the alveoli,
and the membrane separating them is extremely thin. Across this membrane
gas exchange takes place: oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood, and
carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli. The lining of each
alveolus is covered by a thin layer of fluid and the oxygen dissolves in this
before it passes through into the blood (Figure 7).
Figure 5 A corrosion preparation of the human
There are about 150 million alveoli in each lung, and altogether they cover a
lungs. All the lung tissues except the bronchial
tubes has been dissolved away. very large surface area. Someone has worked out that if you were to open
 How do we breathe? 191

them out and flatten them like a sheet, they would cover an area as large as a
tennis court! It is very important that the lungs should have a large surface
area, because it means that more oxygen can be taken up by the blood every
time we breathe in.
The alveoli always contain air, even when we breathe out as hard as we bronchiole
can. If there was no air inside them, their walls would cave in and stick
together. Their surface area would then be reduced and gas exchange would
be impossible.
air sac

How does air get into the lungs? alveolus

Breathing takes place by movements of the chest.The chest works rather like
a pair of bellows, sucking air in and then forcing it out.
We can divide breathing into two parts:
to pulmonary vein
Inspiration: this is the sucking of air into the lungs, and it is brought about by
the chest expanding. from pulmonary
artery
Expiration: this is the forcing of air out of the lungs, and it is brought about by
the chest contracting. ,

This is how inspiration is brought about (Figure 8): alveolus

1 The ribs swing outwards and upwards. This is brought about by

contraction of the intercostal muscles. This increases the size of the thorax capillaries
in the side-to-side direction. At the same time the breastbone moves
forward slightly, so the size of the thorax is increased in a front-to-back
direction as well.
2 The diaphragm moves downwards, so that instead of being dome-shaped
it becomes flattened. This is brought about by contraction of muscles in Figure 6 These diagrams show the detailed
the diaphragm itself. This increases the size of the thorax in a structure of part of a lung and its blood supply
top-to-bottom direction.

All these movements result in an increase in the volume of the thorax. This
creates a negative pressure - a suction force - inside the thorax. The result is
that the walls of the lungs are pulled outwards and air is drawn into them
(Investigation 2).
Expiration is brought about by the reverse process: the ribs swing
downwards and inwards, the breastbone moves back slightly, and the
diaphragm bows upwards. The volume of the thorax decreases and this
creates a positive pressure inside it. The result is that air is forced out of the
lungs.

Figure 7 As the red blood cells go past an alveolus, they give up carbon dioxide and Figure 8 Diagrams showing how the chest expands
pick up oxygen. These gases move in and out by diffusion. when we breathe in.
192 Biology for life

'Investigation
Looking at the lungs of a mammal
1 Examine the lungs of a pig or sheep
obtained from the butcher.

2 Press the lung with your finger.

What does it feel like?
How would you explain how it feels?

3 Look at the windpipe.

How is it attached to the lungs?
4 Squeeze the windpipe with your
fingers.
What does it feel like?
How would you explain how it feels?

Figure 9 A spirometer measures the amount of air you can take into your lungs. You take 5 Attach a pair of bellows to the cut
the deepest possible breath in, and then exhale as completely as possible into the air end of the windpipe. Make sure the
chamber. The major divisions on the scales are litres. joint is airtight. Pump air in and out
of the lungs.
How much air do we take into our lungs when we breathe in? About half a
litre when we are at rest. However, this is only a fraction of the amount we 6 Look at a prepared slide of a section
can take in if we want to. You can find out how much air you can take into of lung under the microscope.
your lungs by means of a spirometer (Figure 9). The maximum amount for an
In what ways does its microscopic
adult male is usually between four and five litres, though a trained athlete can
appearance suit its function?
often take in more than this. The total amount of air which a person can
breathe in is called the vital capacity.

How is our breathing controlled? Investigation 2-

When we take exercise certain changes take place in our breathing. The most A working model of the chest
noticeable change is that we breathe more quickly. This is because our
1 Assemble the model as shown in
muscles are working harder so they need more oxygen. Also the extra carbon the illustration. Make sure the bell jar
dioxide which they produce must be removed quickly, otherwise it might
is airtight.
build up and poison our tissues (Investigation 3).
You do not have to think about this; it happens automatically. It is brought 2 Grasp the rubber diaphragm and
about by a reflex: the brain senses that there is too much carbon dioxide in the move it downwards and upwards.
bloodstream, and this automatically causes us to breathe faster.
What happens to the balloons when
In fact we do not just breathe faster - we breathe more deeply as well. In
you move the diaphragm?
this respect there is a difference between fit and unfit people: fit people tend-
to breathe more deeply when they take exercise; unfit people tend to breathe
more quickly, keeping their breathing rather shallow.
There are many other ways in which our breathing changes: for example,
when we cough, sneeze, gasp, yawn or talk. Yawning, for example, occurs
when we feel tired: we take a long deep breath in, which has the effect of
getting more oxygen into the body. Some of these changes are brought about
string or
by involuntary reflexes: we cannot help them happening. Over other elastic
activities, such as talking, we have voluntary control. band
Another situation in which our breathing changes is when we go up to a balloon
high altitude. As one goes higher the atmospheric pressure decreases and the
rubber
air gets thinner. This makes oxygen more difficult to obtain. Now suppose diaphragm
you have been living in a low-lying area and you move to a city such as
Nairobi which is about 2000 metres above sea level. At first you get out of
string
breath very quickly. However, you gradually adjust by breathing faster and
more deeply, and your blood system gets more efficient at carrying oxygen.
In this way you become acclimatised to the greater height.
Jet airliners fly at heights of 10 000 metres or more. At such heights the
Explain your observations.
atmosphere is so thin that the aircraft must have its own air supply with
oxygen at the normal pressure. Such aircraft are said to be pressurised. The How does the action of this model
same applies to spacecraft which operate in places where there is no differ from your own chest?
atmosphere at all.
 How do we breathe? 193

Investigation 3 Assignments-
Comparing the composition of which will absorb oxygen from the 1 What function is carried out by each
inhaled and exhaled air air sample. Wait for one minute, then of the following:
measure the length of the air column a) the epiglottis;
Analysis of atmospheric (inhaled) air
again. b) the intercostal muscles;
1 immerse the end of a J-tube in a
c) the diaphragm;
beaker of water, then draw a column 5 Calculate the percentage of carbon
d) the pleural fluid?
of water approximately 5 cm long dioxide and oxygen in the air
into the tube. sample. 2 Why is it desirable to:
a) breathe through your nose rather
2 Remove the tube from the water and Percentage of C02 _ a-b
x 100 than your mouth;
draw in approximately 10 cm of air. in the air sample ~ a
b) stop talking when you swallow;
Then draw in water again until the
Percentage of 02 _b-c c) breathe as deeply as possible;
column of air occupies the straight x 100
in the air sample ~~ a d) blow your nose when necessary?
part of the J-tube. Wait for one
minute, then measure the length of a is original length before 3 Table 1 on page 188 shows the
the air column with a ruler. hydroxide added percentage volumes of oxygen and
b is new length after hydroxide carbon dioxide in the air inhaled
added, and exhaled by a human. Explain
c is new length after pyrogallol how the change in composition of
added. the air is brought about in the lungs.

Analysis of exhaled air 4 Explain each of the following in

1 Collect exhaled air in a test tube by terms of breathing in and out: a
the method shown below. cough; a gasp; a sneeze; a sigh; a
laugh.
blow
5 An experiment was carried out on a
young man in which the volume of
air taken in at each breath, and the
water
number of breaths per minute, were
measured at rest and after running.
Here are the results:

volume breaths
of air per per
2 Insert the tip of the J-tube into the
breath minute
test tube and draw in a sample of
your exhaled air just as you did for at rest 450 cm3 4 20
3 Expel all but about 1.0 cm of the
your inhaled air. after running 1000 cm3 38
water from the J-tube and then draw
in concentrated potassium
hydroxide. Keeping the tip of the
a) What is the total volume of air
J-tube in the hydroxide, shuttle the
breathed in per minute at rest
potassium hydroxide backwards
and after running?
and forwards so the air sample
b) Twenty per cent of the air
comes into contact with the sides of
breathed in consisted of oxygen,
the tube which have been wetted
but only sixteen per cent of the
with the hydroxide. The hydroxide
air breathed out consisted of
will absorb carbon dioxide from the
oxygen. Assuming that these
air sample. Wait for a further minute,
figures remain constant, work out
then re-measure the length of the air
the volume of oxygen entering
column. In fact you will probably 3 Analyse first the carbon dioxide and
the blood per minute at rest and
find that the decrease is very small then the oxygen in the sample of
after exercise.
and difficult to measure. exhaled air exactly as you did for
c) Why does the amount of oxygen
inhaled air.
4 Now expel all but the last 5 cm of the taken up into the blood increase
hydroxide and draw in pyrogallol. 4 Now collect exhaled air after a bout after exercise?
Shuttle backwards and forwards as of exercise, and analyse it. d) How is the increase in the rate of
before. The pyrogallol will react with respiration brought about?
Explain your results.
the potassium hydroxide still in the
6 In what ways can regular exercise
tube forming potassium pyrogallate
improve our breathing?
 —B rea th ing —

What happens if the respiratory tract becomes blocked?

and It all depends where the block occurs. If you have a heavy cold, extra mucus

health is secreted in the nose which may become blocked. However, this isn't
serious. You can blow your nose or breathe through your mouth, and if
necessary you can clear your nose with nasal drops.
If your lungs become damaged Occasionally a piece of food gets stuck in the glottis so firmly that it cannot
or diseased, or if air is prevented be moved. If this happens an emergency operation called a tracheotomy may
from getting to them, our lives are in be necessary. A small cut is made into the windpipe below the Adam s apple.
danger. In this Topic we will see A tube is then inserted into it, through which the person can breathe until the
obstruction has been cleared (Figure 1).
how this can happen.

Artificial respiration
If a person has an accident, she may go unconscious and stop breathing.
Sometimes it is possible to keep the person alive by artificial respiration. This
must be carried out as soon as possible, otherwise the brain cells may be
damaged so badly by lack of oxygen that they never recover. This may
happen within a few minutes after the person stops breathing, so speed is
essential.
One of the best methods of artificial respiration is the 'kiss of life', known
as mouth-to-mouth resuscitation (Figure 2). First you lay the person on her
back. You then take a deep breath in, and breathe out into her mouth. As you
are forcing your own exhaled air into her lungs, you might think this would
do more harm than good. However, there is enough oxygen in your exhaled
air to keep her alive. What's more, the carbon dioxide in your exhaled air may
stimulate her to start breathing again.
Figure 1 If a person's glottis is completely blocked,
After some accidents the person's brain is so badly damaged that she
a tracheotomy may save his life.
cannot start breathing for herself. She may then be kept alive by means of a
resuscitator. She is connected by a tube to a machine which regularly forces
air or oxygen into her lungs and then sucks it out. A system of valves ensures
that fresh air is sent to the lungs each time. An unconscious person can be
kept alive for many weeks or even months on a machine like this. Sometimes
the brain recovers sufficiently for the person to start breathing again. On the
other hand she may not recover, and the family and doctors have to decide
Figure 2 Artificial respiration by mouth-to-mouth whether to keep her alive on the machine or to switch it off and let her die.
resuscitation, otherwise known as the kiss of life. Obviously this is an agonising decision to have to make.

1 Pinch the nostrils shut with the fingers 2 Take a deep breath, then open your mouth 3 Lift your mouth off, then turn your head
of one hand, then tilt the head back and and seal your lips against the person’s so as to look at the person's chest.
push the lower jaw forward so the chin mouth. Breathe out firmly but gently If you have been successful you will
juts out. This will force the tongue into the person's mouth and so into see that it has risen and is now falling
forward and open the air passages. his lungs. as air comes out of the lungs.

4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 at a steady rate.

The person's colour should improve, and
eventually he should start breathing for
himself.
 Breathing and health 195

Respiratory diseases
Despite the mechanisms in the nose for keeping germs out, there are times
when most of us get an infection in some part of the respiratory system. The
area becomes inflamed and sore, we cough a lot, and a large amount of
mucus may be produced which makes it difficult to breathe. Any part of the
respiratory system can become infected. Thus pharyngitis is inflammation of
the pharynx (throat), tracheitis is inflammation of the trachea (windpipe),
and bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchial tubes. Laryngitis is
inflammation of the larynx (voice box), and this may cause us to become
hoarse and lose our voice. Sometimes the pleural membranes surrounding
the lungs become inflamed. This is called pleurisy and it can make breathing
painful.
Sometimes the lungs themselves become inflamed. For example, chronic
inflammation may occur if you breathe in dust over a long period. In the past
this has happened to workers in certain industries where a lot of dust is
generated. The general name for the condition is pneumoconiosis. If it is
caused by asbestos dust it is called asbestosis; if it is caused by silica dust it is
called silicosis.
Figure 3 This graph compares the numbers of
Severe inflammation of the lungs may give rise to pneumonia, which is
people dying each year from tuberculosis and lung
caused by a type of bacteria. Fluid collects in the alveoli: this cuts down the cancer between 1920 and 1965.
area over which gas exchange can take place, so the patient gets short of
breath.
Another serious disease of the lungs is tuberculosis, or TB for short. This is
caused by bacteria which destroy the lung tissue. Doctors can find out if a
person has got TB by doing a chest X-ray which shows up the diseased areas
of the lungs. At one time TB, or consumption as it was called, was one of the
most common causes of death. Thanks to modern medicine it is now rare.
Today lung cancer has taken over from TB as the major killer (Figure 3). In
lung cancer a growth develops in the wall of the bronchial tubes. This blocks
them, so breathing becomes more and more difficult. Unless the growth is
discovered, and destroyed, in time the cancer may spread to other
neighbouring organs such as the liver or spine.
Doctors can find out if a person has got cancer of the lungs by doing a chest
X-ray (Figure 4). If a growth is visible, the person may have an operation in
which the diseased part of the lung is removed, or the growth may be
destroyed by radiation treatment. Flowever, these measures are not always
successful and unfortunately many patients die.
What causes lung cancer? We don't know for certain, but breathing in
asbestos dust over a long period is known to cause it, and the link with
smoking is now well established.

How does smoking affect the lungs?

Most people who smoke inhale the smoke right down into their lungs. What
effect does this have on them?
One way of finding the answer is to take two groups of people of the same
sex and age. One group are smokers and the other group are non-smokers.
You then study each group over a period of many years, and see what
happens to their health. If a certain disease is developed by many of the
smokers, but not by the non-smokers, this suggests that smoking may cause
this particular disease.
In the last 30 years several surveys of this kind have been carried out in
Britain by the Royal College of Physicians, and similar surveys have been
carried out in other countries. The results all show one thing: amongst people
who smoke there are more cases of lung cancer than amongst people who
don't smoke. In other words, smoking seems to be associated with lung
cancer.
This conclusion is supported by laboratory experiments on animals. These Figure 4 X-ray of human chest, taken from the front,
experiments have shown that cigarette smoke contains chemical substances showing lung cancer. Compare this X-ray with the
which cause cancer. We call these substances carcinogens. The main normal chest in the previous Topic.
196 Biology for life

carcinogens in cigarette smoke are a group of sweet-smelling chemicals which

are usually referred to as 'tar'.
Now here is an important point. Being a smoker doesn't mean that you are
bound to get lung cancer; nor does being a non-smoker ensure that you won't
get it. All we can say is that you are more likely to get it if you smoke.
Look at Figure 5. This shows that the more cigarettes a person smokes, the
greater is the chance of his getting lung cancer. A man who smokes 20
cigarettes a day is about 15 times more likely to die of lung cancer than a
non-smoker; and if he smokes 30 a day, he is about 25 times more likely to get it.

The surveys which have been carried out indicate that a smoker is less
likely to get lung cancer if he:

1 doesn't inhale,
2 smokes cigars or a pipe rather than cigarettes,
10 20 30 40 3 takes fewer puffs per cigarette,
4 smokes filter-tips,
number of cigarettes
smoked per day 5 smokes 'low-tar' cigarettes.

But the best thing is to give it up altogether. If a heavy smoker stops smoking
Figure 5 This graph shows the relationship
the risk of his getting lung cancer gradually falls until after a few years it is
between the number of cigarettes smoked per day
and the risk of dying of lung cancer. about the same as for a non-smoker.

Other diseases caused by smoking

When a person smokes, tiny particles in the smoke get caught on the lining of
the windpipe and bronchial tubes. Extra mucus is produced and the cilia stop
beating: smoking one cigarette is said to stop the cilia beating for about an
hour. The mucus collects in the bronchial tubes and this gives rise to a
'smoker's cough'. If the tubes become infected, the person may get Chronic
bronchitis. 'Chronic' means long-lasting: instead of clearing up, the disease
persists.
Further unpleasant effects may follow. Repeated coughing may cause the
delicate walls of the alveoli to break down into large air spaces. This cuts
down the surface area over which gas exchange can take place, so the person
gets very short of breath. Doctors call this condition emphysema (Figure 6)
Although smoking mainly affects the lungs, it can also cause cancer of
other organs such as the mouth, throat, oesophagus and bladder. It is also
associated with heart disease and stomach ulcers, and a woman who smokes
while she is pregnant is more likely to have a spontaneous abortion or
stillbirth or to give birth to an under-sized baby.
Scientists have shown that the number of cases of heart disease is much
greater among smokers than non-smokers. The effect of smoking on
the heart is mainly due to nicotine, a chemical substance which gets into the
blood when tobacco smoke is inhaled. Nicotine is a habit-forming drug,
which is why people get 'hooked' on smoking and find it hard to give up.
Nicotine stimulates the brain and relaxes the muscles. This in itself isn't
harmful; but nicotine also raises the blood pressure and increases the amount
of fatty substances in the blood. It is this that can lead to heart disease (see
page 215). Tobacco smoke also contains carbon monoxide. This lowers the
ability of the blood to carry oxygen (see page 204). Combined with other
factors, it can also lead to heart disease.

Smoking and society

In Britain between 60 and 70 thousand people die of lung cancer, chronic
bronchitis and emphysema every year. This is over eight times as many as are
killed in road accidents.
The connection between smoking and these diseases is now so firmly
established that in many countries cigarette commercials on television have
Figure 6 These diagrams show how emphysema been banned, and every packet of cigarettes has to carry a government health
affects the lungs. warning. Smoking has been prohibited in many public buildings and in
 Breathing and health 197

-Assignments-
iopir «•
1 Briefly state the cause and symptoms of
each of these diseases:
bronchitis, pleurisy, tuberculosis,
emphysema and asthma.

2 What is meant by mouth-to-mouth

resuscitation? Under what
circumstances would it not be possible
to carry it out?

3 Explain why each of these remarks

is unscientific:
a) ’My dad smokes like a chimney
so he’s bound to get cancer.,’
b) ’All that stuff about smoking and
cancer is nonsense: my uncle
died of lung cancer and he never
touched a cigarette all his life.’

Figure 7 Skin allergy test. A drop of fluid containing the substance to be tested is placed 4 In 1952 two British scientists carried
on the skin, then the skin is pricked through the drop. If the person is allergic to the out a survey in a large hospital. They
substance, a ‘blister’ develops. This particular person was found to be allergic to certain selected two groups of patients,
kinds of pollen. What do you think the control drop consists of, and why is it included in
both the same sex and roughly the
the test?
same age. The patients in group A
all had lung cancer, whereas those
in group B had other diseases. The
cinemas special areas are often reserved for non-smokers. The trouble is that
scientists then found out how many
governments get a lot of money from taxes on tobacco; this has made some
patients in each group smoked.
countries reluctant to campaign too hard against smoking.
Here are the results-
Despite the warnings, more and more cigarettes are bought each year.
Only amongst doctors has smoking decreased. They understand the risks too Percentage of patients
well, and they also know how unpleasant it is to die of lung cancer. who smoked more than
Scientists have shown that lung cancer is more common amongst people fifteen cigarettes per day
who live in towns than amongst those who live in the country. There is group A 25
evidence that it can be brought on by motor car exhaust fumes, industrial Group B 13
smoke and dust, and radio-active materials. However, these causes are
insignificant compared with smoking. It is claimed that if everyone gave up Percentage of patients
smoking, deaths from lung cancer would fall to a tenth of what they are at the who were non-smokers
moment. Group A 0.5
Group B 4.5

a) What do you think the scientists

Hay fever and asthma were trying to find out?
Many people suffer from hay fever. This is usually caused by a reaction to b) Group B is called the control
pollen, and is therefore particularly common when flowers are open. The group. Why was it necessary to
lining of the nasal cavity becomes sensitive and inflamed and produces a investigate this group of patients
large amount of mucus, so the nose runs and the person sneezes a lot. The as well as Group A?
eyes may be affected in the same way, becoming itchy, sore and weepy. c) What conclusion would you draw
When a person reacts adversely to a substance in this kind of way, we say he from the results?
is allergic to it. d) Suggest one other way the
People can be allergic to all sorts of things besides pollen. In treating a scientists might have carried out
patient the doctor must first discover the particular substance to which the their survey.
person is allergic. This may involve doing a skin test of the kind shown in
5 It has been suggested that smoking and
Figufe 7. lung cancer appear to be connected,
Asthma is more serious. The muscles in the walls of the bronchioles
not because smoking causes cancer,
contract, so the tubes get narrower. This makes it difficult to breathe and the
but because people who need to smoke
person wheezes. The attacks are often brought on by pollen or dyst, or
are the kind of people who get cancer.
occasionally by some kind of food to which the person is allergic. With some
What sort of investigations would have to
people the attacks are made worse by nervousness or worry. Asthma can be
be carried out to show that this is not the
treated with drugs which make the bronchial muscles relax, so the tubes
correct explanation?
widen allowing air to be breathed in and out of the lungs more easily.
—How do other —

Plants and simple organisms

organisms Small organisms like Amoeba and Hydra breathe by diffusion. Oxygen diffuses

breathe? passively into the animal from the surrounding water. Carbon dioxide
diffuses out. There are no special organs such as gills to aid this. Nor is there
a circulatory system for transporting things within the body. Plants manage
Humans have in the same kind of way.
lungs and a blood system The earthworm is a bit more complicated. It breathes through its moist skin
for getting oxygen. We will now see how by diffusion and there are no special organs for helping with this. However,
other organisms carry out the animal is too large for oxygen to get to all parts of the body by diffusion,
and so the worm has a blood system which carries oxygen to the various
this process.
organs. The blood contains the red pigment haemoglobin just as ours does:
this carries the oxygen.
gullet

In more advanced animals there are special respiratory surfaces such as lungs
and gills. A respiratory surface has three essential features:

1 It has a large surface area.

2 It is permanently moist.
3 It has a very good blood supply.

In addition there is usually a special mechanism for bringing the surrounding

air or water in contact with the respiratory surface.

water pharynx operculum

How do fish breathe?
gill rakers prevent food opercular opening
getting between the gills Fish use their gills for breathing. Figure 1 shows how the gills of a bony fish
Figure 1 The head of this fish has been sliced are arranged. Notice that there are holes in between them: these connect the
horizontally so we can see into its pharynx. The pharynx with the outside (Investigation 1).
gills lie on either side. Water flows between the gills The fish sucks water in through its mouth. The water flows between the
as indicated by the arrows.
gills and passes out of the fish by the opercular opening as indicated by the
arrows in Figure 1. In this way a continuous stream of water is kept flowing
past the gills; this stream is maintained by flapping movements of the
operculum and the opening and closing of the mouth.
The gills have a large surface area (Figure 2) and blood continuously passes
through them. As water flows over the gills, oxygen is taken up by the blood
and carbon dioxide diffuses out.

How do amphibians breathe?

Amphibians breathe in three different ways: through the skin, through the
Figure 2 Part of one gill in detail. Notice the large lining of the mouth cavity, and by means of lungs. Oxygen and carbon
surface area created by the many gill lamellae. dioxide diffuse across these three surfaces (Figure 3).
In order to serve as a breathing surface, the skin must be kept moist: gases
will only diffuse through it if this is so. Amphibians' skin contains many
glands which secrete a watery slime (mucus) onto the surface. This is why
amphibians are always moist and slimy. However, there is a grave
disadvantage in having a moist skin: water readily evaporates from it and the
animal is liable to dry up. This is the main reason why frogs and other
amphibians are normally found only in damp places. The skin has other
features which make it suitable as a breathing surface: for example, it is thin
and has a good blood supply.
If you watch a frog or toad you will notice that sometimes its throat moves
up and down. These movements pump air in and out of the mouth cavity
through the nostrils. When this happens, gas exchange takes place through
the moist lining of the mouth cavity.
When the animal is active and needs a lot of oxygen, it takes a large gulp of
Figure 3 This diagram of the inside of a frog shows air and forces it down into its lungs. The lungs consist of a pair of simple
its three breathing surfaces. thin-walled sacks situated in the chest region.
 How do other organisms breathe? 199

How do insects breathe?

In humans oxygen is carried from the lungs to the tissues by the blood.
Insects have a very different system. They have hundreds of breathing tubes
through which oxygen passes to all parts of the body. This is called the
tracheal system (Figure 4) (Investigation 2).
Air enters the tracheal system through the spiracles, which are tiny holes
in the cuticle. In some insects the spiracles are fitted with valves which can
open and close like sliding doors.
The spiracles open into tubes called tracheae (singular: trachea). These are
lined with hard cuticle which is thickened into a spiral. This prevents their
walls from caving in.
The tracheae branch like a tree. The ends of the branches are fine tubes
called tracheoles. These have thin walls which are not lined with cuticle.
They contain a watery fluid. The tracheoles are wrapped round, and
penetrate, all the organs and tissues, bringing oxygen to them.
In most insects oxygen passes through the tracheal system by diffusion.
However, in large and active insects like the locust, air is pumped through
the tracheal system by muscular movements of the abdomen. If you watch a
locust, you can sometimes see these movements. The spiracles open and
close in such a way that air is sucked in through the front spiracles and
expelled through the back ones. When the insect is active, the spiracles open
more frequently, and the pumping movements are more vigorous than when
the insect is resting.
Insects have a blood system but it is very different from ours. The blood is a
colourless fluid. It does not contain a red pigment, and it plays no part in
Figure 4 The tracheal system consists of breathing
carrying oxygen round the body. Its main job is to transport food substances tubes which carry oxygen to the organs and
and waste matter. tissues.

-Investigation 1- Investigation 2- -Assignments-

Looking at gills Examining the tracheal system 1 Why is it difficult for a large
organism to get the oxygen it needs
1 Obtain a preserved bony fish. 1 Cut open a dead cockroach.
by diffusion alone?
2 Remove the operculum by cutting 2 Observe trie breathing tubes
2 The three essential features of a
round it with scissors. (tracheae).
respiratory surface are that it should
3 Look at the gills underneath. 3 With forceps pull out a small piece have a large surface area, be
of muscle from the thorax. permanently moist, and have a
How many are there?
good blood supply. Why must it
4 Mount the muscle in a drop of water
4 Observe the structure of one gill in have these features?
on a slide and put on a coverslip.
detail. 3 List three reasons why it is an
5 Look at your slide under the
How is it suited to its job? advantage to an insect to have
microscope: low power first, then
valves guarding its spiracles.
How is water made to flow past the high power.
gills? 4 Insects have no red pigment in their
6 Draw part of the tracheal system,
blood. How do they manage without
5 Show the route taken by water by showing how the breathing tubes
it?
passing a piece of thread through branch.
the mouth and out between the gills. 5 A certain insect is said to suck air
What function is carried out by the
The thread should follow the course into its body through its thoracic
tracheal system?
of one of the arrows in Figure 1. spiracles and expel air through its
How is the same function carried out in abdominal spiracles.
When a bony fish breathes, why does
humans?
water flow past the gills and not into the Can you think of an experiment
gullet? which could be done to test the
What structures keep the tracheal
suggestion?
tubes permanently open?
What functions are performed by the
operculum? Describe how you would carry it out.
 Living without
Respiration without oxygen
oxygen Organisms obtain energy by respiration. Normally sugar (glucose) is broken
down in the presence of oxygen into carbon dioxide and water
What makes dough
rise and beer alcoholic? glucose + oxygen —» carbon dioxide + water + energy
It is because of an organism C6H1206 602 6C02 6H20 (2880 kj)
which can respire
without oxygen. For sugar to be broken down like this oxygen is essential. For this reason we
call it aerobic respiration.
Now what happens if no oxygen is available? Usually the organism will
suffocate. However in some cases sugar may still be broken down and energy
released (Investigation 1). Oxygen is not needed for this, so we call it
anaerobic respiration - respiration without oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in several kinds of organisms. The end
products vary, as we shall see.

How does yeast respire without oxygen?

Yeast respires without oxygen by converting sugar into ethanol (alcohol) and
carbon dioxide gas: v

glucose —» ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy

C6H1206 2C2H5OH 2C02 (210 kj)

We call this process alcoholic fermentation (Investigation 2). As with aerobic

respiration, this reaction does not take place in one go, but in a series of steps.
Compare the amount of energy produced by the two equations above; it is
given in kilojoules at the end of each equation. Notice that anaerobic
respiration does not produce as much energy as aerobic. In aerobic
respiration the sugar is broken down completely; in anaerobic respiration it is
Figure 1 Yeast cells seen under the microscope,
only partly broken down - a lot of energy is still locked up in the ethanol. This
greatly magnified. can be shown by burning some ethanol; the energy in it is then released as
heat. Though inefficient, alcoholic fermentation is a useful way of getting
energy when oxygen is scarce.
Fresh yeast bought from a shop looks like putty. But it is really a fungus
consisting of millions of tiny living cells (Figure 1). Wild yeast grows on the
surface of fruit, feeding on sugar. In the right conditions it multiplies rapidly
by budding; each cell pinches off new ones. A large number of cells can be
formed in a short time.
For centuries man has used yeast for making alcohol and bread.

Making alcohol
Basically all you need for making alcohol is sugar, yeast and water. But to
make a pleasant alcoholic drink it is not quite so simple, as any wine-maker
will tell you.
Wine is usually made from grapes. The grapes are crushed and the juice is
extracted. The juice contains sugai and wild yeast. The yeast ferments the
sugar and gradually turns it into alcohol.
Wine-making is an art which has been practised for over 4000 years.
Although the alcohol is always the same, every wine has its own flavour. This
depends on the type of grapes used and the conditions in which fermentation
is carried out. In parts of the tropics wine is made from the sap of palms.
People sometimes make home-made wine from other plants such as
elderberries, turnips or dandelions. Fermentation is usually carried out in a
large glass jar which is put in a warm place because fermentation occurs more
quickly in warm conditions. The jar is fitted with a valve which allows carbon
dioxide to escape but prevents bacteria from getting in (Figure 2). If bacteria
Figure 2 In making wine the jar is fitted with a do get in they may turn the alcohol into vinegar.
special kind of valve which allows carbon dioxide Beer is made from barley. The process is known as brewing. The grain,
to escape but prevents bacteria from getting in. which contains malt sugar, is mashed with water and the resulting liquid is
 Living without oxygen 201

Figure 3 Hops are climbing plants which are

grown in south-east England (Kent) and other
temperate parts of the world. This picture shows
them being taken off their poles in the summer. The
flowers are then gathered and dried, and used in
brewing beer.

is given the right flavour by boiling with hops (Figure 3). Then yeast is added
and fermentation commences. The sugar ip gradually converted into alcohol
(Figure 4).
One problem is that alcohol is poisonous in large amounts. If the
concentration of alcohol in fermenting wine or beer gets to more than about
14 per cent it kills the yeast and fermentation stops. This is why beer and
wine never contain more than this amount of alcohol. The only way to
produce a stronger alcoholic drink is to distil it after fermentation is
complete. The fermented liquid is heated to a certain temperature in a special
flask: the alcohol vapourises and condenses on the cool sides of the flask: the
drops of alcohol are then collected. This is how spirits such as whisky, gin
and rum are made.
Wine and beer-making used to be carried out mainly by monks in
monasteries, but now it is a major industry. In Great Britain over 6000 million
litres of beer are drunk each year. Yeast too is manufactured on a large scale.
For the pleasure (and the problems!) which we gain from a night in the pub
we have to thank this tiny organism.

Making bread
Imagine you are a baker. You mix some flour and water with a small amount
of sugar and yeast. This makes dough (Investigation 3). You then leave the
dough for an hour or so in a warm place. During this period the living yeast
cells multiply and give off carbon dioxide gas. The gas should make the Figure 4 Beer fermenting in a fermentation tank.
dough rise, more or less doubling its size (Figure 5). Then you bake the
dough in a hot oven: the heat kills the yeast and evaporates the alcohol.
Result? A crisp golden loaf if you're lucky - or a brick if you're not.

How do animals respire without oxygen?

If there is no oxygen available, animals break glucose down through a series
of small steps into lactic acid. In this case carbon dioxide is not given off.

glucose —> lactic acid + energy

C6H1206 2C3H603 (150 kj)

Animals which live in places where there is little or no oxygen respire

anaerobically. Here are some examples: worms living in mud at the bottom of
stagnant lakes; diving mammals such as whales and seals which can stay
under water for long periods; and parasites like the tapeworm which live in
the gut. And we can do it too.
If we take strenuous excercise our muscles need extra oxygen. Unfortun¬
ately we cannot breathe fast enough, nor pump our blood sufficiently quickly
to get oxygen to our muscles. So the muscles produce energy by making lactic
acid. Figure 5 Dough before and after rising.
202 Biology for life

-Investigation 1-
Can seeds respire without oxygen?
1 Pour some oil into a dish to a depth
of about 2 cm.

2 Lay a test tube on its side in the dish

so that it fills up with oil. There must
be no air in the test tube.

3 With a finger push about six soaked

peas or beans into the test tube,
and then up-end the test tube as
shown in the illustration. The seeds
have now been cut off from oxygen.

Think of running a 100 metre sprint (Figure 6). During the race lactic acid
builds up in your body. Lactic acid is a mild poison and it causes our muscles
to ache (Investigation 4). When the race is over we have to get rid of it. This is
done by breaking it down into carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is needed
for this, and it is why we pant immediately after the race. The oxygen
4 Set up a second apparatus exactly
required to get rid of the lactic acid is called the oxygen debt. If we incur an
like the first but with peas or beans
oxygen debt during a race, we must pay it off immediately afterwards.
that have been killed by boiling. This
Because the muscles can work for a short time without oxygen, a sprinter can
is your control.
hold his breath while running 100 metres.
In a long-distance race lactic acid builds up to begin with, but later it is 5 Leave the two sets of apparatus for
removed while the athlete is actually running. When this happens we say about 24 hours.
that the person has got his 'second wind'.
Anaerobic respiration produces far less energy than aerobic and it cannot 6 After 24 hours observe the two test
go on indefinitely. However, it can make the difference between life and tubes.
death. An antelope fleeing from a cheetah may owe its life to the fact that for Does one of the test tubes contain
a short time its muscles can produce energy without oxygen. gas? Which one?

7 Draw some strong potassium

How do bacteria respire without oxygen? hydroxide into a rubber pipette with
Many kinds of bacteria can live without oxygen. They ferment sugar but the a bent end. Insert the bent end of
end products vary. Some produce alcohol, others lactic acid. Some of them the pipette under the mouth of the
are useful to humans. For example, the ones that produce lactic acid are used test tube and let in a little potassium
for making butter, yoghurt and silage. Certain bacteria convert alcohol into hydroxide.
acetic acid (ethanoic acid), and so they are used for making vinegar. What happens to the gas in the test
Some anaerobic bacteria produce the gas methane (formula CH4). When tube?
this gas is burned heat energy is released. This 'biogas' is used as a fuel in
sewage works, and in the future it may become more widely used as an Potassium hydroxide absorbs
energy source. carbon dioxide. What does this tell
you about the gas in the test tube?

How long can organisms respire without oxygen ? What have you learned about
anaerobic respiration from this
For man the time is very short - a matter of seconds. Some lower animals and experiment?
plants can respire anaerobically for much longer periods, but eventually they
must return to aerobic respiration.
Certain bacteria and parasites can respire anaerobically all their lives. They
can live permanently in places where there is no oxygen. In fact some of them
are actually poisoned by oxygen.
 Living without oxygen 203

Investigation 2- -Investigation 4-
Finding out about the products of alcoholic fermentation To show the effect of lactic acid in
our muscles
1 Raise one arm above your head.

2 Clench and unclench your fist twice

a second for as long as you can.

3 Notice the feeling in your arm as you

exercise your muscles.

4 When you can continue no longer,

rest your arm on your lap and follow
what happens to the feeling.

How would you describe the feeling in

your arm during and after the exercise?

Does your experience fit in with the

1 Put some ten per cent glucose into a , 7 Leave the test tubes in a warm idea that lactic acid builds up in the
large test tube to a depth of 2 cm. place for at least an hour. Then muscles during exercise and is
examine them. removed afterwards?
2 Boil the glucose to expel any
oxygen present in it. Has the lime water gone cloudy? If it
has, carbon dioxide has been given
3 Cool it, then add a little yeast.
off.
4 Pour a thin layer of liquid paraffin on
Sniff the contents of the test tubes.
-Assignments-
top of the glucose to stop oxygen
Does either smell of alcohol? 1 A wine maker always makes sure
getting to the yeast.
Feel the two test tubes. Is one warmer that her equipment is absolutely
5 Set up the test tube as shown in the clean before she starts. Why do you
than the other?
illustration. thinkthis is important?
What conclusions do you draw from
6 Set up a second test tube exactly 2 Mr Smith and Mr Brown both make
this experiment?
like the first one but do not add any their own wine. Mr Smith leaves his
yeast to the glucose. This is your How might the experiment be to ferment in a sunny place whereas
control. improved? Mr Brown puts his in a shady place.
Whose would you expect to ferment
first and why?

3 Mrs Matthew makes some

Investigation 3- marmalade and stores it in jars in a
cupboard in the kitchen. When she
To find out if yeast makes dough rise 5 Into the second beaker put the opens one of the jars several
dough which does not contain months later the marmalade looks
1 Make a small amount of dough as
yeast. This is your control. frothy and smells of alcohol. What
follows. To 50 g of flour add water a
do you think has happened and
little at a time and mix with a knife. 6 Leave both beakers in a warm place
why? How might she prevent this
Don’t add too much water. for about an hour.
occurring in the future ?
2 Put some yeast in a test tube and 7 After an hour compare the
4 Why does anaerobic respiration
shake it up with some warm water. appearance of the dough in the two
produce less energy than aerobic
Add about 10 g of sugar and shake beakers.
respiration?
again.
Has either risen? If so which one - and
5 The following animals are all able to
3 Divide the dough into two portions. why?
respire anaerobically:
To one portion add the yeast
Why was it necessary to put some
suspension and mix it in well with a) whales, b) the beef tapeworm, (c)
sugar with the yeast before adding it to
your hands. Do not put any yeast threadworms.
the dough?
into the second portion.
Find out where each of these
Design, and if possible carry out, an
4 Grease the inside of two beakers. animals lives, and then explain why
experiment to find out the effect of
Into one beaker put the dough it is useful to it to be able to respire
temperature on the rising of dough.
which contains yeast. anaerobically.
 Blood, the living
What does blood consist of?
To the naked eye blood looks like a simple liquid. However, if you look at
some blood under the microscope, you can see that there is more to it than
An average sized person that (Investigation 1). In fact it is a very special kind of tissue in which
contains about five litres of numerous cells float about in a fluid (Figure 1).
The cells are of two types: red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood
blood - that's nearly a bucket full. In
cells (leucocytes). The fluid part of the blood is called plasma.
this Topic we will deal with the
main components of blood
and what they do. Red blood cells
The red blood cells are extremely numerous: a single drop of blood contains
millions of them. Their job is to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around the
body (Investigation 2).
The red blood cell has a very distinctive shape: it is a disc which looks as if it
has been pressed in on either side, like the wheel of a car (Figure 2). This
gives it a large surface area so it can take up more oxygen.
Another peculiar feature of red blood cells is that they do not have a
nucleus. The inside is filled with the red pigment haemoglobin - this is what
makes blood look red. Haemoglobin is a remarkable substance, and is
responsible for carrying the oxygen.

How does the blood carry oxygen ?

When red blood cells pass through the lungs, the haemoglobin readily takes
up oxygen. However, when it reaches the tissues it gives it up equally readily
(Figure 3). The movement of oxygen in and out of the red blood cells takes
place by diffusion.
How does haemoglobin work? When it combines with oxygen it is turned
into a compound called oxyhaemoglobin. In this form the oxygen is carried
by the blood from the lungs to the tissues. Once it has reached the tissues, the
oxyhaemoglobin releases the oxygen and is turned back into haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin contains iron, and this plays an important part in the way the
oxygen is carried. This is why we need iron in our food.

How does the blood carry carbon dioxide?

As the red blood cells pass through the tissues they pick up carbon dioxide.
Most of the carbon dioxide combines, not with the haemoglobin, but with
water to form carbonic acid. There is an enzyme inside the red cell which
causes the carbon dioxide to combine with the water extremely quickly. Once
the carbonic acid has been formed it splits into two parts. About seventy per
cent of the part containing the original carbon dioxide leaks out of the red
Figure 1 Human blood cells greatly magnified blood cells into the plasma; the rest remains in the red cells.

Red blood cells and carbon monoxide poisoning

Carbon monoxide is a gas which is given off by burning fuel. It is poisonous
because it affects our blood. It combines with haemoglobin about 300 times
more readily than oxygen does. The result is that if we breathe it in, it
displaces the oxygen from the red blood cells, so oxygen can't be carried to
the tissues. Breathing concentrated carbon monoxide gas for more than a few
minutes can be fatal.
Carbon monoxide is present in coal gas, but not in natural gas such as is
now used in many countries. It is also present in motor car exhaust fumes,
which is why it is dangerous to run a car engine in a closed garage. Small
amounts of it are also present in cigarette smoke, which is why people who
are not used to smoking feel faint when they smoke a cigarette.

How are red blood cells produced?

Figure 2 A human red blood cell sectioned to
show its characteristic shape. Red blood cells live for only about four months, after which they are
 Blood, the living fluid 205

destroyed. To keep up the full number in our bloodstream, new ones are
air breathed in and out
constantly being produced. They are made In the bone marrow, the soft
tissue in the centre of certain bones. About two million are manufactured
every second!
In certain circumstances red blood cells are produced at an even faster rate,
so the number in the blood increases. This happens, for example, when
people live at high altitudes where there is not so much oxygen in the air.
Their extra red blood cells help them to get enough oxygen to their tissues.
This is an important aspect of acclimatisation (see page 192).
If a person's blood does not contain enough red blood cells, or enough
haemoglobin, he suffers from anaemia. An anaemic person is tired and pale.
Anaemia can be caused by not getting enough iron in our food, or by losing a
lot of blood.

White blood cells

There is roughly one white cell for every 700 red cells. They do not contain
haemoglobin and they have a nucleus just like most other kinds of cell. Their
job is to kill germs which get into the body, so they help to defend us against
disease.
There are two main kinds of white blood cell in our bodies: phagocytes and
lymph cells (lymphocytes). They are manufactured in the bone marrow.
Extra ones are produced when we are ill and need a good supply.

Phagocytes Figure 3 Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to

the tissues, and carbon dioxide from the tissues to
Phagocytes are remarkable cells. They move and feed like Amoeba. When a the lungs.
phagocyte comes into contact with a germ, it engulfs it and takes it into its
body. The germ is then killed and digested (Figure 4A).
Phagocytes are the police of the body. They patrol the bloodstream and
tissues, waiting for germs to arrive. If the body becomes infected they wriggle
to the site of the infection and attack the germs. It's like a battle, and the place
where it happens becomes red, swollen and painful. We call this
inflammation. As in a real battle, there are casualties on both sides: the
remains of dead bacteria and phagocytes accumulate to form pus. Sometimes
the inflamed area swells up into a boil. Pressure builds up inside the boil, so
that eventually it bursts.

Lymph cells
Suppose you are attacked by the virus which causes measles. When the virus
A Phagocyte
gets into your bloodstream it is detected by your lymph cells. This type of white blood cell kills
When a lymph cell detects the viruses, it produces a chemical substance germs by eating them
which kills them (Figure 4B). Not all the viruses are killed instantly. Some of
them multiply and damage your tissues, and this makes you feel ill. But
gradually your lymph cells overcome them and you begin to feel better.
What causes the lymph cells to behave in this way? Germs contain chemical
substances which we call antigens. When antigens get into your body they
stimulate the lymph cells to produce chemical substances called antibodies.
The antibodies then combine with the antigens, and this kills the germs.
Exactly how the germs are killed varies from one kind of antibody to B Lymph cell
another. Some antibodies make the germs burst; others stick to the surface of This type of white blood cell sends out antibodies which
the germ, making it easier for phagocytes to engulf it; and there are some kill germs

which make the germs clump together, after which they may be eaten up by
phagocytes. In the case of germs which release poisonous substances, the
antibodies combine with the poison making it harmless. Such antibodies are
called antitoxins.
Some unfortunate people develop a disease known as leukaemia, a sort of
cancer of the blood. The number of white blood cells increases greatly, and
they start destroying the red blood cells. There are different kinds of Figure 4 The two main types of white blood cell
leukaemia, some more serious than others. Some kinds can be treated quite found in the human bloodstream. The dark object
in each of the cells is the nucleus
successfully with certain drugs.
206 Biology for life

Plasma -Investigation 1-
This is the fluid part of the blood in which the cells float around (Investigation
Looking at blood
3). It consists mainly of water, but many important substances are dissolved
in it. They include salts, food substances such as glucose, excretory This experiment involves drawing your
substances such as urea, hormones, and an important group of substances own blood. This must be done under
called plasma proteins. There are three kinds of plasma protein and each has proper supervision in strictly hygienic
a particular job to do: conditions to avoid any possibility of
transmitting infection. Alternatively use
1 Albumen blood from a blood bank, or a prepared
This is the same protein as is found in the 'white' of an egg. It makes the slide.
blood thick and viscous.
1 Put an elastic band round one of
your fingers.
2 Globulin
This kind of protein is produced by the lymph cells for destroying germs. It 2 Clean the skin of your finger by
constitutes the antibodies. Certain types of globulin are also needed for the rubbing it with cotton wool soaked in
clotting of blood. ethanol.

3 With a sterile lancet prick the tip of

3 Fibrinogen
your finger with a firm jab, so a drop
This protein plays an important part in the clotting of blood which is
discussed in the next Topic.

Fibrinogen can be taken out of the plasma by allowing it to clot and then
removing the clot. What's left is a colourless fluid called serum.
It's essential that the plasma should contain just the right amount of water
and salt and other substances. If these are allowed to vary, the blood cells
may gain or lose water as a result of osmosis, and this could damage them
(Investigation 4). 4 Place the drop of blood at one end
Floating in the plasma are small bodies called platelets. They are formed of a microscope slide.
from certain bone marrow cells, and they play an important part in the
clotting of blood.

Summary of the functions of blood

Blood does three different kinds of job: transport, protection and regulation.
5 With another slide spread the blood
Transport over the surface of the slide so it
1 It carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the forms a smear.
tissues to the lungs.
2 It carries dissolved food substances from the gut to the various parts of the
body.
3 It carries unwanted substances to the kidneys which then get rid of them.
4 It carries hormones from one part of the body to another.
5 It carries antibodies from place to place.
6 Let the blood smear dry, then
examine it under the microscope:
Protection
low power first, then high power.
1 By clotting it prevents fluid being lost from cuts and wounds.
2 It protects us against disease by killing germs. Can you see red blood cells?

White blood cells will only show up if

Regulation
they are stained.
1 It helps control the amount of water in the tissues.
2 It helps to regulate the amounts of various chemical substances in the 7 Cover the smear with Leishman’s
tissues. stain and leave it for five minutes.
3 It helps to keep our body temperature constant by spreading warmth Then gently wash the stain off with
evenly around the body. tap water.

8 Let the slide dry, then examine it

Many of these functions are discussed in more detail in later Topics.
under the microscope again

Can you see any white blood cells like

those in Figure 4?
 Blood, the living fluid 207

Investigation 2 - -Investigation 3 - :Assignments—

The effect of gases on blood Separating the components of blood 1 Write down three ways red and
white blood cells differ in their
Use blood from a blood bank or This investigation involves using a
structure.
slaughterhouse. The blood has been centrifuge, a machine in which a liquid
What job does each do?
prevented from clotting by having can be spun round and round very
sodium oxalate added to it. rapidly. 2 Why is it dangerous to breathe in
motor car exhaust? Explain the
1 Pour equal amounts of blood into 1 Take some blood which has been
reason tor your answer.
two small flasks. obtained from a blood bank.
3 There are approximately five million
2 Bubble oxygen through the blood in 2 Fill two centrifuge tubes with the
red blood cells in a cubic millimetre
one flask, and carbon dioxide blood.
of human blood, and the total
through the other.
3 Spin the tubes for five minutes in the volume of blood in the whole body is
How do they differ in colour? centrifuge. This will throw any solid about five litres. Each red blood cell
objects to the bottom of the tubes. has a surface area of about 120
square micrometres.
4 Stop the centrifuge and take out the
a) How many red blood cells are
tubes. Notice the clear fluid towards
there in the entire bloodstream?
r the top of the tube, and the red
b) What will be the total surface
sediment at the bottom.
area of all the red blood cells?
What is the clear fluid? Give your answer in square
metres.
What does the sediment consist of?
4 In the lungs there is a steep
Approximately what percentage of
diffusion gradient favouring the
the blood is made up of red blood
passage of oxygen from the alveoli
cells?
into the blood.
a) What do you understand by the
term 'diffusion gradient’?
-Investigation 4 -— b) How is this steep diffusion
gradient maintained?
3 Bubble oxygen through the blood The effect of osmosis on red blood
which has just had carbon dioxide cells 5 In what form is carbon dioxide
put into it. carried in the blood? Laboratory
This experiment involves drawing your experiments have shown that the
What happens to its colour? own blood. This must be done under greater the amount of carbon
proper supervision in strictly hygienic dioxide present in the blood, the
4 Bubble carbon dioxide through the
conditions to avoid any possibility of less firmly haemoglobin holds onto
blood which had oxygen put into it.'
transmitting infection. oxygen. Why do you think this is
What happens to its colour? important in the body?
1 Label three microscope slides A, B
5 Draw air out of the oxygenated and C. 6 A scientist investigated the number
blood with a vacuum pump. What of red blood cells possessed by
2 Obtain a drop of blood from your
happens to its colour? What do we people living at sea level and in a
finger or thumb with a sterile lancet
learn from this experiment about the mountainous region at a height of
(see Investigation 1).
functions of blood? 5860 metres. Here are her results:
3 Place a small drop on each slide.
Why do you think that the blood which Sea Level 5.0 million per mm3
has had oxygen bubbled through it 4 To A add a drop of distilled water. 5860 metres 7.4 million per mm3
differs in colour from the blood which To B add a drop of 0.75 per cent salt
solution. Why do you think they differ?
has had carbon dioxide bubbled
through it? To C add a drop of 3.0 per cent salt 7 A human red blood cell has a
solution. diameter of about 8.0 micrometres.
Where in the human body does blood
5 Put a coverslip on each slide. What is the approximate
(a) gain oxygen, (b) lose oxygen, (c)
magnification of the blood cells in
gain carbon dioxide, (d) lose carbon 6 Examine each slide under the Figure 1 on page 204.?
dioxide? microscope at regular intervals.
8 When a doctor injects a fluid into a
What do we learn from this experiment What happens to the red blood
person’s bloodstream, he always
about the way blood carries oxygen cells?
uses a fluid which has the same
and carbon dioxide? concentration as the blood. Why?
Explain your observations.
 More about
Becoming immune to diseases
blood Once you have had a disease like measles you are protected against getting it
again. A doctor would say that you have now developed immunity against
In this Topic
the disease.
we will look in detail We can explain immunity like this. The first attack taught your lymph cells
at how our blood helps to how to make antibodies against measles. Once your lymph cells have learned
protect us, particularly how to do this, they will make antibodies more quickly in future. When a
from disease. second attack comes, the lymph cells leap into action so quickly that the
germs are destroyed before they have a chance to do any damage.
Having a particular disease will protect you against that disease in the
antibody antigen j( future, in some cases for life. However, it won't protect you against other

-i
diseases. This is because the antibodies you produce against, say, measles
| germ will act only against the measles germs - they will not act against any other
kinds of germs. The reason for this is explained in Figure 1.
Sometimes people get a mild attack of a disease when they are young - so
mild they don't even notice it. However, it causes them to make antibodies,
so they are protected from this particular disease when they are grown up.
Babies are protected against some diseases by getting antibodies from the

i
mother, either across the placenta or from her milk. However, antibodies
| germ picked up from another person like this are destroyed after a short time and
so protection does not last very long. Nevertheless it helps to get the baby
through the first few weeks of life, while it makes its own antibodies.
There are a few diseases which we seem never to become immune to - the
V common cold for instance. This is because colds are caused by many different
Figure 1 Why will a particular antibody attack only types of viruses, and one type is constantly changing into another. When you
one kind of germ? The antigen on the surface of this get a cold, it may give you immunity against that particular virus in the
germ has a shape which will only allow an antibody
future. However, your next cold will probably be caused by a different type of
with a corresponding shape to fit onto it.
virus, against which you have no protection.
The same sort of processes that defend us against disease are responsible
for rejecting organs which are given to patients in transplant operations. For
a patient to accept, say, a kidney from another person, the two individuals
must have the same genes - as is the case with identical twins. Otherwise the
body treats the organ as a foreign intruder like a germ, and destroys it. Before
carrying out a transplant operation, the surgeon always makes sure the organ
matches the patient's genes as closely as possible. In addition, drugs are used
to suppress the normal immunity response so that, with luck, the patient will
accept the new organ.

Blood clotting
Normally when you bleed from a cut, the blood soon hardens and the
bleeding stops. The hardening of the blood is called clotting (Investigation 1).
Clotting is important because it stops too much blood being lost through cuts
and wounds, prevents germs entering and is the first step towards healing.

Hozv does clotting take place?

The damaging of the tissues triggers off a chain reaction. In the last step of
this process, the plasma protein fibrinogen is turned into a meshwork of
solid fibres called fibrin (Figure 2). For this to happen a substance called
thrombin has to be formed in the blood first.
Many different chemical substances are needed for thrombin to form.
We are born with some of them; others we get from our food - calcium and
vitamin K for example. Vitamin K is found in cabbage and spinach and after
being eaten it is stored for a short time in the liver.
Also important are the small bodies found in the blood called platelets.
When they come into contact with an unfamiliar surface they cause thrombin
Figure 2 When blood clots, a meshwork of fibres is
to be formed.
formed as shown in this photograph, which was
obtained by means of an electron microscope. The Occasionally a person is born without one of the substances needed for
objects which look like deflated footballs are red blood-clotting. This may result in bleeder's disease or haemophilia in which
blood cells greatly magnified.
the blood takes an exceptionally long time to dot, so that the person may lose
 More about blood 209

a great deal of blood from even a small cut. This is an inherited disease and
runs in families. At one time the royal families of Europe suffered from it.
It is obviously desirable that blood should clot when we are cut or
wounded. However, it would be fatal if this happened while the blood is
flowing through the blood vessels. To prevent this, our blood vessels contain
substances which prevent clotting. These are anticoagulants.

What happens if we lose a lot of blood?

Despite the clotting process, a person may lose a lot of blood after an
accident, or if one of her blood vessels bursts. Losing blood is called a
haemorrhage. A person can lose a litre or two of blood without ill effects, but
if more than this is lost she is in danger for two reasons:

1 Her blood pressure is reduced, and this slows down the flow of blood
round the body.
2 The number of red blood cells is reduced, so the oxygen-carrying power of
her blood is lowered.
/

All sorts of consequences follow, but the main one is that not enough oxygen
gets to the brain, so the person may go unconscious and eventually die.
However, her life may be saved by giving her a blood transfusion.

Figure 3 This girl is being given a blood

Blood transfusions transfusion.
During a blood transfusion the person is given blood which has been taken
from voluntary blood donors. The donor blood is put into a vein in the
patient's arm through a narrow tube (Figure 3). Usually 'whole blood' is
given, but sometimes plasma alone is used. This restores the blood pressure,
so the blood will move round at its normal speed. Over the next few weeks
the patient makes new red blood cells to replace the ones that she has lost.
BLOOD GROUP A BLOOD GROUP B
type A substances anti-A substances
Do blood transfusions always work? are present in the are present in the
Blood transfusions were first carried out during the First World War. In some donor's red blood cells patient's plasma

cases they worked, but in many cases the results were disastrous: the donor's
red blood cells stuck together, blocking the patient's blood vessels and
causing death. This sticking together of the red blood cells is called
agglutination.
We now know that for a blood transfusion to be successful, the two lots of
blood must belong to compatible blood groups.

What are blood groups?

Everyone's blood belongs to one of four different groups which we call A, B,
AB and O. The letters A and B refer to certain substances which are present in
the red blood cells: AB means that both are present, and O means that neither
is present. Now in the plasma there are anti-A and anti-B substances, but you
never find blood in which these are present with the corresponding red blood
cell substances. Agglutination occurs if the donor's red blood cells come into contact
with the corresponding anti-substances in the patient's plasma (Figure 4). If bloods
of different groups are mixed together, agglutination of the red blood cells
may occur.
In addition to the A and B substances, there is another substance in red
blood cells called the Rhesus factor, so-called because it was first discovered
in a type of monkey known as the Rhesus monkey. People who have this
the anti-A substances cause the red blood cells
substance in their blood are described as Rhesus positive; people who don't to stick together, causing agglutination
have it are Rhesus negative. If Rhesus positive blood is given to a Rhesus
negative person, agglutination will occur. Figure 4 Diagram showing why agglutination may
Before a blood transfusion is carried out, doctors always make sure that the occur when blood of different blood groups is mixed
patient's blood is compatible with the transfused blood, with respect to both together.
210 Biology for life

the ABO and Rhesus systems. The blood groups are determined by means of -Investigation 1 -
a simple compatibility test (Investigation 2).
We inherit our blood groups from our parents. The percentages of people To find out how long blood takes to
with different blood groups vary from one country to another. The clot
commonest groups are usually O, A and Rhesus positive. The rarest is AB.
This investigation involves drawing
This information is important to doctors because it tells them which particular
your own blood. This must be done
blood groups are likely to be needed most for blood transfusions.
under proper supervision in strictly
There is a special problem with the Rhesus system. If a Rhesus negative
hygienic conditions to avoid any
mother bears a Rhesus positive baby, the baby's blood may agglutinate. The
possibility of transmitting infection.
reason is explained in Figure 5. The baby's life may be saved by giving it a
transfusion of Rhesus negative blood while it is still in the womb. 1 Prick the tip of a finger with a sterile
lancet and squeeze out a little blood
(see Investigation 1, page 206).
Giving blood
2 Place two drops of blood side by
Hospitals always need a supply of blood for use when needed. Many people
side on a white tile.
give blood. First a drop of the donor's blood is tested to find out what group
he belongs to. Then about half a litre of blood is taken from a vein in the arm
and drained into a bottle. He then needs to rest for a little while. After that he
can resume his normal activities. The blood which he has lost will soon be
replaced by his own body.
Meanwhile an anticoagulant is added to the blood which the donor has
given, to stop it clotting. The blood is then stored at a temperature just above
freezing in a blood bank. The blood is normally kept for about a month. It
cannot be used for transfusions after that because too many red blood cells
3 To one drop of blood add a very
will have died by then. However, plasma can be stored for years.
small drop of sodium citrate
solution.

Mother Baby
Rhesus negative Rhesus positive

placenta

r
2 fragments of red blood cells get across
placenta towards the end of pregnancy
4 To the other drop of blood add a
very small drop of water.
1 baby’s red blood cells
contain Rhesus antigens
5 Stir.each drop with a needle, and
keep stirring until the blood begins
to clot.
3 mother produces
antibodies against
baby's Rhesus antigens

How long does it take for the blood

to clot?
5 baby's red blood What effect does the sodium citrate
cells stuck together
and destroyed have on clotting?

When a person gives blood at a blood

Figure 5 This diagram shows what may happen if a Rhesus negative mother has a
donation centre, a small amount of
Rhesus positive baby. In the first baby only a small proportion of the red blood cells are
destroyed, but second and subsequent babies, if Rhesus positive, may suffer from citrate is added to the blood: why?
massive destruction of their red blood cells.
 More about blood 211

Investigation 2 -Assignments
Finding your blood group 1 Give two reasons why it is
Use a blood group test card: examine it carefully first. You will need to get a dangerous to lose more than two
drop of blood from your finger or thumb. This must be done under proper litres of blood.
supervision in strictly hygienic conditions to avoid any possibility of
2 Explain the reasons for each of the
transmitting infection.
following:
1 Pipette one drop of water onto each 6 Wipe the stick, then mix another
a) Not more than half a litre of blood
of the test panels. drop of blood with the reagent in
is normally taken from a blood
each of the other panels. Wipe the
2 Mix the water and reagent in each donor.
stick between each one.
panel with the flat end of a plastic b) After a person has given blood
stick. Clean the stick thoroughly 7 Tilt the card backwards and he or she is advised to sit down
between finishing one panel and forwards so as to mix the blood quietly for about half an hour.
moving to the next. thoroughly with the reagents in the c) A little sodium citrate is usually
test panels. added to blood which has been
3 Obtain a drop of blood from your
given by a donor.
finger or thumb with a sterile lancet In which test panel or panels has the
d) Complete blood is only kept for
(see Investigation 1, page 206). blood agglutinated?
/ about a month after it has been
4 Place the blood on the flat end of the 8 Find your blood group from this obtained from a blood donor, but
plastic stick as shown. table: plasma may be kept much
longer.

Agglutination in anti-A panel means 3 The poison of certain snakes

you are group A. causes the blood of their victims to
clot inside the blood vessels,
Agglutination in anti-B panel means
thereby blocking the vessels.
you are group B
Suggest two different ways by
Agglutination in both panels means which this effect might be brought
you are group AB about.

Agglutination in neither panel 4 A person belonging to blood group

means you are group O O has anti-A and anti-B substances
in his plasma.
Agglutination in anti-Rh panel
means you are Rh positive a) What can you say about the
substances in his red blood
No agglutination in anti-Rh panel
cells?
means you are Rh negative.
b) He is described as a universal
donor. Why?
5 Mix the blood with the reagent in the 9 Write down the blood groups of
left-hand test panel, spreading it everyone else in your class and 5 In trying to find their own blood
evenly over the whole panel. work out the percentage of students groups, four pupils in a school
belonging to each group. mixed drops of their blood with
different kinds of serum:
Compare the percentages with
John got agglutination with anti-A
those given for Britain below.
serum but not with anti-B,
In each case indicate whether your
David got agglutination with anti-B
class figures are higher or lower
serum but not with anti-A;
than the British figures:
Susan got no agglutination with
ABO system either serum; and Anna got
Group percentage agglutination with both sera.
0 47%
A 41% a) Which blood group does each
B 9% pupil belong to?
AB 3% b) Whose blood group is needed
most in blood donation centres,
Rhesus system and why?
Rh+ 85% c) What causes agglutination?
Rh- 15%
 ■How does blood
The general plan of the human circulation
move round the The main organ in our circulatory system is the heart, which is situated in the

body? chest between the lungs. The heart is hollow and its wall contains muscles: its
job is to pump the blood round the body.
The blood flows round the body in tube-like blood vessels which
Blood constantly flows eventually lead back to the heart. The blood vessels which carry blood away
round the body, and this is from the heart are called arteries. Those that bring blood back to it are called
called the circulation. The various veins. The arteries and veins are connected by narrow, thin-walled
capillaries.
structures through which the
As blood flows through the capillaries, oxygen and other useful substances
blood flows all belong to the pass out of them to the surrounding cells, and unwanted substances pass in
circulatory system. the reverse direction. In this way the capillaries bring life to the cells and
maintain them in a state of health and repair.
The capillaries are extremely numerous and every organ contains
thousands of them: no cell is mote than a twentieth of a millimetre from the
nearest one. If a person's capillaries were laid end to end, they would stretch
round the world two and a half times!

A closer look at the circulation

If you look at Figure 1, you will see that there are really two circulations: one
serves the lungs and the other serves the rest of the body. The heart is
divided by a partition into left and right halves. Blood is pumped from the
right side of the heart to the lungs where it takes up oxygen. The oxygenated
blood is taken back to the left side of the heart and is then pumped to the rest
of the body. The oxygen is taken up by the various organs as the blood passes
through them. The deoxygenated blood then returns to the right side of the
heart, and the cycle is repeated.
Each side of the heart consists of two chambers: an atrium (plural: atria)*
and a ventricle (Investigation 1). Both have muscles in their walls, but the
walls of the ventricles are much thicker and more muscular than those of the
atria. The ventricles play the most important part in pumping blood round
the body. The heart and circulation are shown in detail in Figures 2 and 3.

The heart as a pump

The heart contracts approximately 70 times a minute throughout our life:
that's over 100 000 times a day. This is made possible by the muscles in its
wall. Heart muscle differs from other kinds of muscle in that it does not get
tired. Try clenching your fist at the rate of 70 times per minute and your hand
muscles will soon give up. Heart muscle, however, has no difficulty in
working at this rate.
Each contraction of the heart is followed by relaxation during which the
heart wall returns to its original position. When it relaxes, blood is sucked
into it from the veins. When it contracts, the blood is pumped out of the heart
into the arteries. So blood flows through the heart in only one direction. This
is made possible by valves which prevent the blood flowing backwards
(Figure 4).
The heart is made to pump regularly by little pulses of electricity which are
sent out from a pacemaker in the wall of the right atrium. Sometimes the
deoxygenated blood
pacemaker doesn't work properly and the person has to have an artificial
electronic pacemaker fixed to the chest.
j oxygenated blood Every time the heart beats it sets up a wave of pressure which travels along
the main arteries. This is called a pulse wave, and if you put your finger on
your skin just above the artery in your wrist you can feel it as a slight throb
(Investigation 2). Doctors and nurses often feel a patient's pulse to see if the
Figure 1 General plan of the human circulation. It
heart is beating at its normal rate. It is also possible to hear the heart by
is usual to show pictures of the human anatomy
from the ventral (belly) side, so in this diagram the putting your ear, or better still a stethoscope, against a person's chest
right-hand side of the heart is on the left, and the (Investigation 3).
left-hand side of the heart is on the right. In order to contract repeatedly and powerfully throughout life, the heart
muscles must have a good supply of oxygen. This they get through a system
*The atria are also known as auricles. of coronary arteries which spread over the heart wall.
 How does blood move round the body? 213

head and arms

jugular vein
carotid artery

anterior vena cava

pulmonary artery
brachial vein heart

posterior vena cava aorta

brachial artery

femoral vein

femoral artery

The main blood vessels

Oxygenated blood red,
deoxygenated blood blue.

General plan of the circulation

Oxygenated blood red,
deoxygenated blood blue.

Figure 2 The human circulatory system.

HEART EXPANDING
(diastole)

Ventricular muscle relaxes

Atrio-ventricular valves open
Arterial valves close
Blood flows from the atria
into ventricles

HEART CONTRACTING
(systole)

Ventricular muscle contracts

Atrio-ventricular valves close
Arterial valves open
Blood flows from ventricles
into arteries
Chords become tight and
prevent atrio-ventricular
valves turning inside out

Figure 3 The heart in detail. Note how the aorta and pulmonary artery twist round each
other. The atrio-ventricular valves consist of flaps which are attached to the sides of the Figure 4 These diagrams show how blood flows
ventricles by tough chords, the heart strings. The arterial valves are like little pockets. through the heart. The valves prevent the blood
Oxygenated blood, red arrows, deoxygenated blue arrows. flowing backwards.
214 Biology for life

CAPILLARY
when blood flows
wall consisting of
forward it pushes
single layer of cells
past the valves...

...but if it flows
backwards it gets
caught in the pockets

- pocket valve

fibrous layer
(elastic)
muscle layer

VEIN ARTERY
Figure 5 Cross-section of an artery (top) as seen
under the microscope. Note that the artery is
narrower than the vein and has a thicker wall. Figure 6 The three types of blood vessel found in the circulatory system.

The blood, vessels

Figures 5 and 6 show the structure of an artery, vein and capillary. Their
structure suits them to their particular jobs.
The arteries have a narrow cavity and tough elastic walls containing
smooth muscle (see page 138). The walls press back against the blood as it
flows through them. This helps to force the blood along quickly, much as
water is forced along a narrow hosepipe.
The capillaries are only just wide enough to allow the red blood cells to
pass along in single file. Their walls are very thin, consisting of a single layer
of flattened cells. This enables oxygen and other substances to diffuse
through easily.
By the time the blood gets through the capillaries into the veins, the
pressure pushing it along is greatly reduced, and it is now mainly moving
against gravity. This makes it difficult for the blood to get back to the heart.
However, the veins are wider and have thinner walls than the arteries, so
they have more 'give' and let the blood along more easily. Also they contain
valves which prevent the blood slipping back. Movement and exercise also
Figure 7 A doctor taking a patient’s blood help to keep the blood going because the contraction of the leg muscles
pressure. The pressure is registered by the squeezes the blood along the veins.
mercury manometer. The doctor has wrapped an
inflatable band round the upper arm and is
listening to the pulse with a stethoscope. He pumps Blood pressure
up the arm band until it is so tight that it stops
blood passing down the main artery of the arm; this The pumping action of the heart, combined with the narrowness of the
makes the pulse disappear. He now lets the air smaller vessels, results in a considerable pressure being built up in the
very slowly out of the arm band. As he does so
arteries. This is what we mean when we talk about 'blood pressure'. It's
there comes a moment when he can hear the
patient’s pulse again. At this point the blood important that our blood pressure should be reasonably high because it keeps
manages to pass the arm band every time the the blood on the move.
heart contracts (systolic pressure). The doctor People's blood pressure varies according to what they are doing. In general
continues to let air out of the arm band until a
anything which makes the heart beat faster, or the arteries get narrower, will
moment is reached when the pulse gets very much
quieter. At this point the blood passes the arm
increase the blood pressure. For example, anger, excitement and exercise all
band continuously even when the heart is relaxing have this effect.
(diastolic pressure) The blood pressure goes up and down as the heart beats. It is highest when
 How does blood move round the body? 215

the heart contracts (systolic pressure), and lowest when the heart relaxes
(diastolic pressure). If a person goes to the doctor feeling tired and run down,
one of the first things the doctor does is to measure his blood pressure (Figure
7). He measures both the systolic and diastolic pressures and expresses them
as a fraction. For example, a healthy person's blood pressure should be
around 120/70. This means that his systolic pressure is 120 millimetres of
mercury and his diastolic pressure 70 millimetres.

The circulation during exercise

Suppose you run a race. During the exercise your heart beats faster
(Investigation 4). What makes this happen? The answer is that extra carbon
dioxide is produced by your muscles and this starts to build up in your
bloodstream. The brain senses this is happening, and it sends nerve impulses
to the heart making it beat faster. This is an automatic reflex: it happens
without you having to think about it.
The result of the heart beating faster is that more blood can be sent to the
muscles. The arteries serving the muscles widen, whereas those serving less
needful organs get narrower. The result is Jhat extra blood is diverted to the
structures that need it most.

What can go wrong with the circulation?

One of the most common defects of the circulation is high blood pressure or
hypertension. We all develop a high blood pressure at one time or another,
when we take exercise for example, but some people have high blood
pressure all the time. This puts an extra strain on the heart, and may lead to
heart failure. It also pushes out the walls of the arteries, and may burst them
- just as a balloon will burst if you blow it up too much. The risk of this
happening is greatest in old people whose arteries have become fragile.
Sometimes an artery bursts inside the brain, and the spillage of blood kills the
cells in that part of the brain. This results in a stroke, qnd it may leave the
person partly paralysed and unable to speak properly. A severe stroke can be
fatal.
What causes high blood pressure? We don't know, but it is frequently
associated with the stress and tensions of modern life, over-eating and
drinking too much alcohol.
Another defect of the circulation is hardening of the arteries. This is caused
by a fatty substance called cholesterol being laid down in the walls of the
vessels, making them narrower and slowing the flow of blood through them.
Where this happens, a blood clot may occur inside the artery, completely
blocking it. The structures served by that particular artery will no longer
receive any oxygen. If this happens in one of the coronary vessels, the part of
the heart deprived of oxygen stops contracting and the result is a heart attack.
If only a small area of the heart is affected, the person may recover, but if a
large part is involved, the attack may be fatal. The person's life may be saved
by massaging the heart (Figure 8).
Sometimes a blood clot gets lodged in one of the arteries serving the brain,
and this is another cause of a stroke.
What causes hardening of the arteries? There is some debate about this, but
eating large amounts of animal fat appears to raise the amount of cholesterol
in the body and increase the chances of it happening (see page 151). So does
smoking (see page 196).
The defects mentioned so far are all serious, but other less serious things
may go wrong with our circulation. For example, the flow of blood through
some of the veins may become sluggish and the valves may not work
properly. The back-pressure of blood stretches the walls of these veins which
become flabby, like thin bags. These are called varicose veins, and they are
particularly liable to develop just under the skin at the back of the legs.
Sometimes the same thing happens in the wall of the rectum where it gives Figure 8 A person who has had a heart attack can
rise to piles or haemorrhoids. sometimes be saved by cardiac massage.
216 Biology for life

-Investigation 1 -

Looking at the heart

1 Look at the heart of a mammal such
as a pig or sheep obtained from the
butcher. The heart has been cut
open, so you can look inside.

2 Decide which side of the heart is

dorsal, and which side is ventral.
The more rounded (convex) side is
the ventral.

3 Identify the two atria, and the

ventricles.

How do they differ in size and

shape?
feel pulse with this finger
4 Feel the atria and ventricles with
your fingers. You can find how fast your heart is Write down the number of beats per
beating, that is your heart rate, by minute each time.
How do they differ in the way they
feeling your pulse.
feel? Work out your average heart rate.
Explain the reason for the 1 Sit down comfortably in a chair with As this is your heart rate when sitting
difference. the palm of your hand facing down, it is called the resting heart
upwards. rate.
5 Look at the large blood vessels
attached to the heart. 2 Gently place the middle finger of 5 Stand up for one minute.
your other hand on your wrist as
Can you recognise the vessels 6 Still standing, take your pulse
shown in the illustration. Can you
shown in Figure 3? another five times.
feel your pulse as a repeated throb?
Which ones are arteries and which
If necessary change the position of Work out your average heart rate in
ones are veins?
your finger, until you can feel your beats per minute. This is called your
How do the arteries and veins differ
pulse really well. standing heart rate.
from each other?
3 Count the number of heart beats in How do your resting and standing
6 Observe the narrow blood vessels
one minute. heart rates differ?
ramifying over the surface of the
ventricles, and notice where they 4 Repeat step 3 four times. Why do you think they are different?
come from. These are the coronary
vessels.
What is their function?
What would happen if one of them
-Investigation 3
became blocked? Listening to the heart
7 Look at the cut which has been Work in pairs, one person acting as the patient's heart by listening to it with
made in the wall of the ventricles. subject. The subject should sit down a stethoscope?
What is the wall made of? comfortably. What do you think causes the heart
Has one of the ventricles got a sounds?
1 Put the bell of a stethoscope against
thicker wall than the other? 3 Learn how to feel the pulse (see
the chest wall and listen.
Why do you think they differ in this investigation 2).
way? Can you hear regular thud-like
sounds? 4 Now feel the pulse, and listen to the
8 Look inside one of the ventricles. heart sounds at the same time.
2 Listen with the bell of the
Which structures shown in Figure 3 stethoscope in different positions. Notice that there is a time lag
can you see? between the heart sounds and the
In particular notice the valves. Where is the best place to put the
pulse.
What are their functions? stethoscope for the sounds to be
loudest? What is the time lag caused by?
In what ways is the heart suited to its
What kind of information do you
job of pumping blood round the body? In what circumstances would you
think the doctor can get about a
expect the time lag to be shorter?
 How does blood move round the body? 217

-Investigation 4- Assignments-
To find the effect of exercise on the 1 A person’s blood pressure can be a) Give the speed in the capillaries
heart rate recorded continuously by means of as a percentage of the speed in
an electronic pressure gauge the arteries.
1 Measure your standing heart rate by
feeling your pulse (see Investigation placed inside one of the arteries. b) What do you think causes the
2). Write down your heart rate in difference?
Here is a recording obtained in this
beats per minute. c) Why is it desirable for blood to
way:
flow through the capillaries
2 ■ Do steady walking on the spot for comparatively slowly?
three minutes.
5 The blood system has been likened
3 Immediately after walking, measure to a bus route. In this comparison,
your heart rate again. Write down each of the items listed on the left
your new heart rate in beats per below is equivalent to one of those
minute. Time in 0.5 sec on the right. Write them down in the
How does it differ from the standing correct pairs.
a) Why do you think the pressure
heart rate? Circulation Bus route
goes up and down all the time?
How would you explain the / b) Give two circumstances in which heart roads
difference? you would expect the frequency blood cells engines
of the waves to increase. vessels buses
4 Stand still and wait until your heart oxygen bus stops
rate returns to its normal standing 2 Suggest a reason for each of the capillaries passengers
rate. following:
In your town which bus route is most
5 Do some hard exercise for three a) the right atrium is larger than the like the human blood system?
minutes. Stepping exercises are left atrium;
suitable, such as stepping up onto a b) the left ventricle has a thicker,
6 The chart below shows the pulse
stool and down again at a steady more muscular wall than the right
rate of a patient measured at four
rate. ventricle;
hourly intervals every day.
c) arteries have more muscle in
a) Can you detect a regular pattern
their walls than veins;
in the way the pulse rate
d) capillaries have very thin walls;
changes? If so, describe the
e) veins contain valves.
pattern.
3 Devise an experiment which you b) Do you have any criticism of the
could do to test the suggestion that way the pulse rate is graphed in
veins have more stretchable walls the chart?
than arteries. c) What were the highest and
lowest values of the pulse rate
4 The average speed of the blood in during the period in question and
the arteries is 45 cm/s, but the when were they recorded?
average speed in the capillaries is d) Give possible reasons why the
only 0.5 mm/s.
pulse rate reached these
particular values.

6 Immediately after the exercise, Fri Sat Sun Mon Tues Wed Thurs
measure your heart rate every A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M.

minute until it returns to the normal

standing rate. Write down your heart
rate in beats per minute for each
minute.
How does your heart rate immediately
after the hard exercise differ from the
standing rate?
How would you explain the difference?
How long did it take for your heart rate
to return to its normal standing rate?
 -Tissue fluid and-
Tissue fluid
lymph In between our cells there are narrow spaces filled with a watery fluid. This is
tissue fluid (Figure 1).
Our bodies contain other
Tissue fluid is extremely important. It bathes the cells and keeps them in
important fluids besides blood. These
the right condition. The cells get all the substances they need from the
include tissue fluid and lymph. bloodstream, via the tissue fluid. The tissue fluid is therefore an essential link
between the bloodstream and the cells, and it comprises the immediate
surroundings of the cells.

How is tissue fluid formed?

Tissue fluid is formed from the blood (Figure 2). As blood flows along the
capillaries, a certain amount of fluid leaks through the capillary walls into the
spaces between the cells. Once it has left the capillaries, it becomes the tissue
fluid.
The process by which tissue fluid is formed involves a kind of filtration: the
blood cells and plasma proteins are too large to go through the capillary
walls, so they stay in the bloodstream. What passes through is therefore a
colourless fluid consisting of blood plasma minus the proteins.

Lymph
Once formed, the tissue fluid seeps around amongst the cells. If there is too
much of it, it either returns to the capillaries, or is drained into a system of
narrow channels called lymph vessels. The fluid in these vessels is called
lymph.
The body is permeated by lymph vessels: some of them can be seen in
Figure 1 Highly magnified picture of mammalian Figure 3. They eventually lead to the veins, so sooner or later lymph gets back
cells in a tissue, showing spaces between the cells. into the bloodstream. The lymph vessels contain valves, which help to keep
The spaces contain tissue fluid.
the lymph flowing in the right direction.

Figure 2 This diagram shows how tissue fluid and

lymph are formed. Figure 3 Some of the main lymph vessels and glands in the head and neck.
 Tissue fluid and lymph 219

Occasionally tissue fluid is formed faster than it can be drained away in the
lymph vessels. The result is that fluid builds up in the tissues, causing them
to swell up. This is called oedema. It tends to occur in the legs, particularly of
old people, pregnant women and people who stand a lot (Figure 4).

Lymph glands
If you look at Figure 3 you will see that there are little swellings at intervals
along the length of the lymph vessels. These are called lymph glands or
lymph nodes.
Each lymph gland is full of tiny spaces like a sponge, and the lymph has to
filter through these spaces before it can continue on its journey back to the
bloodstream.
The lymph glands help us to fight disease. They contain cells which attack
and destroy germs in the lymph as it filters through. These cells are the same
as the white blood cells mentioned on page 205. Some of them are phagocytes
and eat up the germs; others produce antibodies against them.
The positions of our main lymph glands are shown in Figure 5. The largest
ones are located in the neck, armpits and groin.
Suppose you have a severe throat infection. The germs get trapped in the
nearby lymph glands in your neck where your phagocytes and lymph cells do
Figure 4 This person’s right leg is swollen as a result
their best to kill them and prevent them getting into the rest of your body. of tissue fluid accumulating in it.
This causes the glands to swell up and become tender and painful. Lymph
tissue is also found in the tonsils and adenoids in the throat. Sometimes
these organs get repeatedly infected and swollen, making it difficult to
breathe. This may make it necessary for them to be removed in an operation. -Assignments-
At one time children had their tonsils and adenoids out almost as a matter of
1 In what respect do blood, tissue
course but nowadays it is only done if it is really necessary. After all, these are
fluid and lymph differ in what they
useful organs which help to defend us against disease, and it's best to keep
contain? Explain the reason for the
them if we can.
differences.

2 State two functions which are

performed by the lymph system.

3 A person cuts his foot and the cut

goes septic. Within a short time his
groin hurts whenever he touches it.
Explain the reason for the pain.

4 At the arterial end of a capillary, the

blood pressure is high, but the salt
concentration of the blood is low.
However, at the venous end, the
blood pressure is low, but the salt
concentration is high.
a) Why do you think the blood
pressure is higher at the arterial
end than at the venous end?
b) Why do you think the salt
concentration is higher at the
venous end than at the arterial
end?.
c) What part do you think these
differences play in the formation
and movement of tissue fluid?

5 Sometimes elderly people get tissue

fluid accumulating in their feet and
legs which consequently become
swollen. Suggest two possible
reasons why this may happen.
Figure 5 This diagram shows the position of the main lymph glands in the human body.
 What do plants
Plants need certain major elements
need to live? It has long been known that plants need the elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, magnesium, potassium, calcium
When gardeners or farmers and iron. These ten elements are needed in quite large amounts by all green
put manure or fertiliser in the soil, plants. For this reason we call them major elements or essential elements.
Think of a plant growing in your garden or in a park. It obtains carbon and
they are giving their plants essential
oxygen from the air. It obtains hydrogen from water in the soil, which it
materials which they need for absorbs through its roots. The other elements are also absorbed by the roots.
healthy growth. They are present in the soil in the form of mineral salts, such as calcium
nitrate and potassium phosphate.
One of the first people to realise that plants need these mineral elements
was a German scientist called Willhelm Knop. In 1865 he made up a solution
which appeared to be ideal for plant growth. Knop's solution contained salts
of all the mineral elements listed above. All he had to do was to suspend the
roots of a young seedling in his solution, and it grew. However, if he left out
one of the major elements, the seedling would not grow properly (Figure 1).
You can repeat Knop's experiment for yourself (Investigation).
The reasons why plants need these elements, and what happens if they
don't get them, are summarised in Table 1.
One of the most important elements is nitrogen. This occurs in amino acids
and therefore proteins. It is needed wherever growth is taking place, such as
at the tips of the shoots and roots.

Some minor elements are needed too

We know that most plants need, in addition to the major elements, certain
other elements as well. These are required in only tiny amounts, so we call
them trace elements or minor elements. These elements include boron, zinc,
copper, aluminium, molybdenum, sodium, chlorine, silicon, manganese and
cobalt. As with the major elements, they are obtained in the form of mineral
salts. Plants absorb them through their roots.
If any of these minor elements is absent from the soil, plants may show
poor growth. Look at Figure 2: this shows the effect of depriving tomato
plants of the element molybdenum. In certain parts of Australia crops grew
Figure 1 The wheat seedlings on the left were grown
in a complete Knop’s solution. Those on the right very badly until it was discovered that there was no molybdenum in the soil.
were grown in Knop's solution minus nitrogen. The soil was then sprayed with a very dilute solution of molybdenum, and
this made all the difference - the plants grew splendidly. Very little
molybdenum was needed: one teaspoonful was enough for an area the size of
a tennis court. Putting on too much of a trace element may have a damaging
effect on plants.

What makes soil short of minerals?

Table 1 The main mineral elements needed by
plants, why they are needed and what happens if Think of a natural plant community - a forest if you like, or a field. When
they don’t get them. One of the main signs of lack of plants die they rot: the various chemicals in their bodies are set free and put
mineral elements is that the leaves go yellow. This is
back into the soil. They can then be absorbed and used again by new plants.
known as chlorosis.

Element Why needed Deficiency effects

Nitrogen Contained in amino acids and proteins Poor growth, yellow leaves

Phosphorus Contained in important chemicals Poor growth, leaves dull green with curly brown edges

Potassium Increases hardiness Yellow edges to leaves, die early

Sulphur Contained in proteins Yellow leaves

Calcium Needed for cell formation Poor buds, stunted growth

Magnesium Contained in chlorophyll Yellow leaves

Iron Needed for chlorophyll formation Yellow leaves

 What do plants need to live? 221

Now think what happens in a field with a crop in it, such as wheat or rice.
The crop is harvested and the plants are taken away. The chemicals are not
returned to the soil, and so the soil becomes poor. The soil is made even
worse if heavy rain washes useful chemicals out of it. This often happens
when soil becomes eroded.
How can we overcome this problem? One way is to grow crops on one
piece of land for several years and then move somewhere else. This is what
nomadic tribes do in certain parts of the world. It is called shifting
cultivation. But it can't be done where land is short.
Another solution is to leave a field free of crops - that is fallow - for a year
every now and again. This gives the soil a chance to regain the nutrients it has
lost.
Yet another solution is to grow different crops in a particular field: wheat or
barley for a year or two, and then turnips perhaps. This is known as rotation
of crops, and it has been carried out since Roman times.
Some plants take more of certain chemicals out of the soil than others. If the Figure 2 The tomato plants on the left were given
same crop is grown in a field year after year, a particular element - nitrogen everything they need. The ones on the right were
deprived of the trace element molybdenum.
say - may eventually be removed altogether. Rotating crops helps to prevent
this. ,
Every now and again a farmer may include a crop of clover, or a similar
plant, in the rotation. These plants make the soil richer in nitrates, especially
if ploughed in at the end of the season. They therefore have a good effect on
the soil. Clover, and its close relative lucerne, are particularly beneficial
because they belong to the legume family, the group of flowering plants that
also includes peas and beans. The roots of these plants contain nitrogen¬
fixing bacteria which turn nitrogen from the air into nitrates (Figure 3).
The best way of preventing the soil from becoming poor is to put back into
it what the plants have taken out. This can be achieved by putting fertilisers
into the soil.

Fertilisers
A fertiliser is any substance containing chemical elements needed for plant
growth. We can divide them into two groups: organic fertilisers and
inorganic fertilisers. Let's take each in turn.
One of the most natural organic fertilisers is farmyard manure. This
consists of the dung and urine produced by farm animals, mixed with straw.
It is spread on the ground where it decays. As it rots, nitrates and other
inorganic nutrients are released from it into the soil. These can then be used
by plants.
Another natural organic fertiliser is compost. This consists of the rotting
remains of vegetable matter: old cabbage stalks, grass cuttings, and so on.
Many people make compost heaps in their gardens. As with farmyard
manure, the decay process releases inorganic nutrients into the soil which
can then be used by plants.
Because of their colour, farmyard manure and compost are referred to as
brown manure. Sometimes, however, a farmer will grow a crop of green
plants and then plough them into the soil. This is called green manure. Once
ploughed in, it rots and the nutrients are set free. Plants such as peas, beans
and clover make good green manure because they enrich the soil with
nitrates.
Organic fertilisers have one disadvantage: they have to decompose first
before the inorganic nutrients can be released. This makes them slow to act,
though in some cases this may be a good thing.
Quicker results can be achieved by using inorganic fertilisers. These
contain mineral nutrients which can be absorbed by plants straight away.
General fertilisers contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N, P, K). Figure 3 Bean plants enrich the soil in nitrates
They are manufactured in fertiliser factories, either from natural materials because their roots contain nitrogen-fixing
such as bone and horns, or by special chemical processes. bacteria.
222 Biology for life

Do fertilisers work?
Look at Figure 4. This shows the result of a trial with rice that was carried out
in the Middle East. The soil on the left had a fertiliser added to it containing
nitrogen and phosphorus; the soil on the right was unfertilised. The results
speak for themselves.
In England there is an experimental research station at Rothamsted. Here
there are strips of soil where wheat is grown each year (Figure 5). In one strip
wheat has been planted and harvested every year for over 100 years. During
this time no fertiliser has ever been added to the soil. Since the first crop was
harvested way back in 1843, the annual yield of grain has fallen to less than
half what it was originally.
In other strips, however, different kinds of fertiliser have been added to the
soil. In some of these strips the yield has more than doubled (Figure 6). So
fertilisers certainly help.
Which is better, natural manure or artificial fertiliser? The Rothamsted
results suggest that it does not matter much: equally high yields have been
obtained with both. However, what applies to wheat at an experimental
research station may not apply to the onions in Mr Smith's back garden.
Some gardeners swear by farmyard manure. Others feel that artificial
fertilisers are better and a lot easier to use. An undoubted advantage of
manure is that it improves the texture of the soil, aerating it and helping the
soil particles to stick together.
Artificial fertilisers are sprayed onto the soil in liquid form. Alternatively
Figure 4 The rice plants on the left were given a
fertiliser, but those on the right were not.
they may be scattered as pellets or powders which are then dissolved and
washed into the soil by the rain. It is important that they should not be too
concentrated, otherwise water may be drawn out of the plants' roots by
osmosis.
Without doubt artificial fertilisers have revolutionised agriculture. Thanks
to them, a rigid rotation of crops is no longer necessary, and the plants grow
well even if they are very close together. In other words the land can be used
much more intensively. This allows farmers to grow more food for more
people.

Plot Treatment

1 none
2 nitrogen only
3 nitrogen and phosphorus
4 nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium
5 farmyard manure
6 nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, sodium and magnesium
(complete inorganic fertiliser)

Figure 5 The Broadbalk Field at Rothamsted

Figure 6 This bar chart shows the average yearly yield of grain given by six of the plots
Experimental Research Station, showing the strips of of wheat in the Broadbalk Field at Rothamsted Experimental Station between 1852 and
wheat 1967,
 What do plants needs to live? 223

Investigation - r Assignments —

To find out which elements are needed for plant growth 1 Gardening shops sell a special
liquid medium which can be used
In this experiment we will grow plants 5 Wrap a sheet of black paper round
for growing pot plants. Make a list of
in a series of solutions. This is called each bottle to shield it from light.
the major chemical elements which
water culture. One of the solutions
This will prevent algae growing you think it should contain.
contains all the chemical elements
inside.
believed to be needed for plant growth. 2 Give two reasons why soil may
This serves as a control. The other 6 Put the bottles in a warm, light become poor in mineral nutrients.
solutions each lack one particular place, e.g. close to a window or in a
3 Why is it a good idea'
element. greenhouse.
a) to plant your vegetables in a
1 Obtain eight bottles, and label them 7 Observe the seedlings at intervals different part of the garden each
A to H. over the next 2-3 weeks. year,
b) to dig compost into the soil,
2 Fill each bottle with the following Note You may need to bubble air into c) to give a potted plant some 'plant
solutions: the solutions from time to time to make
food' every week or so?
sure the roots get enough oxygen. Do
A Complete solution: this contains
.this as shown below. 4 Give two advantages which
all the necessary elements.*
farmyard manure has over artificial
B Complete solution minus fertilisers, and two advantages
nitrogen.
which artificial fertilisers have over
C Complete solution minus farmyard manure.
phosphorus.
D Complete solution minus 5 The maize in a certain area of
sulphur. Jamaica is giving a lower yield of
E Complete solution minus grain than would be expected. You
magnesium. have been called in to find out the
F Complete solution minus cause. What would you do?
potassium. 6 Look at Figure 6, then answer these
G Complete solution minus questions:
calcium. a) Express the yield of grain given
H Complete solution minus iron. by plots 2 to 6 as a percentage
3 Obtain eight identical seedlings of increase over that given by
e.g. wheat, maize, barley or broad plot 1.
bean. b) From the data it might be
concluded that artificial fertiliser
4 Put one seedling in each bottle as is better than farmyard manure.
shown below. Do you think this conclusion is
justified? Give reasons to
8 After 2-3 weeks, how do the eight support your answer.
seedlings differ in appearance? 7 At Rothamsted Experimental Station
Can you explain the differences? scientists have investigated the
effect on the annual yield of wheat
Other similar investigations grain of leaving a field bare (fallow)
1 As an alternative to water culture, every fifth year. Here is a sample of
seedlings may be grown in sand their results: the yield is expressed
as a percentage of what it is when
which has been washed
beforehand in distilled water. This is wheat is grown continuously.
known as sand culture. After Years after fallow 12 3 4
planting the seedlings the sand Percentage increase 101 65 48 50
should be watered regularly with the
a) Explain in your own words what
solutions listed in step 2 above.
is meant by an increase of
2 Try growing seedlings of, e.g., 101 percent.
maize in distilled water and in b) Suggest reasons why the yield
distilled water plus a general increases and then gradually
‘Either Knop's or Sach’s solution can be fertiliser at a series of different decreases after the fallow year.
used. For a suitable recipe see Nuffield
concentrations, below and above
Revised Biology. Text 2, Living Things in
Action. the recommended level.
 What sort of organic substances do plants contain?
You can answer this by testing a plant for sugar. This can be done with
Benedict's or Fehling's solution (Investigation 1). The plant must be given all
the things it needs beforehand, such as plenty of light and well watered soil.
organic substances do plants What about starch? You can find out if a plant contains starch by testing it
contain and where do they with iodine (Investigation 2). Again it is important that the plant should be
get them from? given all the things it needs beforehand, such as plenty of light and well
watered soil.
These two experiments, and many others besides, tell us that plants
contain organic substances such as sugar and starch (Figure 1). Normally
plants convert sugar into starch for storage.

Where do plants get their organic substances from?

It is possible that plants might obtain sugar from the soil. How could you find
out if this is so. One way would be to test a small sample of soil to see if there
is any sugar there (Investigation 3).
You will find that no sugar can be detected in the soil. In fact neither the
soil enveloping the roots of a plant, nor the air surrounding its leaves,
contains sugar.
So plants contain sugar, but they do not take it in. How, then, does sugar
get there?

Van Helmont's experiment

In 1692 a Dutchman called Van Helmont did an interesting experiment which
helps us to answer this question. He weighed a young willow tree and
planted it in a pot containing a known mass of soil. He then left the tree to
grow, giving it nothing but water. After five years he weighed the tree, and
the soil, again. He found that the tree had gained 74 kg in mass, but the soil
had only lost 56 g. Try to explain the results of Van Helmont's experiment
before you read further.
Figure 1 This plant contains sugar. How did it get
there? Although Van Helmont did not realise it at the time, the willow tree had
absorbed simple substances from the air and soil and had built them up into
food. We now know that all green plants can do this provided they are kept
in the light. It is their method of feeding, and we call the process
photosynthesis. It is a remarkable process and for over 100 years we have
tried to repeat the process in the laboratory, but with very little success. Yet it
happens naturally in the leaves of a green plant.

Why is photosynthesis important?

Think of it in this way. Animals cannot make complex food substances for
themselves. The only way an animal can get these substances is by eating
plants - or by eating animals which have eaten the plants - or by eating
animals which have eaten the animals which have eaten the plants.
So animals are dependent on plants for their food. When you eat a chunk
of beef, you are able to do so only because the cow ate grass. We can sum this
up by saying that plants manufacture food which can then be consumed by
animals.
To give you an idea of the importance of this, here are some facts and
figures: a hectare (nearly 2Vi acres) of maize can make more than 20 000 kg of
sugar in a year. If it was in the form of ordinary table sugar, this would be
enough to sweeten well over a million cups of tea.
Or looking at it another way: if the food made by all the world's plants was
amassed in the form of sugar for three years, it would form a heap the size of
Mount Everest (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Mount Everest, the highest mountain in

the world. Its peak is well over 8000 m above sea The next five topics are all about photosynthesis. We shall see how, when
level. Imagine a pile ot sugar that high! and where this important process takes place.
 How do plants feed? 225

-Investigation 1 - -Investigation 2 - -Investigation 3 -

Testing a plant for reducing sugar Testing a plant for starch Testing soil for reducing sugar
Try this test on an onion bulb. Try this test on a geranium or hibiscus 1 Put a small sample of soil in a
leaf. mortar. Add a little water.
1 Put a few pieces of onion into a
mortar. Add a pinch of sand and 1 Dip your leaf into a beaker of boiling 2 Grind up the soil with a pestle.
cover with water. water for about ten seconds. This
3 Filter the contents of the mortar into
will kill it and make it soft.
2 Grind up the pieces of onion with a a test tube.
pestle.
4 Pour a little Benedict’s or Fehling’s
3 Filter the contents of the mortar into solution into the test tube.
a test tube to a depth of about one
5 FI eat to boiling in a beaker of water
centimetre.
over a bunsen flame.

6 Repeat steps 4 and 5 on some tap

water in a test tube: this will serve as
a control.

A green, brown or red colour means

2 Turn out the bunsen. there is reducing sugar present.
Put the leaf into a test tube of
ethanol. Stand the test tube in the Is there any reducing sugar in the soil?
beaker of hot water for about ten
minutes. The ethanol will boil and What do you conclude about how
this will decolorise the leaf. plants feed?

^Assignments -

4 Pour the same amount of Benedict’s 1 How does a tree differ from a human
or Fehling’s solution1 into the test being in the way it feeds?
tube. Stand the test tube in a beaker
2 Plants are generally rooted to the
of boiling water until its contents
ground and do not move about.
How does this fit in with their method
3 Wash the leaf by waving it to and fro of feeding?
in the beaker of water.
3 'When you eat a chunk of beef, you
are able to do so only because the
cow ate grass.’ Explain the reason
for this.

4 Read the account of Van Helmont’s

experiment on page 224.

If you repeated the experiment

today, what special precautions
4 Put the leaf in a petri dish and cover would you take to ensure that your
it with dilute iodine solution. results were accurate.?
5 Repeat step 4 on some water in a
5 Someone has worked out that the
test tube to serve as a control.
total amount of organic matter made
What happens to the solution in the test by all the world’s plants in a year is
tubes? 150 thousand million tonnes. But the
total amount of food consumed by
A green, brown or red colour means
the earth’s human population is only
there’s reducing sugar present.
1 /200th of this. If plants make more
Is there any reducing sugar in the. food than humans need, why are
onion? people starving?
A blue-black colour shows that starch
1 For information about Benedict's and is present.
Fehling's solutions, see page 156. Is there any starch in the leaf?
 Photosynthesis
Finding out what plants need in order to produce starch
Plants make
One way of discovering how plants make food is to find out what they need
their own organic in order to produce starch. Just from a general knowledge of plants we can
food such as starch, say that the following might be necessary: light, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll,
but how do they and water.
do it? We can do experiments to find out if these four factors are required for
starch formation.
The principle behind the experiments is quite simple. First we remove all
the starch from the plant's leaves. This can be done by putting it in the dark
for a few days. To make sure it has been completely de-starched, we do an
iodine test on one of its leaves.
We then give the plant everything it needs except the one factor we want to
investigate. After a time we again do an iodine test on one of the leaves to
find out if it has been making starch. If it has not made any starch, we can
conclude that this particular factor is needed for starch formation.
As in other biological experiments we must have a control with which to
compare the result. The control plant is given everything it needs, including
the factor which we are investigating.
Now let's look at the individual experiments in detail.

Do plants need carbon dioxide to make starch?

We can investigate this by removing carbon dioxide from the air surrounding
one plant, while another plant, the control, is given air containing plenty of
carbon dioxide (Investigation 1). Later a leaf from each plant is tested with
iodine to see if it has made any starch.

Do plants need chlorophyll to make starch?

The ideal way of investigating this would be to remove the chlorophyll from a
leaf and see if this stops it making starch. However, it is impossible to remove
the chlorophyll without killing the leaf!
So what can we do? Luckily nature comes to our aid. It so happens that the
leaves of certain plants are green in some places but yellow in others:
chlorophyll is present in the green areas, but absent from the yellow areas.
Such leaves are described as variegated. Good examples are hibiscus, coleus,
and certain types of ivy (Figure 1).
To find out if chlorophyll is needed for starch formation, all we have to do
is to carry out a starch test on a variegated leaf (Investigation 2).

Do plants need light for making starch?

We can investigate this by putting one plant in the dark and another plant,
the control, in the light (Investigation 3, method a). After a few days each one
is tested for starch.
Another way is to take a plant and cover part of one leaf with a piece of
black paper. We then leave the plant in the light (Investigation 3, method b).
Later we test the leaf with iodine to see if the covered area has been
prevented from making starch.

Do plants need water to make starch?

There is no simple experiment which can be done to answer this question.
You certainly cannot do it by depriving the plant of water because it is
impossible to take all the water out of a plant without killing it. The
importance of water has been investigated by more complicated methods
involving the use of isotopes. This is described on page 239.

What do these experiments tell us?

Figure 1 An ivy plant with variegated leaves. The results of these and many other experiments tell us that plants need
 Photosynthesis 227

carbon dioxide, water, light and chlorophyll in order to make starch. If the
plant is deprived of any of these essential factors, it cannot make starch. Even
if a single leaf, or just part of the leaf, is deprived, starch is not made in that
region. This is seen most strikingly in the experiment where part of a leaf is
covered with black paper to prevent light getting to it (Investigation 3,
method b). On testing the leaf with iodine you get the characteristic black
colour only where the leaf was uncovered. This is called a starch print and a
nice example is shown in Figure 2.

What does photosynthesis produce?

We have seen that photosynthesis produces food substances such as starch.
But is anything else formed in the process?
Figure 3 illustrates an experiment which helps us to answer this question.
A lighted candle is placed in a sealed chamber. After a while it goes out.
A sprig of mint is then introduced into the chamber without any air being
let in. It is then left in the light. After about ten days the candle, on being lit,
burns again.
This experiment was first carried out by/Joseph Priestley in 1771. He did
not understand why the mint should enable the candle to be relit. However,
we now know that the burning candle had used up all the oxygen. Putting
the mint into the chamber had the effect of putting oxygen back into the air,
so that the candle could burn again. This was the first demonstration that
plants give out oxygen.
A more direct way of finding out if plants give out oxygen is to use a water
plant such as Canadian pondweed or its tropical relative Hydrilla (Figure 4).
These plants obligingly produce bubbles when put in the light (Figure 5). The
bubbles can be collected and tested for oxygen (Investigation 4).
There is now a lot of evidence that all green plants give off oxygen in the Figure 2 A starch print made on a geranium leaf.
light. The observation that they will do this only in the light strongly suggests The top picture shows the black cover on the leaf.
that it has something to do with photosynthesis. The bottom picture shows the same leaf after testing
with iodine.

The lighted candle

in the jar quickly
goes out

A sprig of mint
is put in the jar and
illuminated for
about a week

A lighted candle
will then burn
in the jar

Figure 3 The principle behind the experiment which was carried out by Joseph Figure 4 Canadian pondweed lives in ponds and
Priestley. slow-flowing streams.
228 Biology for life

What happens during photosynthesis?

The experiments in this Topic tell us that plants need carbon dioxide, water,
light and chlorophyll in order to make food; and starch and oxygen are
produced.
Carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials of photosynthesis. They
react in some way to produce starch and oxygen, the products. We now
know that this is not a simple reaction, but takes place in a series of steps. The
reactions need energy, and this comes from the light. The chlorophyll enables
the plant to use light energy in this way. Light and chlorophyll are therefore
essential 'helpers' in the process.
Although starch is made in the end, it is not the first substance to be
formed. Glucose is formed first and this is then turned into starch.
Photosynthesis is therefore a complicated process. However, it is usually
summed up by this simple equation:

light & chlorophyll

6CO2 + 6H2O ► C6H1206 + 602
carbon dioxide water glucose oxygen

raw materials products Figure 5 When brightly lit, Canadian pondweed may
give off streams of bubbles. The bubbles contain
In later Topics we will explore some of the details of this reaction. oxygen.

-Investigation 1 - Investigation 2 -

To find out if a plant needs carbon To find out if a plant needs

dioxide in order to make starch chlorophyll to make starch
1 You will need two potted plants 1 You will need a potted plant with
which have been de-starched. variegated leaves, e.g. geranium.
Geranium, balsam or coleus will do. The plant should have been put in
the light for several days.
2 Put a dish of dampened soda lime
on the soil beside one of the plants. 2 Detach one of the leaves and draw
Cover the plant with a polythene its upper side, making a clear
bag as shown in the upper distinction between the green and
illustration. The soda lime will non-green areas.
absorb carbon dioxide from the air
inside the bag, so this plant will be
deprived of carbon dioxide.

3 Put a dish of saturated sodium

hydrogen carbonate solution on the
soil beside the other plant.
Cover the plant with a polythene
bag as shown in the lower
illustration. The sodium hydrogen
carbonate will slowly give out
carbon dioxide into the bag, so this
3 Now carry out a starch test on the
plant will have plenty of carbon
whole leaf (see page 225).
dioxide.
Which parts of the leaf turn black when
4 Place both plants side by side in a
treated with iodine?
well lit place for about 48 hours.
Indicate your answer in your drawing
5 After about 48 hours take a leaf, or
by writing B in the black areas.
part of a leaf, from each plant. Test
them for starch (see page 225). Where is the control in this experiment?

Which plant contains starch? Is chlorophyll needed for starch

in the formation?
Is carbon dioxide needed for starch polythene bag
formation?
 Photosynthesis 229

Investigation 3 -
-Assignments -

To find out if a plant needs light in order to make starch 1 Explain how the starch print in
Figure 2 was made.
Method a
2 Some people feel that from a
1 You will need two potted plants 3 Put the plant in a well lit place
scientific point of view a starch print
which have been de-starched.
4 After several days detach the leaf is not a good way of finding out if a
2 Place one of them in the dark, and and test it for starch (see page 225). plant needs light for making starch.
the other in the light. The plant in the Make a drawing of the leaf to show What do you think?
light is your control plant. your result.
3 In Investigation 1 the plants should
3 After several days take a leaf (or be de-starched first.
part of a leaf) from each plant. Test a) How are they de-starched?
them for starch (see page 225). b) Why is this necessary?
Don’t forget which leaf is which! c) How could you make sure they
have been completely de-
Has either plant formed starch?
starched before you begin the
Is light needed for starch formation?
experiment?
Method b
4 Elizabeth wants to find out if a
1 You will need a potted plant which potted plant needs carbon dioxide
has been de-starched. in order to make starch. She is not
2 Attach a strip of black paper or foil very satisfied with the method given
in Investigation 1, so she tries a
to the upper and lower sides of a This is called a 'starch print’. What
leaf, as shown in the illustration. different way. She selects two
conclusion do you draw?
leaves on the plant and, without
cutting them off, she encloses each
one in a small polythene bag. In one
-Investigation 4 -
bag she puts some soda lime, and
in the other bag some saturated
To find out if a water plant gives off oxygen
sodium hydrogen carbonate
1 Put some Canadian pondweed or 5 Test the gas for oxygen with a solution.
Hydrilla into two separate beakers glowing splint: Make a diagram of the set-up. Do
of water. you think Elizabeth's method is as
Remove the test tube from the
good as the one in Investigation 1 ?
2 Cover the weed with an upturned beaker. Quickly insert a glowing
Give reasons for your answer.
funnel and test tube, as shown in the splint to the far end as shown in the
illustration. illustration. If it flares up, oxygen is 5 One way of showing that carbon
dioxide is necessary for starch
formation is illustrated below. Study
the picture, then answer the ques¬
tions underneath it.

a) What should be done to the plant

beforehand, and why?
3 Place one of the beakers in the light Has the illuminated pondweed
b) Where is the control in this
and the other one in the dark. produced oxygen?
experiment?
4 After a few days compare what has Unfortunately the amount of oxygen c) At the end of the experiment,
happened in the two cases. in the gas, compared with nitrogen, how would you find out if the
is so small that the glowing splint plant has made starch in its
Has the illuminated pondweed
test seldom works. leaves?
produced some gas? d) Is this a satisfactory experiment?
Can you think of a better way of
Has the darkened one done so? testing the gas for oxygen? Give reasons for your opinion.
 What controls
What factors affect the rate of photosynthesis?
the rate of Four factors have a particular effect on the rate of photosynthesis: light,

photosynthesis carbon dioxide, temperature and water. We will look at them in turn.

Photosynthesis occurs Light

rapidly or slowly, depending We can find out the effect of light on photosynthesis by using one of those
on circumstances, and this will water plants which produce bubbles in the light. If the brightness of the light
affects the speed of photosynthesis, we would expect the plant to produce
determine how much food is made
more bubbles the brighter the light. We can do an experiment to test this
in a certain period of time. This
(Investigation).
is important for humans because This and other experiments tell us that, up to a point, the brighter the light
we depend on plants for the faster the rate of photosynthesis.
our food. How does light affect plants in their natural surroundings? Light varies
from day to day and from place to place. On a bright sunny day plants
photosynthesise faster than on a dull day. And a plant growing in an open
meadow photosynthesises more quickly than a plant growing in the shade.
This is important to gardeners. If a gardener wants her vegetables to do
well, she plants them in a place which gets the sun. Sometimes bright lights
are shone on indoor plants to increase their rate of photosynthesis. However
some plants, such as primroses, thrive in shady places such as a wood
(Figure 1). They can photosynthesise even in dim light.
As with many other things in life, it is possible to have too much of a good
thing: in very bright sunshine photosynthesis actually slows down. Very
bright sunshine contains a lot of ultraviolet light which can damage plants.
Moreover, a shady place is likely to be cooler and more moist, which is a
particular advantage in the tropics.

Carbon dioxide
Experiments have shown that the more carbon dioxide there is in the air
surrounding a plant the faster the plant photosynthesises. How does this
affect plants in their natural surroundings? The amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere is about 0.03 per cent and it does not vary very much. Even
so, there are slight differences from place to place which may affect the rate of
photosynthesis. For example, the concentration of carbon dioxide close to the
ground in a dense forest is higher than in an open field. Why do you think
this is?
Extra carbon dioxide is sometimes pumped into greenhouses, or produced
by a 'burner' so as to increase the rate of photosynthesis. This is useful to
Figure 1 Primroses photosynthesise efficiently in gardeners, as well as to scientists, who want to increase the speed at which
shady places such as woods. plants make food (Figure 2).

Figure 2 The lettuces in the right-hand box were

grown in an atmosphere containing more carbon
dioxide than were the lettuces in the left-hand box.
The lettuces that were given the extra carbon
dioxide are larger than the other ones, and fewer of
them can be fitted into the box.
 What controls the rate of photosynthesis? 231

Temperature
Up to a certain point, the higher the temperature, the faster a plant will
photosynthesise. Normally a rise of 10°C doubles the rate. This is true of
any normal chemical process, and photosynthesis is no exception.
In the natural world there are tremendous variations in temperature, both
from place to place and at different times of the day and year. One of the
main reasons why plants do so well in a greenhouse or a sheltered garden is
because of the warmth there (Figure 3).
Raising the temperature up to about 40 °C increases the rate of
photosynthesis. However, if the temperature gets above this, photosynthesis
slows down and soon stops altogether. This is because the heat destroys the
enzymes which are responsible for the chemical reactions.

Water
Plants need water for photosynthesis and if they do not get enough of it they
will not photosynthesise so quickly. A plant which is beginning to droop
through lack of water may photosynthesise at only half the normal rate. This
is mainly because its air pores (stomata) are dosed. Water is needed for many
other purposes besides photosynthesis, and the effect of water shortage on
photosynthesis may be indirect.
Figure 3 The warm conditions inside the
greenhouse enabled these excellent melons to be
Which places provide the best conditions for photosynthesis? produced. In the tropics they can be grown out of
doors.
The answer is the tropical rain forests of the Caribbean, South America,
Central Africa and South East Asia. Lots of sunshine, warmth and a high
rainfall ensure maximum photosynthesis and prolific growth of plants
(Figure 4).
Crop plants grown in places where light, temperature and moisture are at
their most suitable for photosynthesis, make particularly large amounts of
food. This is true of sugar cane, for example, which has the highest yield of all
crop plants (Figure 5).
Sugar cane needs a hot, moist climate with temperatures averaging around
25 °C and an annual rainfall of about 150 cm. This it gets in places such as the
Caribbean and South East Asia. When grown in drier places like North
America and Southern Africa, water must be supplied by irrigation.
In some parts of the world plants are grown in special air-conditioned
greenhouses in which all the factors affecting photosynthesis and plant
growth are carefully controlled. In this way scientists can make sure that the
plants are given exactly what they need.

Figure 4 The tropical rain forest has been described

as a vegetative frenzy. Notice the dense vegetation
in this photograph of a rain forest in the Malagasy
Republic, formerly Madagascar.

Figure 5 Sugar cane growing in Swaziland. It is one

of the largest members of the grass family, reaching
heights of 6m or more. Most of the world’s sugar
comes from sugar cane. Plants like sugar cane are
particularly good at absorbing carbon dioxide and
turning it into carbohydrate.
232 Biology for life

Which places provide the worst conditions for photosynthesis?

The answer is dark or dimly lit places, particularly if they are cold as well. For
example, grass may be lush in an open meadow, but in a corner which is
always in the shade it may be sparse. Have you ever noticed how bare the soil
is under certain trees? This is because the leaves of the tree don't let much
light through (see page 240). The soil is even barer under overhanging rocks
and in caves. However, you have only to provide an artificial light and a few
green plants will soon pop up if there's enough moisture for them. Some
plants will even grow in disused wells and dungeons (Figure 6).
In general, temperate and Arctic regions are less good for photosynthesis
than the tropics. Why do you think this is?

How do the factors influence each other?

Look at the graph in Figure 7. This shows the results of an experiment which
was designed to find the effect of raising the light intensity on the rate of
photosynthesis - like the experiment in the Investigation.
First look at curve A. Notice that as the light intensity is gradually raised,
the curve rises, i.e. the rate of photosynthesis increases.
However, there comes a point when the curve flattens out -in other words
the rate of photosynthesis does not increase any more, however much the
light intensity is raised. Why do you think the rate of photosynthesis stops
increasing? The answer is that some factor other than light is preventing
Figure 6 This photograph was taken in the dungeon photosynthesis from going any faster. We say that this factor is now limiting
of an old castle in Wales. A shaft of sunlight enabled the rate of photosynthesis.
these ferns to grow on one of the walls. What might this factor be? Well, it could be carbon dioxide. How could we
find out if it is carbon dioxide? One way would be to raise the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere surrounding the plant and repeat the
experiment.
The result of doing this is shown in curve B. This time a much higher rate of
photosynthesis is achieved. What does this tell us? It tells us that carbon
dioxide must have been limiting the rate of photosynthesis when the curve
flattened out in the first experiment.
From experiments of this kind we can draw this general conclusion. The
rate of photosynthesis is controlled by several different factors. At a particular
moment the rate is determined by whichever factor is closest to its minimum
value. This is called the law of limiting factors, and is of great importance to
plants.
In a particular place, a wheat field for instance, different factors limit
photosynthesis at different times of the day. At the beginning and end of the
day, when the light is dim, light limits the rate of photosynthesis. In the
middle of the day, when the light is good, carbon dioxide limits
photosynthesis.
The same kind of thing applies to the seasons. Take the British summer and
winter for example. In summer, when the light is good, carbon dioxide limits
photosynthesis most-of the time. In winter, on the other hand, light is the
limiting factor for most of the time.
What about a small plant growing in a forest? Here the light is dim but the
concentration of carbon dioxide is high. Result? Light limits photosynthesis
all the time.
In the tropics light is rarely a limiting factor, except in very shady places. In
the dry season water is the most important limiting factor. The same applies
to temperate regions when there is a drought. In a prolonged drought many
plants die altogether, not just because they can't photosynthesise but for
other reasons as well. Can you think of these other reasons?
Figure 7 This graph shows how a plant's rate of We have already seen that in the closed atmosphere of a greenhouse extra
photosynthesis is affected by the light intensity at
carbon dioxide can increase the rate of photosynthesis. However, the law of
two concentrations of carbon dioxide. Curve A was
obtained with the plant in a low concentration of limiting factors must always be borne in mind. It is no use pumping extra
carbon dioxide. Curve B was obtained at a higher carbon dioxide into a greenhouse if the light is poor. It simply will not make
concentration of carbon dioxide. any difference.
 What controls the rate of photosynthesis? 233

Investigation -

To see if raising the light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis.

8 Illuminate the weed with the lamp
For this experiment use Elodea (Canadian pondweed) or Hydrilla.
placed a long way away (say
50 cm).

9 Wait a few minutes, then count the

number of bubbles given off during
a one minute period. Do this three
times and work out the average.
paperclip heat shield
10 Now bring the lamp closer, wait a
few minutes, then count the number
of bubbles again. Do this three
1 Darken the room so the light from carbonate to the water or blow
times and work out the average.
the windows does not vary. bubbles through it with a straw: this
will ensure that the pondweed has a Flow many bubbles are given off per
2 Cut off a piece of the weed about
good supply of carbon dioxide. minute (a) with the lamp a long way
5 cm long.
away, and (b) with the lamp close?
6 Place a lamp to one side of the jar.
3 Attach a paper clip to the top end to
Do you find that the closer the lamp,,
weigh it down. 7 Fill a narrow aquarium tank with
the greater the rate at which bubbles
water and place it between the jar
4 Put it in a beaker or jam jar of water are given off?
and the lamp. This will serve as a
as shown in the illustration.
heat shield and will prevent the Does raising the light intensity increase
5 Add a pinch of potassium hydrogen pondweed from heating up. the rate of photosynthesis?

-Assignments -

1 Mr Smith plants his onions in a 5 An experiment was carried out to A scientist grew some cereal plants
shady place whereas Mrs Jones investigate the effect on a plant’s in a field. During the course of one
plants hers in the sun. Whose rate of photosynthesis of increasing day he took several plants every
onions would you expect to do best, the amount of carbon dioxide in the four hours and measured the
and why? air. The light intensity and amount of sugar in the leaves. The
temperature were kept constant sugar concentrations, expressed as
2 Mr Jones left a bucket on his lawn
throughout the experiment. The a percentage of the dry mass of the
for several weeks. When he lifted it
results are shown in this graph: leaves, are given below:
up he found that the grass
underneath was yellow and dead.
Time of day Sugar concentration
What might have killed the grass
4 am 0.45
and why was it yellow?
8 am 0.60
3 Someone observed that wheat 12 noon 1.75
grows taller, and gives a higher 4 pm 2.00
yield of grain, close to a certain 8 pm 1,4
coal-burning factory than further 12 midnight 0.5
away. Suggest a reason for this. 4 am 0.45
What investigations would you carry
out to find if your suggestion is
carbon dioxide a) Plot the data on graph paper,
right?
putting sugar concentration on
4 The following figures give the total the vertical axis.
a) Say in your own words what the
annual amounts of organic matter b) What is the probable
graph shows.
produced per hectare by plants in concentration of sugar in the
different parts of the world: b) Why does the curve rise to begin leaves at (a) 10 am and (b) 2 am?
with? c) At what time of the day is sugar
sugar cane Java 87 tonnes
c) Suggest reasons why the curve probably at a maximum in the
tropical rain forest 59 tonnes
eventually flattens out. leaf?.
pine forest, England 16 tonnes
d) What experiments would you do d) Explain the changes which occur
birch forest, England 8.5 tonnes
to find out which of your reasons in the sugar concentration over
Can you account for the differences? in (c) is correct? the 24 hour period.
 — Chlorophyll —

What is chlorophyll?
the miracle To find out what is, we can extract it from leaves and make a solution of it

molecule (Investigation 1). By doing this we can see that it's a green substance.
Coloured substances of this sort are called pigments.
Scientists have analysed this pigment. It turns out to be a complex organic
The green colour of substance containing magnesium.
plants is caused by the chemical Chlorophyll plays a vital part in photosynthesis. To understand what it
substance chlorophyll which occurs does, we must first examine its effect on light.
inside them. Chlorophyll does a
remarkable job, as we shall What does chlorophyll do to light?
see. We can investigate this by observing what happens to light as it passes
through a solution of chlorophyll (Investigation 2).
Ordinary white light, such as sunlight, is made up of different colours or
wavelengths. We don't normally see these colours except, for example, when
there's a rainbow. However, in the laboratory light can be split up into its
colours by means of a prism. The colours form a series which we call a
spectrum (Figure 1).
Now when light passes through chlorophyll, certain colours disappear.
Which ones? If you do Investigation 2, you will see that the colours which
disappear are blue and, to a lesser extent, red.
These two colours disappear because they are absorbed by the chlorophyll.
Other colours, particularly green, pass straight through it or are reflected.
The reason why leaves look green is that chlorophyll reflects the green part of
the spectrum.

What colours are used in photosynthesis?

Chlorophyll absorbs blue and red light. It would therefore seem likely that
Figure 1 The colours of the visible spectrum. They these two colours are used in photosynthesis.
are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
Can you think of an experiment which could be done to test this
violet.
suggestion? One way would be to shine different coloured lights onto plants.
We could then find out which colours are most suitable for photosynthesis.
As an indication of how much photosynthesis had been going on with each
colour, we could measure either the volume of oxygen given off or the
amount of starch formed.
Experiments of this kind show that the two colours which are best for
photosynthesis are blue and red - the very same colours that are absorbed. A
plant which is deprived of these two colours cannot photosynthesise
properly and doesn't make much starch. Sunlight provides these two colours
in the right proportions.

Other pigments
Leaves contain several pigments besides chlorophyll. They can be separated
from each other by a process called chromatography (Investigation 3). In
addition to chlorophyll there are yellow and grey pigments.
Separating the pigments like this is useful because after they have been
isolated each one can be investigated on its own. In this way scientists can
find out what each one does.
Careful experiments of this sort have shown that they all play a part in
photosynthesis, but the most important is the green chlorophyll.
Certain plants which are known to photosynthesise are not green. How
can we explain this?
Take seaweed, for example, Most seaweeds are brown. This is because
they possess a brown pigment called fucoxanthin. Chlorophyll is present too,
but the brown pigment is so abundant that it completely masks the green
colour of the chlorophyll (Figure 2). Both pigments are used in photosynth¬
Figure 2 Bladder wrack, a brown seaweed which esis. Some seaweeds contain a red pigment in addition to chlorophyll.
occurs on the seashore between the high and low Many plants have purple leaves - copper beech, for instance, and the
tide marks. tropical plant Thoeo. Their cells contain a purple substance called anthocy-
 Chlorophyll, the miracle molecule 235

anin. There are several different anthocyanins, and they help to give flowers
and fruits their characteristic colours, but they play no part in photosynth¬
esis.

Where does chlorophyll occur?

If you look at a simple leaf under the microscope (Investigation 4), you will
see that its cells contain lots of small green bodies (Figure 3). These bodies are
called chloroplasts. They are packed together in the cytoplasm round the
edges of the cells. Each one is filled with chlorophyll. It's here that
photosynthesis takes place and starch is formed.

Inside the chloroplast

Chloroplasts are extremely small: about 10 000 of them would fit onto the full
stop at the end of this sentence. They are therefore invisible to the naked eye,
but under the light microscope each one can be detected individually.
However, the light microscope does not magnify them enough for us to see
any detail inside them. With an electron microscope, however, we can see
much more.
Figure 4 shows a chloroplast as seen in the electron microscope. It is
magnified about 30 000 times. If a whole moss leaf was magnified to this
extent, it would be the size of a tree.
You will notice that the chloroplast is filled with rows of thin membranes.
The way they are arranged is shown in Figure 5. By careful analysis scientists
have shown that millions and millions of chlorophyll molecules are attached
to these membranes.
The chlorophyll molecules are laid out on the chloroplast membranes Figure 3 Part of a moss leaf as seen under a light
rather like library books are stacked on shelves. In this way a great many microscope. Notice the numerous chloroplasts in the
chlorophyll molecules are packed together inside a small space. cells.
Think of a large tree. It has a large number of leaves. Inside each leaf are
numerous chloroplasts; within each chloroplast are numerous membranes;
and covering each membrane are numerous chlorophyll molecules. So there
is a lot of chlorophyll in a single plant like a tree and it covers a huge surface
area. This is very important in view of the job it has to do.

What does chlorophyll do?

Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and enables it to be used by the plant for
building up sugar. The overall effect is that energy is transferred from
sunlight to sugar molecules. The energy contained inside molecules is called
chemical energy. So chlorophyll's job is really to convert light energy into
chemical energy.
There is nothing particularly mysterious about this in itself: it is a well
known law of physics that one form of energy can be changed into another.

membranes.

lining of Figure 4 A single chloroplast seen in section in the

chloroplast
electron microscope. It is magnified 30 000 times.
cut away

Figure 5 This drawing shows the three-dimensional

structure of a chloroplast based on its appearance in
the electron microscope.
236 Biology for life

Investigation 1
How to make a solution of chlorophyll

There are several ways of doing this. 5 If necessary add some water to the
Here is one of the simplest methods: chlorophyll solution to make it less
concentrated.
1 Cut up a few green leaves into small
pieces. What colour is the chlorophyll?

2 Put them in a mortar with a pinch of Does its colour differ from that of the
washed sand. leaf from which it was obtained?

3 Cover them with a solvent (ethanol If so, in what way does it differ, and
or acetone), and grind them up with why?
a pestle. This will break open the
cells, and the chlorophyll will
dissolve in the solvent.

4 Filter the fluid into a beaker (see

illustration). The green chlorophyll
solution will pass through the filter
paper, leaving any bits of leaf
behind.

rInvestigation 2-
To find the effect of chlorophyll on light
1 Prepare a solution of chlorophyll as
instructed in Investigation 1.

2 Pour the solution into a narrow

transparent container as shown in
the upper part of the illustration.

3 Set up a projector, prism and

screen as shown in the lower part of
the illustration. The prism splits the
light into its different colours.

What colours can you see? pour chlorophyll

solution into
solution into S
4 Now place your chlorophyll solution narrow container
between the projector light and the
prism (see arrow in the illustration).
put container
between projector
Do you find that certain colours
light and prism
disappear?

If so, which ones?

What effect does chlorophyll have on

the light from the projector?

If a projector is not available, the

experiment can be done outside with
bright sunlight and a white wall. But it
has to be a sunny day!
 Chlorophyll, the miracle molecule 237

Investigation 3- Assignments-
To separate the pigments present in 3 With a pin place a drop of 1 Why do leaves generally look
a leaf concentrated chlorophyll solution green?
First method about 3 cm from the end of the strip
2 Describe in detail an experiment
of paper, and let it dry.
1 Prepare a solution of leaf pigment which you would do to find out
4 Keep adding more drops of which colours of the spectrum a
as instructed in Investigation 1. The
chlorophyll solution,, letting each potted plant uses in photosynthesis.
solution should be as strong as
one dry before putting on the next
possible. 3 A man works in a windowless office
one. The idea is to build up a really
lit by a single light bulb. To cheer
2 Dip a stick of white blackboard concentrated spot of chlorophyll on
himself up he puts a potted plant in
chalk into the solution so the end of the paper.
the chalk goes thoroughly green. the room. After a few weeks the
5 Hang the paper in the test tube as plant dies. Suggest explanations.
3 Let the chalk dry. Meanwhile, pour a shown in the illustration.
little solvent (ethanol or acetone) 4 Observe the leaves of various
into the bottom of a small beaker. indoor and outdoor plants. Are they
always green? If they are not, can
4 Stand your piece of chalk, green you suggest why they are some
end downwards, in the solvent. other colour?

What happens? 5 If you put a green plant in the dark

for a week or so, the leaves turn
Can you see that the.solution is made yellow. Several days after returning
up of at least two different pigments? the plant to the light the leaves turn
green again.
What colours are these pigments? a) Suggest an explanation for this.
6 The solvent should rise up the strip
b) How would you find out if
Second method of paper, carrying the chlorophyll
yellowing of the leaves has
pigments with it.
This method is called paper prevented them from
chromatography. 7 When the solvent has risen about photosynthesising?
8 cm, take the paper out of the test c) What do you think would happen
1 Pour some solvent (ethanol or
tube and dry it. to the plant if you left it in the dark
acetone) into a large test tube to a
for ever, and why?
depth of about 2 cm. Put a stopper How many different colours can you
in the end of the tube and leave it. see? 6 The following diagiam shows light
being shone onto a screen from a
2 Cut a strip of filter paper the same What has separated them, and
slide projector.
length as the test tube. why?
a) What colour would you expect
the light to be on the screen?
b) What would happen if you put a
prism in the beam of light at A?
Investigation 4 c) What effect would be produced if
you then put a glass jar
Looking at chloroplasts in a moss containing a solution of
leaf chlorophyll at B?
1 With a pair of tweezers, carefully 4 Lift up the coverslip and put a drop d) What conclusions can be drawn
detach one small leaf from a moss of iodine on the leaf. from this experiment?
plant.
5 Put the coverslip back.
2 Put the leaf in a drop of water on a
6 Examine the leaf under the
slide, and cover it with a coverslip.
microscope again.
B
3 Examine the leaf under a
A black colour indicates starch. Is A
microscope.
there any starch in the cell? If there
Where is the green pigment? Look is, where is it?
at Figure 3. Can you see the various
What conclusions would you draw from
structures shown in this picture in
this experiment about the function of
your own moss leaf?
chlorophyll?
 —More about—
photosynthesis
In recent years scientists
have discovered a lot about the 1 Chlorella put into bottles
with radioactive carbon
chemical reactions which take place dioxide

during photosynthesis thanks to

the use of isotopes clear bottle dark bottle

2 light shone for ten

minutes

3 Chlorella removed from

bottles

4 Geiger counter monitors

radioactivity in Chlorella

Figure 1 This diagram summarises an experiment which scientists have carried out with
Chlorella.

What are isotopes?

Figure 2 A scientist wearing protective gloves, Consider the element carbon. The normal form of carbon has an atomic mass
transferring some radio-active hydrogen carbonate
of 12 (12C). However, there is another kind of carbon which has an atomic
solution into a bottle containing Chlorella. The
hydrogen carbonate solution contains radio-active mass of 14 (14C), and is radio-active. These two forms of carbon are known as
carbon atoms. This provides the plant with a source isotopes. The radio-active form can be detected by means of a Geiger
of labelled carbon dioxide. counter. This has a probe: when the probe is brought close to a radio-active
substance it clicks repeatedly.
One of the first places to use isotopes for studying photosynthesis was
Berkeley, California. There in the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, scientists
have used radio-active carbon to study photosynthesis in Chlorella. Chlorella is
a single-celled, plant-like organism which is easily grown in the laboratory.

Tracing what happens to carbon dioxide in photosynthesis

Here is a simplified account of what the Berkeley scientists did. First they
made some carbon dioxide whose normal carbon had been replaced by its
radio-active isotope. By substituting the radio-active isotope for the normal
carbon, they were able to 'label' the carbon dioxide and follow what
happened to it.
The labelled carbon dioxide was supplied to Chlorella, and a Geiger
counter was used to detect it. A simplified version of the experiment is
summarised in Figure 1, and one of the steps is illustrated in Figure 2.
The Berkeley scientists found that in the light the radio-active carbon was
taken up by the plant. However, they went further than this. They carefully
Figure 3 If Chlorella is supplied with carbon dioxide extracted the chemical compounds from the plant and tested them for
whose carbon is radio-active, the radio-active radio-activity. They found that the radio-active carbon had got into the
carbon gets into the carbohydrate which the plant carbohydrate (sugar) which the plant had made (Figure 3). From this
makes.
 More about photosynthesis 239

experiment it was concluded that the carbon in the carbohydrate made by

plants comes from carbon dioxide: light stage
water

Carbon dioxide 4- H20 ^Carbohydrate + Oxygen

I__

Tracing what happens to oxygen oxygen '

Carbon dioxide contains oxygen as well as carbon. What happens to the

oxygen? Labelling experiments have given us the answer to this too. There is
a rare isotope of oxygen whose atoms are slightly heavier than those of hydrogen
normal oxygen. They can be detected by a machine called a mass
spectrometer.
carbon dioxide
Scientists have given plants carbon dioxide whose normal oxygen has been
replaced by this heavy isotope. What happens? The heavy oxygen gets into
the carbohydrate which the plants make. This tells us that the oxygen in the
carbohydrate made by plants comes from carbon dioxide:

Carbon diOxide + H20 » Carbohydrate + Oxygen

L.-J

The conclusion from these experiments is that in photosynthesis carbon

dioxide is somehow converted into carbohydrate.
sugar

dark stage
How is carbon dioxide converted into carbohydrate?
If you compare the formulae of carbon dioxide and a carbohydrate, you will
Figure 4 Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. First
find that the carbohydrate contains hydrogen whereas carbon dioxide does water is split into oxygen and hydrogen. Then the
not. Where does the hydrogen in the carbohydrate come from? There is really hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to form
only one possible answer: water. sugar (carbohydrate).
The formula of water is H20. It is possible to label the oxygen in water by
replacing it with its heavy isotope. If such water is given to an illuminated
plant, the heavy oxygen is given off as a gas. This tells us that the oxygen
-Assignments-
which plants give off during photosynthesis comes from water: 1 How has heavy oxygen helped
scientists to understand
Carbon dioxide + H20 » Carbohydrate + Oxygen
photosynthesis?
L-i
2 If you transfer a green plant from the
The water must therefore be split into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen
light to total darkness, do you think it
atoms. Careful experiments have confirmed that this really does happen in
stops making sugar straight away?
photosynthesis, though the details are very complicated.
Explain your answer.

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages 3 A farmer gives his crops a nitrogen

fertiliser. Why is this desirable?
We now know that photosynthesis occurs in two stages (Figure 4). In the first
stage water is split into oxygen and hydrogen. In the second stage hydrogen 4 What criticisms, if any, do you have
combines with carbon dioxide to form carbohydrate. of the experiment illustrated in Figure 1 ?
Scientists have discovered an interesting thing about these two stages: only 5 Experiments with isotope tracers
the first requires light; the second can occur in the dark. So we call these the enable us to say the following about
light and dark stages respectively. photosynthesis:
The job of the light stage is to split water and provide hydrogen atoms for a) The carbon and the oxygen in
the dark stage. Energy for this comes from sunlight and is trapped by the the sugar come from carbon
chlorophyll. Neither light energy nor chlorophyll are needed for the dark dioxide.
stage. b) The hydrogen in the sugar
comes from water.
How do plants make other things besides carbohydrate? c) The oxygen gas that’s given off
comes from water.
The scientists who did the experiment with Chlorella (Figure 1) found that
d) Some water is formed.
radio-active carbon quickly got into carbohydrates, but later on it got into
other more complex compounds such as fats and protein. The plant makes Give a balanced chemical equation for
carbohydrate first and then converts some of this into other things. photosynthesis that takes all these
To make proteins a plant needs the extra elements nitrogen and sulphur, in observations into account.
addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It obtains these extra elements
from its surroundings in the form of mineral salts.
—The leaf: organ of
The external structure of leaves
photosynthesis You can learn much about leaves simply by looking at them from the outside
(Investigation 1). The leaf is attached to the stem or branch by a leaf stalk or
This Topic is about
petiole. The leaf stalk is continuous with the veins (Figures 1 and 2).
the structure of leaves, and how Here is a summary of the leaf's main adaptations for photosynthesis which
it fits their job of feeding the plant. you can see from the outside.
We shall concentrate on the leaves
of dicotyledonous plants. Leaves have a large surface area
Leaves come in all manner of shapes and sizes, but they are generally flat,
sometimes large, and usually numerous. The result is that they cover a large
surface area (Investigation 2). This makes them good at absorbing carbon
dioxide from the air, and light energy from the sun.

Leaves are arranged in the best way

Leaves are usually positioned in such a way that they get the maximum
amount of light. Moreover, they may fit together snugly so very little light
passes through to the ground below. This is why it is so dark under many
trees and shrubs.
In a large tree with a lot of leaves there is always a risk that the leaves at the
top may shade those lower down. This is avoided by having leaves which are
divided into leaflets, or have jagged edges, so light can get between them.
Another way is by the leaves at the top arranging themselves so their edges
are directed towards the sun. This allows light to pass between them to the
leaves lower down (Figure 3).

Leaves have pores

A leaf's 'skin' (the epidermis) is pierced by tiny air pores known as stomata
(singular: stoma). They occur mainly on the lower side of the leaf. They allow
gases to pass in and out of the leaf. Some leaves have a very large number of
stomata (Figure 4). The stomata can open and close. How they do so is
explained on page 244. Usually they open during the day when it's light and
photosynthesis is taking place. They close at night when it is dark and
photosynthesis has stopped.

Leaves are thin

Leaves are usually less than a millimetre thick. This cuts down the distance
through which carbon dioxide has to diffuse after it has entered the leaf.
But there's a problem. Being so thin, leaves would be liable to droop, but
this is prevented by the veins which serve as a kind of skeleton holding the
leaf out flat (Figure 5).

Figure 1 Leaves are the main place where plants

make food.
arranged like this.
 The leaf: organ of photosynthesis 241

Figure 4 Stomata on the lower side of the leaf seen under the microscope.

The internal structure of leaves

You can study the inside of a leaf by cutting thin sections of it and examining
them under a microscope (Investigation 3).
Figure 6 shows the inside of a dicotyledonous leaf as it appears under the
microscope. The leaf is lined above and below by the epidermis. In between
are lots of cells which together make up the mesophyll. The mesophyll is
divided into the palisade mesophyll on the upper side and the spongy
mesophyll below. The cells of the palisade mesophyll are shaped like bricks
and are arranged neatly side by side. The spongy mesophyll cells are
rounded and appear haphazard in their arrangement. Figure 5 Notice the branching veins on the
In the middle of the leaf in Figure 6 there is a small vein. This consists of underside of these maple leaves. The lower
two main tissues: xylem towards the top and phloem below. The xylem photograph shows a single leaf in detail.
contains pipe-like vessels, and the phloem contains elongated cells called Figure 6 Cross-section of part of a leaf as seen
sieve tubes (see page 245). under a light microscope.

waxy cuticle_
upper epidermis-
C

palisade mesophyll ■<

xylem X
.. >vein
phloem I

space

spongy mesophyll <

air pore (stoma)

lower epidermis
242 Biology for life

Here are the main adaptations for photosynthesis which you can see inside
light the leaf.

The meso-phyll cells contain chloroplasts

The palisade and spongy mesophyll cells all contain chloroplasts and can
photosynthesise. However, most of the chloroplasts are located in the
palisade layer, so it is here that photosynthesis mainly takes place (Figure 7).

The photosynthetic cells are mainly on the upper side of the leaf
The palisade cells, where most of the photosynthesis takes place, are near the
surface of the leaf on the side which gets most light. Inside these cells, the
chloroplasts - as if greedy for light - are often clustered towards the upper
side.

There are air spaces between the mesophyll cells

The cells making up the spongy mesophyll are loosely packed, with large air
spaces in between. Carbon dioxide diffuses readily through the stomata into
these spaces. It then circulates freely inside the leaf, passing through the
moist cell walls into the cells.

The leaf contains transport tissues

cell wall As well as giving strength, the veins serve as the leaf's transport system. The
vessels carry water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves. The sieve
tubes carry sugar and other food substances which have been made by
Figure 7 The surface cells of a leaf, showing the photosynthesis, from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
palisade layer. Notice how the chloroplasts are The dense network of veins, typical of most leaves, ensures that none of
bunched up towards the tops of the cells where the
the leaf cells is far away from the transport system.
greatest amount of light is.

What happens to the sugar which a leaf makes?

Some of the sugar is broken down straight away to provide energy for the
leaf's own needs. Some of it is converted into starch and stored. The rest is
sent to other parts of the plant, either to supply energy there or to be stored.
As the plant's food-manufacturing device, the leaves must be as extensive
Figure 8 Ins and outs of a leaf mesophyll cell. It
takes in carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts; it as possible and in full communication with the rest of the plant (Figure 8).
gives out oxygen and some of the soluble sugar Study this figure carefully. In the next Topic we shall see how things are
which it has made. transported to and from the leaf cells.

vessel
 The leaf: organ of photosynthesis 243

-Investigation 1- Investigation 3- r-Assignments-

Looking at leaves Looking inside the leaf 1 Make a list of all those features of
1 Examine a leaf of a dicotyledonous You will need either a prepared slide, green plants in general which help
plant. Which of the structures shown or a thin section of a leaf which you can the leaves to get as much light as
in Figure 2 can you see? mount on a slide yourself. If you are possible. (It may help you to do this
mounting a section, proceed as if you observe plants living around
2 How does the colour of the upper
follows: your home or school.)
side of a leaf differ from the lower
side? Why the difference? 1 Put a drop of water on a microscope 2 Each word in column A, below, is
slide. related to one or more words in
3 Look at leaves from different trees.
Can you explain their different column B.
2 Carefully transfer the leaf section to
shapes? the drop of water on the slide. a) Against each word in column A
write down the appropriate word
4 Examine the veins of different 3 Cover the section with a coverslip. or words, from column B.
leaves. What sort of pattern do they
4 Examine it under the microscope. A B
form?
Can you see the structures shown in stomata carbon dioxide
5 Tear leaves in two. Does this tell you
.Figure 6? (You may be looking at a vessels light
anything about the function of the
different kind of leaf from the one chloroplasts water
veins?
shown in the figure, so watch out for the airspaces chlorophyll
A method for looking at the air pores of differences.) b) What do the four words in column
a leaf is described in Investigation 5 on
In what respects is the inside of the leaf A have in common?
page 249.
adapted for photosynthesis? c) What do the four words in column
B have in common?
3 Why is the lower side of a leaf often
a paler green than the upper side?
-Investigation 2 4 Why do the palisade mesophyll
cells contain more chloroplasts than
the spongy mesophyll cells?
5 What part is played by each of these
structures in photosynthesis:
a) thexylem,
b) the stomata,
c) the air spaces in the spongy
mesophyll?
6 The photograph below shows part
of a sweet chestnut tree with the
leaves in their natural position. In
what way might the positioning of
the leaves help the tree to survive?

1 Select a large plant (tree or shrub) What is the total surface area of the
whose leaves are approximately leaves of your plant?
equal in size.
How does the area compare with the
2 Detach a leaf. Lay it on squared floor of the room where you are
paper and trace round it with a working?
pencil. Why is it useful to the plant to have a
3 From the number of squares which large leaf area?
the leaf covers, work out the surface (A quick way of estimating the area of a
area of the leaf. leaf is to measure its length and
4 Count the number of leaves on the maximum width in millimetres. Its
approximate area in square millimetres
plant. (If your plant is a tree, you will
have to make a rough estimate.) is the length x width x 0.75.)

5 Multiply the area of one leaf by the

number of leaves.
 —Uptake and—
Transpiration
transport in A simple experiment can be done to show that water evaporates from the

plants leaves of a plant (Figure 1). As quickly as it is lost from the leaves, more water
is taken up by the roots and passed up the stem. The evaporation of water
from the above-ground parts of the plant is called transpiration, and the flow
The inside of a plant is of water through the plant is called the transpiration stream.
the scene of much activity. You can measure transpiration by finding out how quickly a plant takes up,
Substances are constantly being or loses, water (Investigations 1 and 2).
Whereabouts inside the plant is water transported? To answer this we must
moved from one place to another.
look at the internal structure of the plant.

Inside the plant

To find out about the internal structure of the plant, you need to cut thin
sections and look at them under the microscope (Investigation 3). The plant is
composed of different kinds of tissues. The tissue concerned with transport is
called vascular tissue. It consists of two parts: xylem and phloem. The way
these, and other important tissues, are arranged is shown in Figures 2 and 3.
The xylem contains long tubular vessels. These are dead structures, and
their walls contain a hard substance called lignin (see page 251). They are
narrow, like capillary tubes (Figure 4A). They are responsible for transporting
water through the plant (Investigation 4).
The phloem contains elongated living cells with cellulose walls,. They are
called sieve tubes because the end walls between one cell and the next are
perforated by tiny holes, like a sieve (Figure 4B). We shall discuss their
function presently.
Figure 1 Experiment to show that water evaporates
Also important in water transport is the epidermis. This is the outermost
from the leaves of a plant. After 24 hours a lot of
water will have condensed on the inside of the left- layer of cells and forms a kind of skin. The epidermis of the leaves and stem is
hand bell jar. The right-hand bell jar is the control covered with a waxy cuticle which prevents water evaporating through it,
and will show no condensation. and it is pierced by a variable number of air pores or stomata (singular:
stoma).
The root does not have a cuticle or stomata, but the cells towards the tip
have extensions called root hairs.

Stomata
The stomata play an important part in water transport because they provide
the main route by which water vapour can escape from the plant into the
atmosphere.
You can find out about the stomata by looking at the surface of a leaf under
the microscope (Investigation 5). In most plants, the stomata are mainly on
the undersides of the leaves. Because of this, water generally evaporates
more quickly from the lower side of the leaf than from the upper side
(Investigation 6).
The structure of a stoma is shown in Figure 5. It is bounded by a pair of
sausage-shaped guard cells. How does the stoma open? The guard cells take
in water by osmosis from the neighbouring epidermal cells. As a result, the
guard cells swell up and bend, so a gap develops between them. The bending
is accentuated by the fact that the inner wall of the guard cell is thicker and
less elastic than the outer wall. The stoma closes by the reverse process: water
is drawn out of the guard cells by osmosis, so they straighten.
When the stomata are open, water vapour can escape from inside the
plant, and oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse in and out.

How does water move through the plant?

Figure 6 summarises how water passes through a plant. Water is drawn into
the root from the surrounding soil. The root hairs help by increasing the
surface area. The concentration of salts in the root hairs is greater than that in
Figure 2 Transverse section through the edge of a the soil water, so water is drawn into them by osmosis. The water then moves
sunflower stem. towards the centre of the root.
 Uptake and transport in plants 245

midrib flat part of leaf

epidermis

a plant stem as they appear in a thin section cut

longways and viewed under a microscope.

as indicated by the arrows

Figure 5 Stomata (air pores), greatly enlarged, as

Figure 3 These diagrams show the positions of the transport tissues inside the leaf, stem they appear in a surface view of a leaf.
and root of a flowering plant. Xylem red, phloem blue.
246 Biology for life

Leaf

water evaporates water passes

from surface of out of xylem vessel
cells into airspaces

air pore
(stoma)

water vapour
diffuses out
of air pore

. . air space
water rises up Stem
xylem vessel

water is drawn
into root hair

soil particle root hair

water moves
towards centre
of root

root cell

soil water air space

Root

Figure 6 This diagram summarises how water passes through a flowering plant. There
are three different pathways through which water may be transported in the root and leaf.
Most of it flows along the cellulose cell walls; some travels in the cytoplasm of the cells;
and the rest passes from vacuole to vacuole.

soft inner part of bark (phloem)

carries food substances downwards

In the lenticel
the cork cells
are loosely hard outer part of bark (cork)
packed so air protects the trunk
can pass between
them breathing pore
(lenticel)

xylem (wood)
carries water and salts upwards

Figure 7 The main structures in a tree trunk, showing the movement of materials within it.
 Uptake and transport in plants 247

The water rises up the stem partly by being pushed from below, and partly -Investigation 1-
by being pulled from above. The pushing force can be shown by cutting a
Measuring the uptake of water by
stem near its base: provided there is plenty of water in the soil, water will means of a potometer
ooze out of the stump for a long time. This is known as root pressure.
The pull from above is created by the evaporation of water from the leaf. If 1 Obtain a leafy twig of a tree or
you stop this pulling force by, for example, cutting off the leaves, the passage shrub.
of water up the stem is slowed down. This is why little water is taken up by
2 With the cut end of the shoot under
deciduous trees in winter when they drop their leaves.
water, attach it to a capillary tube by
means of a short length of rubber
Uptake of mineral salts tubing.

Mineral salts, in the form of ions, are drawn into the roots along with the 3 Clamp the capillary tube to a stand,
water. They are taken up partly by passive diffusion. with the bottom end in a beaker of
However, they can be absorbed by the roots even when they are more water as shown in the illustration.
dilute in the soil than they are inside the root cells. This happens with nitrate
and magnesium ions, for example. In these circumstances they are taken up
by active transport which requires energy from respiration.
Because salts are absorbed by active transport, it is important that the soil
should contain plenty of air. This means that the soil should be well drained.
If it becomes waterlogged, the uptake of salts is slowed down.
rubber tubing

capillary tube
Transport of food substances
If you turn to page 238, you can read about an experiment in which scientists
gave a plant carbon dioxide containing radio-active carbon. Eventually the
t
,
10 cm
radio-active carbon got into the sugars and other food substances which the
♦
plant made during its photosynthesis. Scientists have traced what happens to
the food substances later on. They have shown that some of them move out
beaker of water _
of the leaves to other parts of the plant such as the growing points, storage
organs and roots. They travel in the sieve tubes which, as we saw earlier,
belong to the phloem tissue. This process is called translocation. 4 Make two marks on the capillary
The importance of the phloem in transporting food substances can be seen tube 10 cm apart.
in trees (Figure 7). In a tree trunk, the phloem tissue is located in the soft
The apparatus which you have set
inner part of the bark. If a ring of bark is cut out from right round a tree trunk,
up is called a potometer. You can
food substances cannot get down the trunk (Figure 8), so the roots are starved
use it to measure the rate at which
and eventually the tree dies. If this is done with a tree whose leaves are given
the plant takes up water as follows:
radio-active carbon dioxide, the radio-active substances spread down the
trunk but get stuck above the ring. The reason why grey squirrels and other 5 Lift the capillary tube out of the
small mammals kill trees is that they gnaw the bark and destroy the phloem. beaker, touch the end of it with
Many other experiments indicate that the phloem is the pathway by which blotting paper, and then put it back.
food substances are transported inside the plant. However, no one knows for An air bubble will have been
certain how it takes place except that it definitely requires energy from introduced into the capillary.
respiration and if the sieve tubes are killed it stops immediately.
6 Time how long it takes for the air
The phloem must therefore have an adequate supply of oxygen. The corky
bubble to travel from the first to the
part of bark is impervious to gases, but scattered around are breathing pores
second mark on the capillary tube.
called lenticels which allow oxygen to diffuse in to the phloem and carbon
dioxide to diffuse out. A lenticel is shown on the left hand side of Figure 7. 7 When the air bubble has passed the
second mark, push it out of the
capillary tube into the beaker of
water by squeezing the rubber
tubing.

8 Repeat the experiment with a) some

or all of the leaves cut off, b) the
upper and/or lower surface of
leaves covered with vaseline.

Explain your results.

248 Biology for life

Investigation 2- r Investigation 3 rInvestigation 4-

Measuring the uptake of water by the Looking at the transport tissues in a Showing the passage of water
weighing method stem through a plant
1 Obtain a short length of a non- 1 Obtain a plant with its leaves and
1 Obtain a leafy, non-woody plant and
wash its roots carefully. woody stem, about 6 cm long. It roots intact.
must be fairly stiff. 2 Wash the soil off the roots.
2 Stand it in a 20 cm3 measuring
cylinder. 2 With a sharp razor blade, cut very
3 Stand the plant in a jar of water
thin slices of the stem as shown in
3 Pour water into the measuring containing a coloured dye such as
the illustration. These slices are
cylinder up to the top mark., eosin or red ink, for about 4 hours.
transverse sections.
4 Carefully run a little oil into the
measuring cylinder so that it forms a
thin layer over the surface of the
water. This will prevent water
evaporating from the measuring
cylinder.

eosin

4 After 4 hours, cut the stem in two

3 Float the sections in a dish of water.
with a sharp knife.
4 Pour some phloroglucin stain into a
watch glass and add three drops of
concentrated hydrochloric acid.

5 With a paintbrush, transfer one of

your thinnest sections into the stain,
and leave it there for three minutes.

6 Put a drop of water in the centre of a

slide.
5 Weigh the plant and measuring
cylinder together. 7 Lift the section out of the stain, and
place it in the water on the slide.
6 Leave the plant for about 24 hours.
Whereabouts is the dye?
8 Cover the section with a coverslip,
7 After about 24 hours, weigh the
and examine it under the low power Compare the appearance of the
plant and measuring cylinder again.
of the microscope. stem with that of a plant which has
Write down their mass in grams.
been standing in water.
Which structures shown in figure 3
8 Read off the new level of the water in
can you see? Explain your observations.
the measuring cylinder.
(The phloroglucin should have 5 Cut the stem longways so as to find
How much mass has been lost?
stained all woody structures red, out more about where the dye is
What volume of water has been taken including the xylem vessels.) within the stem.
up?
9 Try cutting sections longways as 6 Stand a balsam plant (’Busy Lizzie1)
One cm3 of water weighs one gram: shown in the illustration below. Stain in a jar of dye, and leave it for 24
from this work out the mass of water them with phloroglucin as before. hours. This plant has a transparent
which has been taken up by the plant. This will enable you to see the stem, and you will be able to see
transport tissues in side view. where the dye is inside it.
Does this figure equal the loss in mass?
7 Obtain a plant with white flowers,
What do you think happens to the water
such as deadnettle or periwinkle,
which the plant takes up?
and stand it in a jar of dye for
Are there any other reasons why the several days.
plant might lose mass besides losing
Does the dye eventually reach the
water?
flowers?
 Uptake and transport in plants 249

Investigation 5- Investigation 6-
Looking at the stomata in a leaf To see how quickly the two sides of a leaf lose water
1 Cut a green leaf off a plant. 1 Obtain two small pieces of dry 5 Note the time, and observe the two
cobalt chloride or thiocyanate pieces of cobalt thiocyanate paper
2 With a paintbrush apply a thin layer
paper. This is blue when dry, but at intervals.
of clear nail varnish to a small area
turns pink when moist.
on the lower surface of the leaf. How long does it take for the first trace
2 Obtain a leafy twig of a tree or shrub of pink to appear on each piece of
and stand it in water. paper?

3 With sellotape stick one piece of the How long does it take for each piece of
cobalt thiocyanate paper to the paper to go completely pink?
upper side of a leaf. Completely
Which side of the leaf loses water
cover the piece of paper with the
faster, the upper side or the lower side?
sellotape.
Why do you think one side loses water
4 Stick the other piece of cobalt
faster than the other?
thiocyanate paper to the lower side
/ of a different leaf in the same way.

3 When the nail varnish is dry, peel it

off with a pair of forceps. The nail ■Assignments
varnish will have made an exact
replica of the leaf surface. 1 Before going to bed, a lady placed
a potted plant on the windowsill and
pulled the curtains. It was a chilly
night. The following morning she
found that the glass behind the
plant was covered with drops of
moisture. Explain fully.

2 Suggest a reason for each of the

following:
a) On a hot day it is best to water
plants in the evening.
b) Before transplanting a plant it is a a) What structures does the visking
4 Put the nail varnish in a drop of good idea to remove some of the tubing represent?
water on a slide, and cover it with a leaves. b) Explain how the change in
coverslip. c) Water moves up a stem more appearance is brought about.
quickly on a hot dry day than on c) Mention two ways in which the
5 Examine it under the low power of
a cool wet day. working of this artificial stoma
the microscope. differs from a real one.
d) When a greenfly feeds on a plant
Can you see the stomata? it sticks its proboscis into the 5 A scientist investigated the uptake
phloem. of mineral salts by the roots of
Approximately how many stomata
are visible in the field of view? 3 How could a five-year-old child kill a young cereal plants. This is what
tree with a penknife? Explain fully. she found:
6 Now look at a single stoma under a) Salts were taken up even when
the high power. 4 In order to show how the stomata of they were more dilute in the
a plant open, a student makes an soil-water than inside the root.
Can you see the guard cells?
artificial stoma as follows. She fills b) The rate of uptake was increased
7 Repeat the experiment on the upper two short lengths of visking tubing by raising the temperature, so
surface of the leaf. with a twenty per cent solution of long as it did not exceed 40°C.
sucrose (sugar) and ties the ends c) Uptake stopped if the roots were
How many stomata are visible in the
together as shown in the left hand treated with a poison that
field of view this time?
diagram above. She then places the prevented metabolism.
Which side of the leaf has the greater artificial stoma in a dish of distilled d) Uptake was much slower if the
number of stomata, the upper side or water and leaves it there for three soil was waterlogged.
lower side? hours. At the end of the three-hour
period it looks like the right-hand What conclusions can be drawn from
Why do you think the two sides of the each of these findings? How might they
diagram.
leaf differ in this respect? help farmers?
 How do plants
Why do plants need to stand upright?
support There are two main reasons:

themselves ? 1 It puts the leaves in the best position to get plenty of light for
photosynthesis. This is particularly important in a forest where plants are
The tree below is competing with one another for light.
2 It lifts the flowers into a high position from which pollen, fruits and seeds
over 80 metres tall and has a
can be scattered over a wide area. This helps the species to reproduce and
mass of over 600 tonnes. How can
spread to new places.
such a huge structure stand up?
The main way plants stand upright is by having strong stems (Investigation
!)■

What makes the stem strong?

In general, strength is achieved by the stem containing three different
structures, namely packing cells, cellulose strands, and wood. Let's look at
each of these in turn.

Packing cells K
If you look at the inside of the stem of a herbaceous plant like a sunflower
under the microscope you will see that it is full of large rounded cells (Figure
2).These are packing cells, they are full of a watery fluid and are blown up like
balloons. The epidermis or 'skin' of the stem holds the packing cells in place,
and causes them to press against one another, making the whole stem firm
yet flexible. Similar cells inside the leaf help to keep that firm too.
What keeps the packing cells full of fluid? The packing cells draw in water
by osmosis which makes them turgid (see page 144). However, this will only
happen if the plant has a good supply of water from the soil.
If the packing cells don't get enough water they become flabby or flaccid,
just as a balloon does if you let air out of it. When this occurs the whole plant
droops (Figure 3). We call this wilting. It happens on hot dry days when
water evaporates from the leaves more rapidly than it can be replaced by the
roots.

Cellulose strands
A plant like a sunflower contains strands of cellulose just beneath the

Figure 1 The General Grant Tree, a giant conifer, in

California, is estimated to be 3500 years old and at
60 m above the ground the trunk is 3 m thick. Figure 2 Packing cells seen in a section of a plant stem, highly magnified.
 How do plants support themselves? 251

cellulose strands

wall of stem

Figure 3 These diagrams show how the packing ceils in a stem help it to stand upright Figure 4 In this stem the cellulose strands are
concentrated at the corners, making it strong and
helping it to stand upright.
epidermis in the stem. These strands are formed by the thick cellulose walls
of living cells which lengthen as the stem grows. The cellulose strands are
tough and rubbery, and they help to make the stem strong and flexible. vascular xylem contains
In the stems of such plants as deadnettle, which look square in bundle vessels (woody)
cross-section, the cellulose strands are concentrated at the corners. The
corners thus serve as buttresses, strengthening the stem and helping it to
stand erect (Figure 4).

. fibres (woody)
Wood
When a plant grows, certain cells in the stem lengthen, and a substance called
_wall of stem
lignin is added to the cellulose in their walls. Lignified cells are wood. As
lignin won't let water through, the cells die, so all that's left in the mature
stem are long strands of wood. These strands are of two types. Some of them
are narrow tube-like vessels and their job is to carry water and salts through
the plant as well as to provide support (see page 244). Others, known as
fibres, do not transport anything and their job is only to support the plant.
Plants vary in the amount of wood their stems contain (Investigation 2). In Figure 5 This diagram shows the positions of the
herbaceous plants that only last one year, there is not much wood and it is woody tissue in the stem of a herbaceous plant such
as a sunflower.
confined to special regions called the vascular bundles (Figure 5). On the
other hand, in shrubs and trees, which go on year after year, the wood more
or less fills the entire stem, and more is added every year.
Wood makes stems strong and rigid. Think of a tree, for example. The
branches and leaves, which together make up the canopy, are held up by a
single trunk. This may be very tall: some of the giant conifers in California are
over 100 metres high.
As a tree gets taller, its trunk gradually broadens, helping it to support the
increasing mass of the canopy. Some of the giant conifers have trunks up to
11 metres wide, and there is a cypress tree in Mexico whose trunk is over 34
metres wide: twelve buses could be lined up side by side behind this tree
trunk without being seen.
If you look at Figures 4 and 5 you will notice that the strengthening tissue is
towards the edge of the stem. This is the best place for making the stem stiff
and sturdy. On the other hand, in young roots the strengthening tissue is in
the centre. This makes roots tough but flexible.

Inside a tree trunk

If you look at the cut end of a felled tree trunk you may see that there is a dark
region towards the centre and a lighter region further out. The dark central
region is called the heartwood and the lighter region the sapwood (Figure 6).
The heartwood is extremely dense and hard and its only job is to support
the tree. The sapwood is less dense and therefore softer than the heartwood. Figure 6 The inside of a tree trunk, showing the two
It provides support too, but it also carries water and mineral salts (sap) up the kinds of wood.

trunk. It is therefore much wetter than the heartwood.

252 Biology for life

Figure 7 A sawmill in Canada, These tree trunks have been transported down the river,
and will be cut up into planks.

Wood and the timber industry

Wood is extremely strong for its mass, and so it has been used for building
and similar purposes for centuries. Its main disadvantage is that it's liable to
be attacked by fungi or insects. For example'dry rot' is caused by a fungus.
For building, heartwood is better than sapwood because it is stronger, drier
and more resistant to decay. Also being drier, it is less likely to shrink.
Every type of tree has its own particular kind of wood which varies in
appearance and strength. The arrangement of the cells gives the wood its
characteristic grain. Generally the wood of coniferous trees, such as pine, is
softer than the wood of flowering trees such as oak or mahogany.
Different trees have different uses. For example, the wood of the ash tree is
strong and springy, which makes it ideal for the handles of tennis racquets.
On the other hand the oak has very hard and durable wood, which makes it
more suitable for building; and mahogany, with its beautiful grain, is ideal for
furniture.
In temperate regions, the trees most often used for their wood are conifers
such as pine, spruce and fir. They grow comparatively quickly and their
wood is hard enough for most purposes. The seeds are sown in nurseries,
and when the seedlings are large enough they are transplanted to plantations
Figure 8 Ivy (top) and Virginia creeper (bottom) can in the country. They are usually grown irt areas which are unsuitable for
grow up walls. Ivy sends out short 'rootlets’ which other kinds of crops, such as steep mountain slopes. The seedlings are
grow into the brick, and Virginia creeper sends out
planted quite close together, but later are thinned out and the healthiest ones
little ‘suckers'.
are left until they are large enough to be cut down for their timber. All this
takes about 30 years in a warm country, but more like 50 years in a cool
country like Britain.
After felling, the trunks are sawn up (Figure 7). Before it can be used the
wood must be allowed to dry out, that is seasoned. In this process its mass
may be halved. If wood isn't seasoned it is likely to shrink and warp later.

Other methods of support

Many plants have floppy stems; they don't have the efficient strengthening
devices mentioned earlier. Some simply lie on the ground. Others get round
the problem in the following ways:

1 Some attach themselves to vertical surfaces such as wells, and climb up

them (Figure 8).
2 Some wind themselves round sticks or the stems of other plants.
3 Some float in ponds, lakes, rivers or the sea, where they are supported by
the water.
4 Some hang on the branches of trees, rooting themselves in humus that
Figure 9 Mosses hanging on a large maple tree in a has collected in crevices in the bark. We call such plants epiphytes
temperate rain forest in the north-western USA. (Figure 9).
 How do plants support themselves? 253

Investigation 1 -Assignments-
To find how strong a stem is 1 Mention three structures which help
stems to stand erect.

2 It was a hot dry day. By midday the

plants in the flowerbed were
drooping. That evening the
gardener watered the soil, and
within an hour the plants were
standing up straight.
a) Explain in detail what caused the
plants to droop, and then stand
up straight again.
b) Despite the hot, dry weather
some of the plants did not droop
at all. Give possible reasons.

3 Find out about the use of one timber

tree grown in your country.

4 How do heartwood and sapwood

differ in their properties and in their
functions in a mature tree?

5 Give one reason each why:

a) heartwood is preferred to
Cut off a 5 cm length of a stem 5 From the protractor, note the angle sapwood for building purposes;
which is approximately 5 mm wide. through which the stem bends. b) ash is used for tennis raquets;
Clamp a protractor to a stand as c) oak is used for boat-building;
6 Repeat this experiment on the
shown in the illustration. d) conifers are commonly grown for
stems (or branches) of different
timber.
plants. They should all be the same
Clamp the stem horizontally to
length and thickness, and the same 6 If you cut the end of a piece of
another stand in front of the
mass should be used for all of them. celery stem longways, and put it in
protractor.
water, the ends bend outwards as
What are the advantages and
Hang a 10 g mass on the end of the shown in the illustration below.
disadvantages to a stem of being able
stem.
to bend?

Investigation 2
To find out how much wood there is
in a stem
1 Obtain a short length of the stem of Approximately what proportion of
a plant such as a sunflower. the cut end of the stem is taken up
2 Cut one end cleanly with a knife. with wood?

6 Repeat this investigation on the

3 Pour some phloroglucin stain into a
stems or branches of different
watch glass and add three drops of
plants. In each case try breaking the
concentrated hydrochloric acid.
stem or branch with your hands
Acidified phloroglucin stains wood
before you stain it. before after
red.
How do the stems or branches of the
4 Dip the cut end of the stem into the
various plants which you have
stain and leave it for five minutes.
examined differ in the amount of wood a) Why do you think this happens?
5 Take the stem out of the stain and that they contain? b) What sort of solution could you
look at the cut end. Draw the cut put the stem in to make the ends
What do you think makes a stem or
end to show where wood is situated. bend inwards again?
branch difficult to break?
 -The skin and-
temperature
control
We usually think of the skin
as just a covering which holds the
body together and keeps the things
inside from falling out. However,
there's much more to the skin
than that, as we shall see.

The skin
The detailed structure of the skin is shown in Figure 1. It is divided into two
main layers: a thin epidermis at the surface and a thicker dermis beneath.
The epidermis is made up of layers of cells like a brick wall (Figure 2). New
cells are constantly being formed by the bottom-most layer and they push the
Figure 2 Diagrammatic view of the epidermis of! older ones towards the surface. As the cells get pushed upwards, they
human skin. become flat and hard and eventually die, forming a dead layer at the surface.
The cells right at the top are like overlapping tiles and are constantly flaking
off (Figure 3). These cells contain the protein keratin, the same substance that
the scales of reptiles and feathers of birds are made of. It makes the skin
waterproof and protective.
The epidermis of human skin contains a dark pigment called melanin.
Black-skinned people have a lot of melanin, and oriental people have an
additional pigment called carotene which gives their skin a yellowish colour.
White-skinned people don't have much melanin, though the amount can be
increased by the action of ultraviolet light on the skin, which is why they go
brown when they sunbathe.
The dermis is composed of a network of tough connective tissue fibres. In
amongst the fibres are blood capillaries and sense organs. Towards the
bottom of the dermis there are sweat glands from which narrow sweat ducts
run to the surface of the skin.
Sticking out of the skin are hairs. Each hair projects from a deep pit called
the hair follicle, and its root is situated deep in the dermis. Hairs are made of
keratin, as are other skin structures such as nails and claws.
Opening into the hair follicles are glands which produce oil. This keeps the
hair supple and helps to make the skin waterproof.
A slender muscle runs from the side of each hair to the base of the
epidermis. When this erector muscle contracts, the hair stands upright.
When it relaxes, the hair lies down flat. This is important in temperature
Figure 3 This picture shows the surface of the skin
greatly magnified in the scanning electron control, as we shall see presently.
microscope. The structures which look like dead Below the dermis is a layer of cells containing fat which varies in thickness
leaves are epithelial cells flaking off. from one part of the body to another.
 The skin and temperature control 255

Figure 4 The tiger’s stripes camouflage it by breaking up its surface. The Brazilian tree
porcupine (right) is covered with spikes which protect it from attack.

What does the skin do?

We will answer this mainly in relation to humans, with occasional reference
to other animals.

1 It protects the body

The keratinous layer of the skin, and the hairs, play the most important part
in this. In some mammals the hairs are thickened up into sharp spines or flat
plates which protect the animal from attack (Figure 4, right), and in animals
like the rhinoceros the horns are made of lots of hairs all fused together. The
skin also protects the body from germs, and the melanin pigment stops
harmful ultraviolet rays from entering the body.
To a certain extent unwanted nitrogen can be got rid of via the skin (see
page 260). This is another aspect of the skin's protective function.

2 It camouflages the animal

In many mammals the hairs vary in colour and pattern, camouflaging the
animal in its natural surroundings (Figure 4, left).

3 It keeps water in
The keratinous layer of the skin is waterproof, and this prevents the body
drying out. It also stops water getting in by osmosis when, for example, we
go swimming.

4 It is sensitive to stimuli
The skin is sensitive to touch, pain, temperature and pressure. Sense organs
in the skin are responsible for detecting these stimuli.

5 It keeps the body warm

The hair plays a very important part in this. Of course, humans have very
little hair and that's why we wear clothes. But other mammals have plenty of
hair. In birds the same thing is achieved by the feathers (Investigation 1).
The fat under the dermis also helps to keep the body warm. Animals such
as whales and seals which live in cold water have a specially thick layer of fat
called blubber (Figure 5).
The rate at which heat is lost from the body depends on its size
(Investigation 2). Small animals have a large surface-volume ratio (see page Figure 5 This sea lion has a thick layer of fat, or
143): they lose heat more quickly than larger animals. blubber, in its skin to help keep it warm.
256 Biology for life

Temperature control
Except when we're ill, the body temperature stays at just under 37°C all the
time. This is the temperature at which our body functions best; indeed, if the
body temperature gets much above 40°C, death is likely to occur.

If it's cold, the following things happen which keep the body warm:

1 The hairs are raised

You may have noticed that on cold days a cat's hairs are ruffed up. This is
brought about by contracting the erector muscles. As a result, the hairs stand
up and a layer of air is trapped between them (Figure 6A). Air is a poor
conductor of heat, so this helps to insulate the body and prevents heat being
lost from it. Of course, this response it not much use to humans with their
sparse covering of hair; nevertheless our erector muscles still contract in cold
weather, giving rise to goose pimples.

2 Blood is held back from the surface of the skin

Instead of flowing through the capillaries just under the epidermis, the blood
is diverted through blood vessels deeper down. This prevents heat being lost
from the blood as it flows through the skin. This response is brought about by
the surface blood vessels getting narrow so blood can't flow through them so
easily (Figure 7A). This is why white people tend to go pale in cold weather.

3 More heat is made by the body

In cold weather our metabolic rate increases and we product extra heat. The
liver plays an important part in this. Also we shiver and may run about so as
Figure 6 These diagrams show the part played by to keep warm. Shivering is caused by an involuntary contraction of our
the hairs on the skin in controlling the body muscles.
temperature of a mammal.
If it's hot, various things happen which keep the body cool:

1 The hairs are lowered

This is brought about by relaxing the erector muscles. As a result, the hairs lie
A cold day down flat: a layer of air is no longer held between them, so heat is lost more
easily from the body (Figure 6B).

2 Blood flows close to the surface of the skin

In warm weather, the surface blood vessels widen so that more blood flows
this blood
vessel narrows through them, and heat is lost as it flows close to the surface (Figure 7B). This
is why white people go pink in warm weather.
and this one
widens
3 Sweating or panting occurs
In hot weather, our skin gets covered with sweat, which is secreted by the
sweat glands. When the sweat evaporates, it cools the skin and the blood
flowing through it.
Evaporation occurs more quickly in dry air than in wet, humid air. That's
why we feel hot and sticky on a humid day. Movement of the air helps to
evaporate the sweat, so a gentle breeze has a cooling effect.
Not all mammals sweat. Dogs, for example, have sweat glands only on the
pads of their paws, and they cool themselves mainly by panting. When a dog
. this blood pants, water evaporates from its mouth and tongue.
vessel widens

.and this one

The various heating and cooling mechanisms just mentioned happen without
narrows
our having to think about them. They are controlled by a special centre in the
brain. In addition to these automatic responses, we can of course take
deliberate steps to control our temperature by, for example, putting on more
clothes if it's cold, or bathing in cool water if it's hot.
Figure 7 These diagrams show the part played by The warmth of our clothing depends on the fact that it traps a layer of air
the blood vessels in the skin in controlling the body against the skin. As we have seen, air is a poor conductor of heat, ao this
temperature of a mammal. helps to prevent heat being lost from the body. Woolly clothes are
particularly warm because air gets trapped in the meshes.
 The skin and temperature control 257

Warm- and cold-blooded animals

-Assignments-
Animals which can keep their body temperature constant, irrespective of the
temperature of their surroundings, are described as warm-blooded (or 1 A small girl remarked that her cat
homoiothermic). They include all mammals and birds. Such animals are looked larger on cold days than on
described as endothermic because they make heat inside their bodies and warm days. Explain this.
keep it there. 2 Explain each of the following:
All other animals are described as cold-blooded (or poikilothermic): their a) You feel cooler on a hot dry day
body temperature is the same as that of their surroundings. The only way than on a hot humid day.
that such an animal can control its body temperature is by making sure that it b) Dogs pant when they're hot.
is always in a place where the temperature is suitable. A lizard, for instance, c) The metabolic rate of a naked
will bask in the sun so as to keep warm. Such animals are described as human increases if the air
ectothermic because they gain heat from outside their bodies. temperature is lowered.
Adjusting the body temperature so that it is kept constant is an example of d) On a cool day you feel warmer
what biologists call homeostasis. It is explained on page 266. after a swim in the sea even
though the temperature of the
Hypothermia sea is lower than that of the air.

If our body temperature falls much below?35°C, the control centre in the 3 A scientist showed that in cold
brain stops working. The result is that we can no longer control our bodv conditions the heat lost from a small
temperature: the metabolic rate falls and the body temperature gets lower mammal was greater than from a
and lower. Eventually we go into a coma. This is called hypothermia, and if large mammal, though their
no action is taken the person will die. insulation mechanisms were equally
Hypothermia is often brought on by damp clothes and a cold wind. Hikers good and their body temperatures
and pot-holers are particularly at risk. So are babies and old people. The stayed the same.
trouble is that once hypothermia sets in, the brain ceases to function properly a) Why do you think the small
and so the person does nothing about it, such as putting on more clothes. mammal lost more heat than the
This can happen even to highly trained soldiers. large mammal?
b) How do you think the small
mammal managed to keep its
'Investigation 1 Investigation 2~~ body temperature as high as the
The effect of size on heat loss large mammal?
The effects of insulation on heat loss
c) The small mammal ate more than
1 Obtain two conical flasks. 1 Obtain two conical flasks: 500 cm3, its own mass in food each day,
and 100 cm3. whereas the large mammal ate
2 Wrap cotton wool round one flask.
only a small fraction of its mass in
Leave the other flask uncovered. 2 Fill the two flasks with very hot
food. How would you account for
water.
3 Pour very hot water into the two this difference?
flasks, the same amount into each. 3 Place a thermometer in each flask
4 The graph below shows how the air
and record the temperature at one
4 Place a thermometer in each flask, temperature, and the body
minute intervals for at least fifteen
and record the temperature at one temperature of a human and a
minutes.
minute intervals for 15 minutes. lizard, varied in the course of 24
4 Plot your results on graph paper, hours in the desert.
5 Plot your results on graph paper,
putting temperature on the vertical a) Explain what the lizard was
putting temperature on the vertical
axis and time in minutes on the probably doing at 8 hours, 14
axis and time on the horizontal axis.
horizontal axis. hours and 18 hours.
b) How was the human’s body
In which flask does the temperature fall
temperature controlled between
faster and why?
12 hours and 18 hours?
Why are the results of this experiment
important in biology?

Which flask loses heat faster? Why?

6 12 18 24
noon midnight
What structures in a mammal are
equivalent to the cotton wool?
 - The liver -
The structure of the liver
7s life worth
The liver is the body's largest organ, weighing well over a kilogram. It is
living? It all depends situated at the top of the abdominal cavity just under the diaphragm; you can
on the liver.' The liver performs many feel it as a hardish area just below your bottom rib. Leading from the liver to
functions which affect our the small intestine is the bile duct, attached to which is the gall bladder (see
day-to-day health. page 170).
The liver has a very good blood supply: about a litre of blood flows through
it every minute - which is more than is sent to any other organ. Much of its
blood comes from the hepatic portal vein which brings blood to it from the
gut (Figure 1). All the food which is absorbed into the bloodstream from the
gut is taken straight to the liver in this vein. This is because one of the liver's
main jobs is to 'process' the food before it goes on to the rest of the body.
The liver itself is composed of masses of small cells, and the whole organ is
riddled with narrow passages and blood vessels which give it a soft spongy
texture.

What does the liver do?

The liver does many jobs. These are the main ones:

1 It helps with digestion

It does this by producing bile which is held in the gall bladder before being
sent to the small intestine. Bile contains bile salts which emulsify fat, breaking
it up into tiny droplets (see page 172).

2 It produces heat
Many chemical reactions take place in the liver, and this makes it produce a
lot of heat. As blood flows through the liver, it is warmed up and this keeps
the inside of the body warm.

3 It gets rid of poisons

Figure 1 The liver, showing its blood supply and
Suppose you eat some food which happens to contain a mild poison: when
connections with the gut.
the poison gets to the liver, the liver turns it into a harmless substance. We
call this process detoxification. Poisonous substances are constantly being
formed in our bodies as by-products of the many chemical reactions which
take place inside our cells. The liver detoxifies these too.

If there is too much sugar in 4 It makes urea

the body the pancreas
Most people eat more protein than they need. The liver cannot store the
secretes insulin
unwanted protein. Instead, it breaks it down, getting some energy from it in
the process. The nitrogen part is removed from the amino acids in a process
called deamination. It is then turned into ammonia. This is very poisonous
and would kill you if it was allowed to build up. So the liver quickly converts
it into a less poisonous substance called urea. This is carried by the blood to
cr
the kidneys, and is then expelled in the urine.
o
o
CL
V) 5 It destroys old red blood cells
0
0) After about four months, red blood cells wear out and stop working properly.
3
The liver then breaks them up and any unwanted haemoglobin is converted
into coloured substances which pass out with the bile. In the intestine these
bile pigments are turned into a brown substance which gives the faeces their
characteristic colour.

6 It stores food substances

telling it to convert After a meal, glucose is carried to the liver by the hepatic portal vein, and the
the sugar into glycogen liver turns any unwanted glucose into glycogen. This is stored inside the liver
cells in the form of tiny granules. The glycogen can be turned back into
glucose when the body needs it. The liver also stores many other food
Figure 2 A simple scheme to show how the hormone substances, including various vitamins (e.g. vitamin K) and minerals such as
insulin controls the amount of sugar in the body. iron.
 The liver 259

7 It controls the amount of sugar in the blood

We have just seen that the liver stores surplus glucose. By storing surplus
glucose, the liver ensures that there is never too much sugar in the blood.
This is most important because, if sugar were to build up in our bloodstream,
our cells would be unable to work properly. What makes the liver turn sugar
into glycogen? The answer is a hormone called insulin which is secreted into
the bloodstream by special cells in the pancreas: insulin is a protein, and the
cells which produce it occur in little groups called the Islets of Langerhans.
Figure 2 summarises the process. It is an example of homeostasis (see page
266).

Diabetes
Some people have too much sugar in their blood. They are suffering from
diabetes and are known as diabetics. The extra sugar in their blood makes
them tired and thirsty. If nothing is done about it, the person loses weight
and may eventually die. The kidneys try to get rid of the extra sugar, so one
of the signs of diabetes is that sugar is present in the urine. In the old days,
doctors used to tell whether or not a patient had diabetes by tasting the urine
to see if it was sweet. Nowadays, a simple chemical test is used.
Diabetes is caused by the pancreas not producing enough insulin. The
Figure 3 A diabetic injecting herself with insulin.
result is that the liver does not turn as much sugar into glycogen as it
normally would. A person may inherit this condition or may develop it as
he gets older. It cannot be cured, but it can be controlled by: r- Assignments-

1 following a restricted diet: the aim is to eat foods which do not contain 1 Which functions of the liver listed in
much carbohydrate, so you don't get too much sugar in your blood. this topic:
2 taking tablets: certain tablets have the effect of lowering the amount of a) assist the action of a digestive
sugar in the blood. enzyme,
3 insulin treatment: the diabetic takes a certain amount of insulin every day. b) make bile coloured,
This makes the liver turn his blood sugar into glycogen. c) help the body to get rid of
nitrogenous waste,
Unfortunately insulin cannot be taken by mouth, because it is broken down d) make liver a useful food?
by digestive enzymes in the gut. So it must be injected through the skin with 2 Look at Figure 1. Which of the
a hypodermic needle. Diabetics are taught to do this for themselves as shown various tubes in this illustration:
in Figure 3. a) contain a lot of glucose after a
The trouble is that it's sometimes difficult to get the dose exactly right. meal,
What sometimes happens is that diabetics give themselves too much insulin b) carry the hormone insulin,
with the result that blood sugar falls too low. This can produce all sorts of c) contain an emulsifying agent,
effects such as trembling, sweating and weakness. The diabetic learns to d) contain digestive enzymes?
recognise these signs and, if they come on, eats a few lumps of sugar or
glucose tablets to bring blood sugar up to the right level. 3 A person who is suspected of
With proper medical help, diabetics can learn to control their affliction and having diabetes produces a sample
to work, play games and lead a full and active life. Some leading sports of urine which is tested for sugar.
a) Describe a suitable test which
figures are diabetics.
could be carried out.
b) What would be the cause of
Gall stones and diseases of the liver sugar being present in the urine?
Normally the various substances present in the bile are in solution, but 4 Insulin cannot be taken by mouth
sometimes they solidify in the gall bladder or bile duct forming gall stones. because it would be broken down
These may block the bile duct and stop the bile getting into the intestine. One by digestive enzymes in the gut.
effect of this is that the skin and the whites of the eyes go yellow. This is a a) Give the names of two enzymes
type of jaundice and is caused by the bile pigments getting into the which would attack the insulin.
bloodstream. b) What would these enzymes
Jaundice can also be caused by the liver not working properly as happens break the insulin down into?
in certain diseases such as cancer of the liver and viral hepatitis (see page c) How is insulin taken by a
359). A serious liver disease is cirrhosis, which can be caused by drinking too diabetic?
much alcohol over a long period. The alcohol kills the liver cells, which d) Mention one danger of taking
become replaced by useless fibrous tissue. It is a common cause of death in insulin this way.
alcoholics.
 How do we get
Excretion
rid of waste Excretion is any process which gets rid of unwanted products of the body s

substances? chemistry. These include carbon dioxide in the air we breathe out, and bile
pigments in the faeces. There is unwanted nitrogen in sweat, nails and hair,
and that too can be regarded as an aspect of excretion. In addition the body
has a special system for getting rid of waste substances. This is the excretory
Like a chemical factory,
system.
the body produces many waste Don't confuse excretion and egestion. Egestion is getting rid of the part of
products, some of which are poisonous. our food which we cannot digest.
The body must get rid of these
unwanted substances. This The excretory system
is known as excretion. The main organs in the excretory system are the kidneys. We have two; they
are reddish bean-shaped organs situated towards the back of the abdominal
cavity just above the waist. If you put your hands on your hips, your kidneys
are just about where your thumbs are.
Figure 1 shows how the kidneys are connected with the rest of the
excretory system. A narrow tube called the ureter runs from each kidney to
the bladder, a muscular bag situated towards the bottom of the abdominal
cavity. Leading from the bladder is a tube called the urethra which runs down
the middle of the penis in the male, and opens close to the vaginal opening in
the female.
The kidneys have a good blood supply: blood is carried to each one by the
renal artery and away from it by the renal vein.
The kidneys produce a watery fluid called urine which contains substances
that the body does not want. The urine trickles down the ureters to the
bladder which gradually expands like a balloon as more and more urine
collects inside it.
How is the bladder emptied? If you look at figure 1 you will see that the top
of the urethra is surrounded by a ring of muscle. Normally this muscle is
tightly contracted, so urine cannot get out of the bladder. When the bladder is
emptied this ring of muscle relaxes, and at the same time the muscles in the
wall of the bladder contract, so urine is forced out of the body. This process is
called urination.

How is urine formed?

Look at Table 1. You will see that some substances are more plentiful in the
urine than in the blood plasma. These are the waste substances which the
body does not want. The main waste substance in urine is urea (see page
258). The figures in Table 1 show that there is about 60 times more urea in our
Figure 1 The excretory system of a human male. urine than there is in the blood. The explanation is that as the blood passes
The arrows indicate the direction of flow of blood. through the kidneys, urea is taken out of it and passed into the urine.
However, the kidneys do more than simply cleanse the blood of urea. They
also regulate the amount of water and salt in the blood (Investigation 1).
Suppose you drink a lot of water quickly. The water is absorbed from your
gut into the bloodstream, and it has the effect of diluting the blood. The
diluted blood reaches the kidneys which take the water out of it and pass it
into the urine.
Substance Quantity Salt is dealt with in the same kind of way. Suppose you have a very salty
(parts per hundred) meal. The salt is absorbed into your blood, which thus becomes very
concentrated. The salty blood reaches the kidneys which remove the salt
Blood Urine
from it and pass it into the urine.
Water 92 95 The relative amounts of water and salts in the blood give the blood a
Proteins 7 0 particular concentration, and this in turn determines its osmotic properties
Glucose 0.1 0
(see page 143). By regulating the water and salt, the kidneys make sure that
Chloride (salt) 0.37 0.6
Urea 0.03 2 the concentration of the blood stays more or less the same all the time. The
name for this process is osmo-regulation and it is an example of homeostasis
Table 1 This table compares the quantities of five (see page 266). If the concentration of the blood was allowed to fluctuate
different substances in the blood and urine of the wildly our cells would not work properly.
human.
 How do we get rid of waste substances? 261

Inside the kidney

The kidney is divided into two areas: a light outer area called the cortex, and a
darker inner area called the medulla (Investigation 2). The medulla is
connected to the ureter as shown in figure 2. cortex

Inside the kidney there are about a million microscopic devices called
medulla
nephrons. The structure of an individual nephron, together with its blood
pyramid
supply, is shown in Figure 3. It consists of a little cup-like capsule which is
connected to a narrow tubule. The tubule twists and turns, doubles back on
itself and eventually leads to a collecting duct. About twelve nephrons share
the same collecting duct, and all the collecting ducts open into the ureter. pelvis
In Figure 3 notice the shape of the tubule as it runs from the capsule to the (cavity)

collecting duct. It consists of three regions: after leaving the capsule it is

coiled up (first convolution), then it becomes U-shaped (the loop of Henle),
and finally it is coiled up again (second convolution).
The nephron's blood supply comes from a branch of the renal artery. This
enters the capsule and splits up into a little bunch of capillaries called the wall of
glomerulus. These then join up again to form a vessel which leaves the kidney

capsule and splits up into further capillaries^which are wrapped round the
tubule. These then join up to form a vessel which leads to the renal vein.

Figure 2 A kidney sliced horizontally to show the

inside.

Figure 4 Part of the kidney as seen under the light

microscope, highly magnified. The round structure
in the centre is a capsule and you can see the tubule
leading from it. The rest of the section consists of
Figure 3 The structure of a nephron. The black arrows indicate the direction of blood tubules cut in vertical planes.
flow, the yellow arrows indicate the direction in which the urine flows.
 How do the nephrons work?
Figure 6 will help you to understand how the nephron works. The blood
which reaches the glomerulus is under high pressure. This is because the
vessel which leaves the capsule is narrower than the one which enters it. As a
result, the fluid part of the blood is forced through the walls of the capillaries
into the space inside the capsule. The fluid which goes through contains
urea, glucose, water and salt (as sodium and chloride ions). However, the
blood cells and proteins are too large to go through, so they stay in the
capillaries. In this way the blood is filtered as it passes through the
glomerulus. This filtration process is occurring on a tiny molecular scale, so
we call it ultra-filtration.
The filtered fluid, or filtrate, then trickles along the tubule. The urea
remains in the tubule and eventually passes via the collecting duct into the
ureter. However, all the glucose, most of the water and some of the salts are
reabsorbed into the capillaries wrapped round the tubule. Exactly the right
amounts of water and salts are taken back to give the blood its correct
composition.
So the kidneys work by first filtering the blood, and then selectively
reabsorbing into it those substances which the body needs.
Figure 5 A corrosion preparation of the kidney. All
Most of the reabsorption takes plade in the first convolution and is finished
the tissues except the main blood vessels have been
dissolved away, the two kidneys contain about 16 by the time the fluid reaches the loop of Henle. However, water is an
km of tubules and 160 km of blood vessels. exception. The final portion of the water is reabsorbed in the collecting duct,
according to the body's needs, and the loop of Henle helps with this.
Mammals can live in dry places largely because of this part of the nephron.
Reabsorption of water is an extremely important function of the kidney. If
the kidneys stopped reabsorbing water, the body would become completely
dehydrated in less than three minutes. The kidney can adjust the amount of
water it reabsorbs according to circumstances. This is explained on page 266.
 How do we get rid of waste substances? 263

What happens if the kidneys fail?

Occasionally one or both kidneys stop working properly. This may happen if
they become infected, or sometimes after a severe shock such as a car
accident.
A person can manage with only one kidney, but if both fail the blood soon
becomes full of urea and other waste substances, and if nothing is done about
it the person will die.
One way of saving the person's life is to attach him to an artificial kidney
(Figure 7). This is a machine which filters and cleans the blood. A tube is
connected to a vein in the patient's arm. His blood is then drawn off and
made to flow over the surface of a thin sheet of cellophane on the other side of
which is a watery solution. Urea and other unwanted substances in the blood
pass through the cellophane into the solution on the other side, while larger
components of the blood, including the blood cells, are held back. The blood
is then returned to the patient by another tube inserted into the vein. As well
as cleansing the blood of urea, the kidney machine adjusts the amount of salt
in the blood before it is returned to the patient. Figure 7 A person connected to an artificial kidney
A person with complete kidney failure needs to spend about twelve hours (kidney machine).
on a kidney machine twice a week, either in hospital or at home. He can then
lead a more or less normal life.

Investigation 1- Assignments-
To find the effect of drjnking on urine production 1 What effect, if any, would you
expect each of the following to have
1 Urinate as completely as possible, 7 Repeat steps 5 and 6 at fifteen
on the quantity and composition of
preferably after going for a long time minute intervals for as long as
the urine?
without drinking. possible. Do not drink any more
a) Eating a large quantity of salty
water during the experiment.
2 Fifteen minutes later urinate again food.
Compare the volume of urine
into a measuring cylinder, and b) Having a bath.
produced in each case, and also its
estimate the volume of urine c) Drinking a lot of beer.
colour.
produced. d) Playing a hard game of squash.
8 Plot your results on graph paper. e) Eating two bars of chocolate.
3 Fill a test tube with a sample of the
Put volume of urine on the vertical
urine, then throw the rest away. 2 Explain the meaning of the terms
axis, and time on the horizontal axis.
excretion and osmo-regulation.
4 Now drink a litre of water.
How do the urine samples differ in What job does the kidney do
5 Fifteen minutes later urinate and colour? a) as an excretory organ, and
measure the volume of urine, as b) as an organ of osmo-regulation?
Why do they differ in this way?
before. 3 Which of the substances listed in
How would you explain the volume
6 Fill a second test tube with a sample column A are found in each of the
differences?
of this new lot of urine, then throw fluids listed in column B?
the rest away. What organ is responsible for
Column A Column B
controlling the water content of the
protein blood entering kidney
body?
glucose blood leaving kidney
urea fluid filtered into
capsules
Investigation 2- water urine leaving kidney

Looking at the kidney Whereabouts does urine leave the 4 It has been suggested that in hot
kidney? weather a person passes less urine
1 Obtain a kidney of a mammal, such than in cold weather.
Where does the urine go after it has left
as a pig, from.a butcher. a) Describe an experiment which
the kidney?
could be done to find out if this is
2 With a sharp knife slice the kidney
true.
across the middle as shown in the b) How would you explain it?
illustration.
3 Which of the parts shown in Figure 2
can you see?
 —Water balance —

How does Amoeba control its water content?

and waste removal Water constantly enters an amoeba's body from outside. The cell membrane

in other organisms is selectively permeable and water passes across it because of osmosis (see
page 143).
What would happen if the amoeba did not control this intake of water? It
Organisms would gradually get bigger and bigger, and eventually it would burst. So the
lose or gain water for organism must get rid of the water as quickly as it comes in. It's rather like a
various reasons, and this can affect boat with a leak in the bottom: if the boat is to be prevented from sinking, the
the way they get rid of waste water must be bailed out as fast as it enters.
The amoeba gets rid of water by means of its contractile vacuole (Figure 1).
substances.
This is a tiny sack situated in the cytoplasm. The sack gradually fills up with
water, getting larger and larger like a balloon. When it is full, it empties its
contents to the outside. The contractile vacuole then becomes tiny again, and
the process is repeated. The contractile vacuole empties once every few
minutes. If you're lucky you may see it happening.
Excretion takes place in a simple way. Poisonous waste substances, such as
ammonia, diffuse passively across the cell membrane into the surrounding
water.

How do fish control their water content?

The answer depends on whether the fish lives in fresh water or sea water. If
it's a fresh-water fish like a goldfish or guppy, water comes into the body by
osmosis, just as it does in Ameoba. It doesn't pass across the skin because the
scales won't let water through, but it does pass across the thin lining of the
mouth cavity and gills. However, as quickly as water enters, it is got rid of by
the kidneys. What do you think would happen if the kidneys did not do this?
Now suppose you are a sea-water fish such as a cod. In this case the sea
water is more salty than the blood. The result is that water is drawn out of the
fish by osmosis. This would make the blood very salty were it not for special
cells in the gills which get rid of the excess salt, passing it from the blood to
the surrounding sea water. This is a case of active transport, as the movement
is occurring against a concentration gradient. The kidneys help by getting rid
of as little water as possible.
Figure 2 summarises the way fresh-water and sea-water fish control their
water content. In a fish such as the salmon which swims up rivers to breed,
the gills change the direction in which they move salt as the fish migrates
from the sea to fresh water.

Figure 1 The amoeba uses its contractile vacuole to

get rid of water.

Figure 2 These diagrams compare how fresh-water

and sea-water fish control their water and salt
content.
 Water balance and waste removal in other organisms 265

Land-dwelling animals
An animal living on land constantly runs the risk of losing water by
evaporation from the body surface, particularly if it lives in a hot, dry place.
Insects show us how this can be avoided. Liquid waste matter is released
from the tissues into the blood. It is then taken up by the excretory tubules
(Figure 3). Inside the tubules the waste matter is turned into a solid substance
called uric acid. Water is removed from it and absorbed back into the blood.
Meanwhile the solid waste passes out of the body through the anus.
Insects get rid of their excretory waste in solid form, so as not to lose water.
It enables them to live in hot, dry places without drying out. Insects have
other ways of preventing water being lost. For example, the cuticle is
waterproof. This prevents water evaporating from the surface of the body.
The cuticle is made waterproof by a thin layer of wax on its surface.
The only problem is that water may evaporate through the spiracles. To
keep this to a minimum, the spiracles are kept closed-as much as possible. So
we see that insects are very good at saving water.
What about other animals? Well, land animals such as reptiles have a
waterproof surface, as do many plants. It's also interesting that reptiles and
birds save water by excreting their waste matter in solid form, as insects do.
You have probably noticed that bird droppings are a mixture of black and
white sludge. The black part is the bird's faeces, the remains of food which it
hasn't been able to digest. The white part is uric acid, the bird's nitrogenous
waste.

Storing waste Figure 4 Section of a Begonia leaf seen under the

microscope. The white objects inside the cells are
All the organisms mentioned so far get rid of waste substances from the crystals of calcium oxalate.
body. However, this is not the only way of dealing with waste substances.
Another way is to store them inside the body, out of harm's way. This is what
plants do - and some animals too. rAssignments-
If you look at plant cells under the microscope, you often see crystals inside
1 Look up osmosis on page 143. Write a
them. Usually these crystals are made of a substance which the plant does not
brief explanation of why water enters
need. They are got rid of when the plant sheds its leaves (Figure 4).
Amoeba’s body, using these words:
The same kind of thing is done by the earthworm. At least part of its
selectively permeable membrane,
nitrogenous waste is stored in the walls of the excretory organs. And
osmosis, concentration, salts.
unhatched chicks do it too: their excretory waste is stored as uric acid in a
special bag inside the egg, where it remains until hatching takes place. 2 List three ways in which insects prevent
water being lost from their bodies.

3 Plants that live in dry places have ways of

saving water. In what respects are their
blood excretory anus
ways of saving water similar to those of
brain stomach heart space tubule
insects?

4 A scientist put a specimen of Amoeba

into (a) distilled water and (b) sea water,
and counted the number of times the
contractile vacuole emptied each minute.
Here are her results:

Medium Number of
emptyings

Distilled water 6
Seawater 1

mouth nerve salivary gizzard intestine ovary

cord gland or testis a) Explain these results.
b) What further experiments would you do
to test your explanation?
Figure 3 Looking inside an insect from the side. The main organs are shown. Notice the
bunch of excretory tubules attached to the intestine at the hind end.
 ■Adjustment and
The thermostat, a simple feedback system
control Think of an oven. If an oven is to cook things properly it must stay at about
the same temperature all the time. This is achieved by means of a thermostat.
It is vital that the You set the oven at the desired temperature and the thermostat makes sure
conditions inside the body that the oven stays at about that temperature.
should not vary too much. Figure 1 shows how the thermostat works. A and B are two metal contacts.
Control is achieved by For the heater to come on, A must touch B. Now if the oven temperature falls,
A moves towards B and touches it. This makes the heater come on. The oven
feedback mechanisms.
temperature now rises, and this makes A move away from B. As soon as A
loses contact with B, the heater goes off and the temperature falls. As a result-
the oven temperature is kept pretty constant, though there will obviously be
slight fluctuations.
The thermostat is an example of a feedback system. Information about the
temperature of the oven is fed back to the heater via the thermostat, telling it to
come on or go off (Figure 2). In this way a constant temperature is
maintained.

Homeostasis
Feedback systems are very common in biology. They help to keep conditions
inside the body constant. This is important because if conditions such as the
body temperature were to vary greatly, our enzymes would not work
properly and we would die. Keeping conditions constant is called
homeostasis, a Greek word which literally means 'staying the same'. Now
let's look at some examples of it.

Controlling the body temperature

You probably know how mammals produce heat and keep it in the body (see
page 256). A mammal's body is like a thermostatically controlled oven.
Suppose the body temperature falls slightly. This is detected by a special
centre in the brain. The brain then sends out messages in various nerves,
which switch on the mechanisms that warm the body (Figure 3). When the
Figure 1 A thermostatically controlled heater in an
body temperature rises, it switches on the mechanisms that cool the body-
oven.
The brain centre thus functions as a thermostat, keeping the body
temperature more or less constant.

Controlling blood glucose

It is very important that there should be the right amount of glucose in the
bloodstream (see page 259). If there is too much glucose, extra insulin is
secreted by the pancreas and the amount of blood glucose falls. On the other
hand, if there is too little glucose, less insulin is secreted and the amount of
blood glucose rises. In this way the amount of glucose in the bloodstream is
kept pretty constant.

Controlling water balance

Suppose it's a very hot day and you have lost a lot of water by sweating. If
your body is short of water, the blood becomes too concentrated with salts
and other solutes. This is detected by special cells in the brain which tell the
pituitary gland to secrete a water-retention hormone. This hormone passes
round the bloodstream to the kidneys and tells them to reabsorb more water
into the bloodstream instead of letting it out in the urine. You will also feel
thirsty and drink some water. In this way the concentration of the blood is
brought down.
In cold weather the reverse happens. If you don't sweat, water builds up in
the body and the blood becomes dilute. Less water-retention hormone is
Figure 2 This diagram shows how the production of secreted, so more water is let out in the urine. Also you don't feel so thirsty,
heat in an oven is controlled by the thermostat. so you drink less. As a result the concentration of the blood is raised.
 Adjustment and control 267

-Assignments-
1 In a thermostatically controlled oven
what is the difference between the
heater and the thermostat? Why is it an
advantage for an oven to be controlled
in this way?
2 Explain the meaning of the term
feedback.
3 Make a list of the human body’s
'warming mechanisms’. When, and
how, are they brought into action?
4 Make a diagram showing how the
amount of blood sugar is controlled in
the human body.
It is impossible for the amount of
glucose in the bloodstream to be kept
absolutely constant. Why is this?
Figure 3 This diagram shows how the body's warning mechanisms are controlled by the 5 The body temperature of a normal
brain.
healthy person was taken with a
Controlling the thyroid gland sensitive thermometer placed in one of
the blood vessels. The results are
Normally the thyroid gland is made to secrete thyroxine by a thyroid- shown below:
stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland. The more thyroid-stimulating
O 37.0
hormone that is produced, the greater is the flow of thyroxine. Now suppose o

(1)
the thyroid gland is producing too much thyroxine; the thyroxine itself tells
the pituitary gland to secrete less thyroid-stimulating hormone (Figure 4). ns 36.9
q5
CL
The amount of thyroxine will then automatically fall. This is exactly like a
1 36.8
high temperature in a heated oven switching off the heater.

f 36.7
There are many other feedback systems in biology. You may be able to think 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
of some yourself. We also find them in other walks of life such as business time (mins)
and industry. For instance, if a manufacturer produces more sweets than
people want, he responds by producing fewer. a) Why does the temperature go up
and down all the time?
b) If the temperature had been
taken with an ordinary clinical
thermometer placed in the
mouth, these fluctuations would
not have been detected. Why
not?
6 Make a diagram showing how the
amount of water in the human body
is controlled in hot weather. What do
you think would happen if you drank
too much water on a very hot day.
What should you do about it?
7 Give two non-biological examples of
feedback mechanisms, besides the
oven. In what ways does each differ
from biological feedback
mechanisms?

Figure 4 This diagram shows how the activity of the thyroid gland is controlled by the
pituitary
 Responding
to
stimuli
These kangaroos
are showing an important
characteristic of life, namely
response to stimuli. This is
the subject of the next
group of Topics.

t *$$$$&
 —The nervous-
General plan of the nervous system
system and The nervous system consists of two parts: the Central Nervous System

reflex action (CNS), and a series of nerves which link the CNS with the various organs
(Figure 1).
The CNS is divided into two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain
is enclosed within the cranium or brain case which is part of the skull. The
If you put your hand on spinal cord runs down the centre of the backbone. The whole of the CNS is
a hot plate, you pull it away therefore protected by a covering of bone.
quickly. This response is brought The nerves are of two kinds. Some of them come out of the brain, and go
about by messages which are sent mainly to structures in the head such as the eyes and jaws: these are called
cranial nerves. Others come out of the spinal cord, and go to the arms, legs
at high speed through the
and various structures in the trunk. They are known as spinal nerves.
nervous system.

Nerve messages
The main job of the nervous system is to carry messages from one part of the
body to another. Scientists have carried out experiments to find out about
these messages, and they have discovered that they consist of tiny pulses of
electricity which travel rapidly through the CNS and along the nerves. We
call these messages nerve impulses.'

Reflex action
If you put your hand on a hot plate, you pull it away quickly. This is an
example of a reflex action. A reflex action is an immediate response of the body to a
stimulus. Many other reflexes are shown by humans and other animals
(Investigation 1). For example, if you tap your knee in a certain place, your
leg gives a little kick. This is called the knee jerk, and it is often used by
doctors to find out if the patient's spinal cord is working properly (Figure 2).
Another well known reflex is the scratching movement of the hind leg of a
dog when you tickle its tummy.
Let's consider what happens when you pull your hand away from a hot
object. First of all, sensory endings in your fingers are stimulated by the heat.
This causes impulses to pass up the nerve in your arm to the spinal cord and
brain: the actual feeling of pain occurs when the impulses reach the brain.
Further impulses then pass back down the arm to the muscles, causing them
Figure 1 The main parts of the human nervous to contract. The contraction of the muscles has the effect of pulling your arm
system. away from the unpleasant stimulus (Figure 3). The whole response only takes
a fraction of a second and this shows how quickly the impulses travel through
the nervous system (Investigation 2).

The reflex arc

Scientists have worked out the route by which impulses travel through the
nervous system in bringing about a reflex action. This comprises what we call
a reflex arc.
The structure of the reflex arc involved in pulling your hand away from a
hot object is shown in Figure 4. It is made up of five distinct parts:

1 A receptor which receives the stimulus. In this reflex the receptors are the
sensory endings in the skin.
2 A sensory nerve fibre which carries impulses from the sensory endings to
the spinal cord.
3 An intermediate nerve fibre which carries the impulses from the upper to
the lower side of the spinal cord.
4 A motor nerve fibre which carries the impulses from the spinal cord to the
muscle.
5 An effector which responds when impulses reach it. In this reflex the
effector is the muscle in the arm.

Figure 2 This doctor is testing a patient's knee jerk. The three nerve fibres are thread-like extensions of nerve cells (neurones)
 The nervous system and reflex action 271

which are located in, or close to, the spinal cord. They are connected to each
other by junctions inside the grey matter of the spinal cord. These junctions
are called synapses.
When an impulse travels through a reflex arc it has to cross these synapses.
They will only let the impulses pass in one direction, and this ensures that the
impulses always go the right way, i.e. from the sensory endings to the spinal
cord and on to the muscles.
All three nerve fibres must be working properly if the impulses are to get
through to the muscle. If one of the fibres dies the reflex cannot occur. In the
disease poliomyelitis ('polio') a certain kind of germ (a virus) attacks some of
the motor nerve cells in the spinal cord. As a result, impulses cannot reach
the muscles and the person becomes paralysed. Which particular muscles are
affected depends on what part of the spinal cord is attacked by the virus.
Polio victims often lose the use of their legs. Fortunately people can now be
immunised against this disease.
A few reflexes do not involve the brain and can occur in an animal whose
brain has been completely destroyed. The knee jerk is an example.. However,
most reflexes involve the brain as well as the spinal cord. The messages travel
into the spinal cord, and then up to the brain. They then travel back down
again, and out to the muscles. This is important for two reasons. Firstly, it
means that you feel pain when the reflex occurs - you can feel sensations only
if impulses go to your brain. Secondly, it means that you could leave your Figure 3 When you pull your hand away from a hot
hand on the hot object if you wanted to, or you could pull it away with extra object, the arm muscle (biceps) contracts when it
force; in other words, you can exert voluntary control over the reflex. We receives messages from the sensory endings in the
skin of the hand.
will now see how voluntary responses differ from involuntary ones.

Voluntary and involuntary responses

Scratching your head, crossing your legs or walking across the room are all
voluntary actions which you can do or not do-as you wish. They are brought
Figure 4 The reflex arc involved in pulling your hand
about by muscles attached to the skeleton, and the part of the nervous system away from a hot object. The dorsal root ganglion
which controls them is known as the voluntary system. In contrast, various contains the cell bodies of many other sensory fibres
processes are constantly occurring in our bodies over which we have no besides the one shown, that’s why it is swollen. The
voluntary control-for example, the beating of the heart and the movements grey matter in the spinal cord contains mainly cell
bodies and synapses; the white matter contains long
of the gut. We cannot make these things happen, nor can we stop them of our
nerve fibres which run up and down the spinal cord,
own free will. These activities are brought about by muscles which are and which connect this reflex arc with other reflex
controlled by the involuntary or autonomic nervous system. arcs and with the brain.
272 Biology for life

Figure 5 This is a thin section of the spinal cord seen Figure 6 The structure of a motor nerve cell. A whole nerve contains many nerve fibres.
under the microscope, greatly magnified. The
section has been stained to show up the nerve cells As an example of an involuntary response, let's take the heart. The heart
and fibres in the grey matter.
receives two nerves: when messages reach it through one of these nerves, the
heart beats faster, when messages reach it through the other nerve, the heart
slows down.
There are some actions which we cannot control early in life, but we
gradually learn to control them as we get older. The emptying of the bladder
and bowels are two examples.
Finally some activities, such as breathing, are partly voluntary and partly
involuntary: we breathe automatically without thinking about it, and yet we
can alter the rate of our breathing if we want to.

Nerve cells
Look at Figure 5. This shows two motor nerve cells in the spinal cord as you
would see them under the microscope. Now look at the diagram in Figure 6.
This shows a complete motor nerve cell. The cell is made up of two parts: a
cell body and the long thread-like nerve fibre or axon. The cell body is
situated in the CNS, and the nerve fibre extends out into a nerve.
The cell body has a number of branches protruding from it. These are called
dendrites. They link up with other nerve cells to form a complex network.
You can see this in Investigation 3.
The nerve fibre is enveloped by a layer of fat called the myelin sheath
which speeds up the impulses. If the myelin sheaths don't work impulses
cannot be transmitted properly, so the person gradually loses the use of the
muscles. This happens in the disease multiple sclerosis.
Figure 7 shows a sensory nerve cell. Notice that it differs from the motor
nerve cell in the shape and position of the cell body. Notice the fine branches
at the lower end of the nerve fibre. Each branch ends up as a little knob which
makes a synapse with another nerve cell in the CNS.
At the synapse there is a tiny gap. When an impulse reaches the knob, a
small amount of a substance, called a chemical transmitter, is released into
the gap. This stimulates the next nerve cell to send off an impulse. A similar
process of chemical transmission occurs at the nerve-muscle junctions.
Synapses are readily affected by drugs and poisons. Some prevent
synapses from transmitting; others make them transmit more easily. One
reason why drugs such as alcohol are harmful is that they interfere with the
synapses in the brain.
 The nervous system and reflex action 273

Investigation 1- Investigation 2- rAssignments-

Some human reflexes Measuring your reaction time 1 A person walks across a room in
bare feet and treads on a drawing
Work in pairs, one person acting as the Hold a metre rule vertically. Your
pin. He lets out a cry. Explain what
subject. partner should place his hand at the
happens in his nervous system in
bottom of the rule in readiness to catch
1 The knee jerk bringing about this response.
it. Find out how far it falls before being
Sit on a table with your legs hanging caught by your partner. 2 Explain the reason for each of the
loosely. With a heavy instrument following.
such as a metal rod, your partner a) If you tickle a dog's tummy it
should gently tap your knee just ’scratches’ with its hind leg.
below the knee cap. b) Messages travel through a reflex
arc in only one direction.
What happens?
c) In multiple sclerosis the person
2 The ankle jerk gradually becomes weak.
d) In ’polio’ the patient may lose the
Kneel on a chair and let your feet
use of his legs.
hang loosely. Your partner should
tap the back of your foot just above 3 The diagram shows the pathway
the heel. through which messages travel in
bringing about the knee jerk. When
What happens?
the tendon is tapped, receptors in
3 Repeat the above reflexes but this Here is another thing you can do: the muscle are stretched and this
time make a conscious effort to 1 Divide into two teams, with the same causes the messages to be sent off.
prevent them taking place. number of people in each. a) Which structure is stimulated by
the hammer?
Do you succeed? 2 Stand in a row, holding hands.
b) Which structure carries impulses
What conclusions do you draw? 3 When your teacher says ’go’ the first away from the spinal cord?
person should squeeze the hand of c) Which structure shortens as a
4 The blink reflex the second person, and so on. Your result of the reflex?
Open your eyes and look straight teacher will time how long it takes d) What would be the approximate
ahead. Your partner should for the chain reaction to reach the length of structure E in a human7
suddenly wave a hand in front of front. e) Assuming that the impulses
your eyes. travel at 100 metres per second,
Trace the nervous pathway through
how long would it take for an
What happens? which the impulses pass in bringing
impulse to travel through this
about the above responses.
5 The swallowing reflex reflex arc?
f) How does the structure of this
Swallow the saliva in your mouth, reflex arc differ from the one in
then immediately try swallowing rInvestigation 3- Figure 4 (page 271)?
again.
Looking at nerve cells in the spinal
Is it difficult to swallow the second cord
time?
1 Obtain a prepared transverse
Suggest an explanation section of the spinal cord, which has
been specially stained to show up
6 Repeat the above experiment, but
this time swallow your saliva and the nerve cells.
then swallow a mouthful of water. 2 Examine the slide under the low
power of the microscope. Identify
What difference does this make?
the grey and white matter.
What conclusions do you draw?
Can you see nerve cells in the grey
Choose one of the reflexes which you matter similar to the ones in Figure 5?
have investigated and say why it is
3 Go over to high power, and focus on
useful to humans.
a single nerve cell. Draw the nerve
Trace the nervous pathway through cell to show its shape.
which impulses pass in each of these
What part of the nerve cell shown in
reflexes.
Figure 6 does your drawing
correspond to?
 —The brain and—
behaviour
We all have to think and
make decisions every day: this
comes into almost every aspect of our
lives. The organ which enables
us to do these things is
the brain..

Figure 1 Human brain sliced down the middle and viewed from the side.

What does the brain consist of?

Figure 1 shows a human brain. If you were to slice it open you would not see
much, just a soft whitish material. However, if you looked at a thin section of
it under the microscope you would see that it's made up of countless millions
of nerve cells (Figure 2). Scientists have worked out that there are over one
thousand million nerve cells in the brain. Each cell may be connected with
25 000 others'and the total number of connections in the entire brain is
around ten to the power of three million. This number is so enormous that if
it was written out fully as a figure it would fill a book as large as the one you
are reading at the moment! With so many connections, the brain is like an
extremely complex computer with thousands of electrical messages travelling
from place to place. But it is much more than a computer because it makes us
conscious beings with feelings and emotions.

The structure of the brain

The brain is shaped like a large mushroom (Figure 3). The cap of the
mushroom is called the cerebrum, and the stalk is called the brain stem.
Sticking out of the top side of the brain stem just below the cerebrum is a
protuberance rather like a little cauliflower: this is called the cerebellum. The
rear part of the brain stem is called the medulla; it is continuous with the
spinal cord.
Notice the pituitary gland on the underside of the brain. Its functions are
explained on page 281. The pituitary gland is attached to a part of the brain
called the hypothalamus.
The entire brain is enclosed within the bony brain case or cranium which is
part of the skull. Surrounding the brain inside the cranium are two
membranes with fluid in between. This is called cerebro-spinal fluid, and it is
formed from two masses of fine blood capillaries called plexuses in the roof of
Figure 2 The brain contains millions of nerve cells the brain. The cerebro-spinal fluid serves as a shock absorber, so the brain is
which are connected with one another in a most cushioned from damage when the person jumps around or bangs her head.
complex way. Only a few nerve cells are included in
If you look at Figure 3 you will see that there is a cavity in the centre of the
this picture. In reality there would be at least ten
times as many in the small area of the brain shown brain: cerebro-spinal fluid is found in here too. It is also found inside and
here. around the spinal cord whose cavity is continuous with that of the brain.
 The brain and behaviour 275

! What does the brain do?

For our purposes the three main parts of the brain are the cerebrum,
cerebellum and medulla. Scientists have discovered what each of these parts
does by observing the behaviour of people whose brains have been damaged
in accidents. Here is an example:

A motorcyclist has a crash and his cerebellum is badly damaged but the rest
of his brain is unaffected. He gradually recovers, but he keeps toppling
over when he stands up, and he finds it difficult to make accurate
movements with his hands.

From this kind of observation we can say that the cerebellum controls our
sense of balance and allows us to make precise and accurate movements. In
doing this, it works in conjunction with various sense organs.
The cerebrum registers various sensations, such as seeing and hearing, and
it makes our legs and arms move. It also enables us to think, speak and
remember things. This is such an important part of the brain that we shall
study it in more detail in a moment.
The medulla controls various processes which go on without our thinking
about them, such as breathing and the beating of the heart. F|gure 3 The human bra,n seep jp jtg natura| positiop
The hypothalamus contains control centres which help to keep the body inside the head. Use this diagram to identify the
temperature and the concentration of the blood constant (see page 266). structures in Figure 1.
276 Biology for life

A The cerebrum from above A closer look at the cerebrum

cerebral hemisphere If you look at Figure 4A, you will see that the cerebrum is divided into two
halves by a cleft which runs down the middle. The two halves are called
cerebral hemispheres. The two hemispheres are connected by nerve fibres
and are very much in communication with one another.
Most of the nerve cells in the brain are situated in the cerebrum, where they
are concentrated in a thick layer towards the surface. This is the grey matter
or cerebral cortex. If you look at a slice of the cerebrum you will notice that
the grey matter is folded like a piece of crumpled paper (Figure 4B). This has
the effect of increasing the surface area, so a greater number of brain cells can
be packed into the brain.

What does the cerebrum do?

The function of the cerebrum can be illustrated by considering a certain dog
called Oliver. Oliver is sitting outside when suddenly he sees a cat at the
bottom of the garden. He is just about to chase it when his owner calls him in
for his supper. So he delivers a quick menacing bark at the cat and runs
indoors. ^
What has been happening in Oliver's brain? On seeing the cat, impulses
were sent from the eyes to the cerebrum. When a moment later he heard his
owner calling, impulses were sent from his ears to the cerebrum. Oliver's
cerebrum understood that his owner's call meant food, so it sent impulses to
the leg muscles and made him run indoors.
We can sum it up like this: the cerebrum receives impulses from various
sense organs, it sorts them out and sets off an appropriate response.

Learning
B Part of the cerebrum in section
How did Oliver know that when his owner called it was supper time? Ever
Figure 4 The structure of the cerebrum. Notice the
since he was a puppy, his owner had clanked his dish on the floor when
folding of the grey matter. The left hemisphere
receives sensation from, and controls movement of, calling him for supper. In the course of time Oliver had learned to associate
the right side of the body, and vice-versa. this clanking noise with food.
In the same way he had learned not to urinate in the house: he had come to
associate doing that with a smack on the backside.
We call this kind of behaviour conditioning. It was first described in the
early 1900s by a Russian scientist called Pavlov who did some interesting
experiments on dogs. Normally a dog's mouth waters when it is given food:
this is a straightforward reflex of the kind described on page 270. In one
experiment Pavlov rang a bell before giving the dog its food. After repeating
this several times, the dog learned to associate the bell with the food, and it
would salivate as soon as it heard the bell, i.e. before the food appeared.
Pavlov called this response a conditioned reflex. Many examples of this kind
of thing are shown by humans and other animals. In general conditioning can
be speeded up if the animal is rewarded for doing the right thing, and
punished for doing the wrong thing. This principle is used in training dogs
and other animals.
Conditioning is a form of learning. We can define learning as a change in
behaviour resulting from past experience. Learning is made possible because
the cerebrum can store information, or, to put it simply, it can remember
things (Investigation 1).
Learning enables an animal to get to know its surroundings and to respond
to stimuli in the best possible way. If stimuli are unnecessary, it may learn not
to respond. Learning also enables us to recognise objects even when they are
not very clear (Figure 5). In fact the brain is remarkably good at filling in gaps,
provided that it has some idea of what to expect (Investigation 2).
In humans the cerebrum is also the seat of artistic ability and intelligence.
We can define intelligence as a person's capacity to apply past experience to
Figure 5 Who is this? new situations. This is obviously a very important aspect of brain function.
 The brain and behaviour 2171
-

Instinct
Returning to Oliver, if it hadn't been for his supper arriving, he would have
chased the cat. Oliver hadn't learned to chase cats. He'd done it all his life,
and was born with the knowledge of how to do it.
This kind of behaviour is called instinct. Instinctive behaviour is inherited
and does not need to be learned. All that's necessary is that it is set off by the
right kind of stimulus. For Oliver the appearance of the cat was the stimulus,
unleashing the chasing behaviour. In fact, dogs will instinctively chase any
swiftly moving object they happen to see. This is made use of in greyhound
racing in which the dogs run after a dummy hare propelled along a track.
Instinctive behaviour is common in many animals: we see it in the
courtship behaviour of birds, for example. However, it is less obvious in
human beings, though in babies sucking the mother's nipples for milk and
pushing things into the mouth are probably instinctive.
Many scientists feel it is wrong to make a sharp distinction between
learning and instinct. The behaviour of higher animals, and humans in
particular, results from a combination of these and other types of activity.
Greyhound racing, though based on instinct, depends to some extent on
learning in that the dogs are trained to chase the dummy hare as fast as they Figure 6 Greyhounds chasing the hare.
can.

Investigation 1 Investigation 2- rAssignments-

Short-term and long-term memory Recognising things 1 Give one function which is
performed by each of the following:
First experiment 1 Your teacher will give you a box
a) the cerebro-spinal fluid,
containing ten objects, some well
1 Your teacher will give you ten b) the cerebellum,
known to you, others less well
objects to look at for a minute. c) the cranium,
known.
d) the hypothalamus,
2 After the minute is up, write down
2 Put your hands in the box, but do e) the cerebrum
the names of as many of the objects
not look inside. 2 The ability to learn is associated
as you can remember.
3 Feel each object in turn and write with certain parts of the cerebrum.
3 About half an hour later, try writing down what you think it is. How do you think we know this?
them down again.
4 When you have finished making 3 How do you think scientists know
How many did you get right the first your list, look at the objects in the that there are over one thousand
time? box. million nerve cells in the human
And the second time? brain?
Which ones have you got right?
How much has past experience 4 A chimpanzee is put in a cage in
Second experiment
helped you to recognise these which there is a lever. Every time the
1 Make a simple drawing of the front
objects? chimpanzee presses the lever, he is
of any building which you know well given a banana. After a time the
and see regularly. 5 Your teacher will give you various
chimpanzee realises that if he wants
incomplete or fuzzy objects or
2 Compare your drawing with the a banana all he has to do is press
pictures.
the lever.
actual building.
6 In each case write down what you
In what respects is your drawing In what respect is the chimpanzee’s
think the object is.
behaviour a) similar to, and
right?
Which ones did you find difficult to b) different from the behaviour of
In what respects is it wrong? recognise? Why? Pavlov’s dogs?
Which of these two experiments 5 What is meant by instinctive
Which ones are made easier to
demonstrates your short-term memory behaviour? Describe an experiment
recognise by looking at them from
and which one demonstrates your which could be done to test the
further away?
long-term memory? suggestion that a dog chasing a cat
What does this experiment tell us about
Give other examples of your short-term is an example of instinct.
the brain?
and long-term memories.
r—Drugs and mental
Drugs
illness A drug is any substance which alters the way the body works. Here we will
concentrate on drugs that affect the brain. Such drugs fall into four groups.
The brain is
easily affected by outside 1 Sedatives
influences, particularly drugs. These drugs slow down the brain and make you feel sleepy. They include
In this Topic we will look briefly at tranquillisers and sleeping pills. Tranquillisers have a calming effect and are
how drugs affect the brain, and often given to people suffering from anxiety. An example is valium. Sedatives
include a group of chemical substances called barbiturates which are so
what happens when the brain
powerful that they are used as anaesthetics. Alcohol is also a sedative.
does not work properly.
2 Stimulants
These drugs speed up the action of the brain and make you more alert. They
include 'pep pills' which are sometimes given to people who are suffering
from severe depression. Cocaine, obtained from the leaves of certain South
American plants, is a particularly powerful stimulant. Coffee and tea contain
a mild stimulant called caffeine, as does Coca-Cola. Another mild stimulant is
nicotine, the drug found in tobacco.

3 Hallucinogens
These drugs cause hallucinations. An hallucination is something which a
person senses but which does not actually exist. Drugs that cause
hallucinations include cannabis or marijuana (nicknamed 'pot'or dope) and
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide).

4 Painkillers
These drugs suppress the part of the brain responsible for the sense of pain.
They include two powerful drugs called morphine and heroin which are
obtained from opium, a substance found in a certain type of poppy.
Morphine is often given to people suffering from severe pain.

Why are drugs dangerous?

If taken under doctor's orders certain drugs, such as sedatives and
painkillers, can be very helpful to sick people. However, they must be taken
in the right amounts at the right times. If taken in the wrong circumstances
they may be extremely harmful. There are three main reasons for this:

1 They may impair the person's judgements and make him or her clumsy.
Often they lengthen the reaction time, so the person takes longer to respond
to a stimulus. Such is the case with alcohol. In an experiment, a group of bus
drivers drove their buses between two rows of posts, and then did the same
again after drinking some whisky. It was found that after drinking they
knocked over more posts than they had done before.

2 The person may become dependent on the drug and crave for it.
Such is the case with cigarette smoking and cannabis, both of which are
habit-forming. Drugs such as heroin get such a grip on the body that if the
person has to go without regular doses, he may develop withdrawal
symptoms such as fever, sickness and severe cramp. People who reach this
stage are said to be addicted to the drug.
It's particularly easy to become dependent on alcohol. Such a person is
called an alcoholic. What starts as a habit can quickly become an addiction.
Once a person becomes addicted to a drug it is very difficult to give it up, as
Figure 1 makes only too clear.

3 It may injure the body by damaging the cells.

For example, alcohol kills cells in the brain and liver; and cannabis damages
Figure 1 An addict injecting himself with a drug: the Particularly dangerous: the solvent damages cells
braiun c,ells- Sniffin§ §lue is
start of a life of misery and an early death. *n the kidneys, liver and brain.
 Drugs and mental illness 279

Mental Illness
Mental illnesses have many causes and take many forms. Some are the result of
brain damage; others are by-products of various diseases; many are brought on
by stress of one kind or another; and sometimes a person is born with a mental
disorder. Doctors recognise two main kinds of mental illness:

1 Neurosis
Neurotic illnesses are fairly mild and it s not normally necessary for the
person to go into hospital. They often involve the person being obsessive
about something. For example, he may have an obsession about being clean,
or an obsessive fear of being shut into a small space such as a crowded bus.
Such fears are called phobias. Usually the person realises he has a problem
and wants to overcome it.

2 Psychosis
Psychotic illnesses are more serious and usually necessitate going to hospital.
Often the patient does not realise there's anything wrong with him. He may
Figure 2 This person is having her brain waves
think that everyone is getting at him, or that he is a famous character such as recorded by an electroencephalograph.
Napoleon or Hitler, and he will act accordingly. Violent crimes are sometimes
committed by psychotic individuals.

Some mental disorders are very complicated. For example, there is a r Assignments
condition called schizophrenia. This word comes from Greek and literally
Each of the words in the left-hand
means 'split mind'. A typical schizophrenic has two different personalities:
some of the time he appears to behave normally, but at times his behaviour column is related to one of the words in
the right-hand column. Write them down
changes and he may become psychotic. There are many forms of this illness,
in the correct pairs.
some much more serious than others.

cannabis stimulant
Treating people with mental illnesses morphine tobacco
caffeine hallucination
Many doctors specialise in disorders of the brain, and they can do much to
barbiturate anaesthetic
help people overcome even the most severe illnesses.
nicotine pain-killer
One of the difficulties is knowing exactly what's wrong with the patient.
This can sometimes be found out by recording the electrical waves from the 2 Make a table summarising the effects,
patient's brain with a machine called an electroencephalograph or EEG. The uses, and withdrawal symptoms if any,
waves are picked up by electrodes which are placed on the patient's head, of these drugs: caffeine, alcohol,
and they are recorded on a roll of moving paper by a series of pens (Figure 2). nicotine, valium and heroin.
Everyone has the same kind of brain waves, but if the brain is not working
properly the waves are abnormal and this shows up on the paper. 3 Nowadays doctors try to avoid giving
people barbiturates except in special
circumstances. Why do you think this is?
Doctors make a distinction between psychiatric illnesses and neurological
disorders. A psychiatric illness can affect a person's entire personality (e.g. 4 Briefly explain each of the following
schizophrenia). A neurological disorder shows itself in more specific ways. terms: sedative, hallucinogen, neurosis,
An example is epilepsy. An epileptic has occasional black-outs or fits nervous breakdown.
depending on what kind of epilepsy it is. The person is completely normal
5 Some scientists believe that caffeine is a
except when having an attack of the illness. Children with mild epilepsy
harmful drug. They say that heavy
often grow out of it as they get older.
coffee-drinkers can become addicted to
it, and that stopping it can cause
What is a nervous breakdown? withdrawal symptoms such as a fall in
blood pressure and headaches. How
This is a rather unscientific term, but it usually refers to a type of mental
would you investigate the truth of this
illness which is brought on by stress, worry or overwork. Usually the person
claim?
is overwhelmed by a feeling of utter despair, a condition which is known as
depression. Of course we all feel depressed at times, but the kind of 6 The number of people attending
depression which occurs in a nervous breakdown is particularly intense and psychiatric clinics is much greater now
may be accompanied by various obsessions and hallucinations. Sometimes than it was 50 years ago. Suggest
the periods of depression alternate with periods of extreme elation. reasons for this.
Much can be done to help people through such an illness. With proper
treatment the patient may be able to return to a normal life within a few
months.
 _ Chemical —

messengers
Nerves provide one way
by which messages can be sent
from one part of the body to another.
However, there is another way,
and that is by means of
glands.

Figure 1 The two kinds of gland found in the body. The arrows show what happens to
the substance (secretion) which the gland produces.

What are glands?

There are many glands in the body, and their job is usually to produce, or
secrete, some kind of useful substance.
Many of our glands shed their secretion into a tube or duct which carries it
to wherever it's needed. For example, the salivary glands secrete saliva into
the mouth cavity via the salivary ducts (see page 171).
In contrast, we also possess a number of glands which shed their secretion
not into a duct but into the bloodstream (Figure 1). These are known as
ductless glands, or endocrine glands, and the substances they produce are
called hormones.

What do hormones do?

After being shed into the bloodstream, the hormone is carried to all parts of
the body. It then produces an effect on certain organs. What the hormone is
really doing is to carry a message from one part of the body to another, telling
it to respond in a particular way. For this reason hormones are sometimes
called chemical messengers.
The main ductless glands in the human body are shown in Figure 2. Each
gland secretes one or more hormones, and their functions are summed up in
Table 1. Many of them are discussed in detail in other Topics. For example,
insulin is dealt with in the Topic on the liver (see page 259).
Most hormones produce their effects rather slowly. They bring about
long-term changes in the body such as growth, sexual development and so
Figure 2 The main ductless glands in the human
body.
on. However, there is one hormone that acts very quickly: this is adrenaline.

Table 1 Summary of the human body’s main

hormone-producing glands and their secretions.

Gland Hormone Function

Thyroid Thyroxine Controls the metabolic rate

Adrenals Adrenaline Prepares the body for action

Pancreas Insulin Regulates the amount of sugar in the blood

Ovaries Female sex hormones Control sexual development

Testes Male sex hormones Control sexual development

Pituitary Growth hormone Speeds up growth

Thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine

Gonad-stimulating hormone Stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to secrete sex hormones
 Chemical messengers 281

Adrenaline, the emergency hormone

Have you ever had that sinking feeling just before an important game of
football, or an examination? The whole body tenses up, the heart beats faster
and we feel ready for action. This effect is brought about by adrenaline.
Adrenaline is secreted by the adrenal glands, which are situated close to
the kidneys. As with other ductless glands, the hormone passes straight into
the bloodstream and is then carried all round the body. The cells respond to
it by using up more oxygen and releasing more energy. At the same time the
heart beats more quickly and blood is diverted from the less important organs
to the really important ones such as the muscles and brain (Figure 3). The
overall effect is to prepare the body for an emergency. For this reason
adrenaline has been described as the fight or flight hormone.

The pituitary, master gland

It's obviously important that the right quantity of hormones should be
produced at all times. What tells a gland how much hormone it should
secrete? The answer in many cases is the pituitary gland. This produces
hormones which stimulate other glands to produce their secretions. For
example, one of the pituitary hormones stimulates the thyroid gland to
secrete thyroxine (page 267), and other stimulate the gonads (ovaries and
testes) to secrete sex hormones. Because it controls the other glands, the
adrenaline affects the circulation in an emergency.
pituitary is sometimes called the master gland. This is an important aspect of
homeostatis, which is explained fully on page 266.

Thyroxine r Assignments-
Despite the controlling influence of the pituitary gland, things sometimes go 1 Ductless glands such as the thyroid
w'rong and either too much or too little of a hormone is produced. contain a large number of
Take the thyroid gland for example. Some people have a thyroid gland capillaries which are located close
which secretes too much thyroxine. As a result metabolism speeds up, and to the cells. Why do you think this is?
the person becomes thin, excitable and overactive. The eyes protrude and the 2 If necessary use the index to answer
thyroid gland swells up, giving a condition called goitre (Figure 4A). The this question. The pancreas is made
person can be cured by removing part of the thyroid in an operation or by up of two parts: part of it secretes
destroying some of the thyroid cells by radiation treatment. insulin and part of it secretes
Some people have a thyroid gland which does not secrete enough pancreatic juice
thyroxine. In this case metabolism slows down, and the person becomes fat a) Which part is functioning as a
and sluggish (Figure 4B). The person can be cured by being given doses of ductless gland?
thyroxine by mouth or by injection. b) What is insulin and what effect
If a child is not producing enough thyroxine, growth is slowed down and if does it have in the body?
nothing is done he may become mentally retarded. This is called cretinism. c) Are insulin’s effects short-term or
Thyroxine contains iodine which is normally present in the diet. If drinking long-term?
water lacks iodine, goitre or cretinism may result (see page 152). d) What does pancreatic juice
contain?
e) Where does pancreatic juice go?
3 In Table 1, which hormone:
a) makes a person more active,
b) causes the male to start producing
sperms,
c) causes a sinking feeling in the
stomach,
d) is produced by a gland in the neck,
e) causes breasts to develop in the
female?
4 Nerves and ductless glands both
provide a way of sending messages
from one part of the body to another.

A: the effect of an overactive thyroid. B: the effect of an underactive thyroid. Write down four differences
between the two systems.
Figure 4 What happens when the thyroid gland misbehaves?
 Feeling, smelling
How are stimuli detected?
ana tasting We have a number of different receptors or sense organs, and each is
sensitive to a particular kind of stimulus: some respond to touch, others to
We are constantly subjected
light, and so on.
to all sorts of stimuli. It is vital A receptor is usually composed of a group of sensory cells. These link up
that we should be able to detect these with nerve fibres which lead to the brain or spinal cord. When a receptor is
stimuli and respond to them in stimulated, impulses are sent to the brain where they give rise to a
corresponding sensation. For example, when you put your hand on
the right way.
something warm, impulses pass from certain receptors in your skin to the
brain, giving rise to a feeling of warmth. What the receptors are really doing
is to transform various forms of energy - light, heat etc. - into the electrical
energy of nerve impulses.
Now let's look at some everyday examples. We will start with the skin,
whose receptors are shown in Figure 1.

Touch
If you place the tip of a needle in contact with your skin, you will feel the
sensation of touch. You get the same kind of feeling if you wiggle one of the
hairs on the back of your hand. Our sense of touch is explored in
Investigations 1-4.
The sense of touch is spread all over the skin, though some areas are more
sensitive than others.
If you put on a hairy shirt, it tickles at first but gradually the sensation
wears off until eventually you stop noticing it. This is because after a time the
touch receptors stop sending impulses to the brain. This is called sensory
adaptation. Why do you think it's useful?
Most of us don't use our sense of touch as much as we might. This is
because we depend more on our eyes for finding out what's round about us.
However, blind people develop their sense of touch to a much greater
degree, particularly in their finger tips which they use for identifying objects
and for reading braille (Figure 2 and Investigation 4).

Pain
There are special receptors in the body which, when stimulated, give rise to
the sensation of pain. In the skin these receptors take the form of free nerve
endings. However, pain is also caused by excessive stimulation of other kinds
Figure 1 This diagram shows the main receptors in
of receptor. Pain also results from muscle spasms, as in cramp, and when an
human skin and the sensations they respond to.
organ is short of oxygen. For example, the pain which is felt by people with
heart trouble is caused by the heart muscle not getting enough oxygen.
People with certain kinds of heart trouble get pain in the left arm a long
way from the heart itself. This is because impulses from the heart and the left
arm go to the same part of the spinal cord. Pain which is felt some distance
from its true origin is called referred pain.
People who have had a leg amputated often say that they can feel pain in
the missing leg. This is called phantom pain. It is caused by the severed nerve
healing and then sending impulses to the brain again.

Temperature
In our skin there are receptors for telling us whether it's hot or cold. Our
temperature receptors are not very good at telling us what the actual
temperature is. What they really do is to tell us when the temperature
changes, and what we actually feel depends on how quickly the skin gains or
loses heat (Investigation 5).
If we feel uncomfortably hot or cold we do something to remedy the
situation; for instance if it is cold we put on more clothes. This helps us to
maintain a constant body temperature (see page 256).

Figure 2 A blind person reading braille.

 Feeling, smelling and tasting 283

Smell
The receptors responsible for our sense of smell are shown in Figure 3. They
consist of groups of sensory cells in the roof of the nasal cavity. The cells have
minute bristles like little brushes, and they are stimulated by molecules which
float through the air and land on them. For something to be smelled, it must
go into solution first, and so the lining of the nasal cavity is covered with a
thin layer of fluid. Our nose is sensitive to many different smells, but our
sense of smell is very poor compared with that of other mammals such as
dogs. Smells which are far too faint to be detected by a human will be picked
up by a dog.

Taste
If you stick your tongue out and look at it in the mirror, you will see that it is
covered with hundreds of short hairlike structures towards the front and
wart-like bumps towards the back. These contain receptors called taste buds,
which are sensitive to certain chemicals (Investigation 6). Each taste bud is a
tiny flask containing about half a dozen sensory cells (Figure 4 and 5). As
with the sense of smell, substances must be in solution before they can be
tasted.
Experiments show that the tongue is sensitive to only four kinds of stimuli:
sweet, sour, bitter and salt. Each of these stimuli is detected by a different
part of the tongue (Investigation 7).
How can we explain the wide variety of taste sensations which we
experience when we eat and drink? The answer is that our sense of smell also
plays an important part: when you think you're tasting something, you re Figure 5 A small part of the tongue seen under the
also smelling it. Have you noticed that if you have a heavy cold and your nose microscope in vertical section. The flask-like
is blocked, your sense of taste is impaired as well as your sense of smell? structures are taste buds.
284 Biology for life

investigation 1- rInvestigation 2- rInvestigation 4-

Which parts of the skin are sensitive Getting used to a stimulus Reading with your fingers
to touch?
1 With a mounted needle, wiggle a Blind people read by means of ’braille’
Work in pairs, one person acting as the hair on your arm or hand. which was invented in France by Louis
subject, Braille. In braille each letter of the
What does it feel like?
alphabet is represented by a character
1 With a fine ballpoint pen, rule a grid
2 Keep wiggling the hair until you can consisting of one to six dots embossed
of 40 squares on the back of your
no longer feel it. on thick paper.
partner’s hand: the sides of the
squares should be 2 mm long so Suggest a possible reason why the 1 Obtain a braille exercise card.
each one will have an area of 4 sensation disappears. Why is it an
2 Without looking, put the tip of your
mm2. advantage to get used to this kind of
finger on one of the characters. Do
stimulus?
2 Obtain a bristle which has been this with your non-writing hand.
mounted on a wooden holder. 3 Wiggle another hair and note the
How many dots is the character
sensation.
3 Press the tip of the bristle against composed of?
the skin in one of the squares until it 4 Now rub the skin with your finger for
just bends. Draw the arrangement of the dots
about fifteen seconds.
on a piece of paper.
5 Wiggle the hair again.
3 Now take your finger off the
Can you still feel it? character and look at the dots.

Suggest an explanation for what has Is your drawing of the dots correct?
happened.
4 Repeat the above with other
characters, and try using different
fingers.

Do your attempts at feeling the

characters correctly improve with
practice?
investigation 3-
Are certain fingers better at it than
To find out the localising power of others?
Does your partner feel the bristle?
the skin
Which finger do you find the best?
4 Now touch the skin in the other
Work in pairs, one person acting as the What do you think makes some
squares, one by one.
subject. fingers better at it than others?
In each case note whether or not
1 Subject: close your eyes. Some blind people use another system
your partner feels the bristle.
2 Partner: touch the skin on the back called ’moon’ which was developed by
5 If some of the squares were an Englishman called Dr Moon.
of the subject’s hand with the point
insensitive, try touching them more
of a fine felt pen. 5 Carry out steps 2 to 4 on a sheet of
strongly with a blunt needle.
3 Subject: without looking try to touch 'moon'.
Does your partner feel anything
the skin in exactly the same place In this case the characters are not
now?
with the point of another pen. dots but shapes. Try drawing them,
6 Repeat this experiment on different just as you tried drawing the dots in
How far apart are the two dots on
parts of the skin, for example on the the braille system.
the skin?
arm and leg.
What does this experiment tell us about Are the characters easier to tell
Are some parts of the skin more apart than the braille ones? If so,
our sense of touch?
sensitive than others? why?

How could you find out which parts of 4 Repeat the experiment on different
What does reading in braille and moon
the skin are sensitive to other stimuli, parts of the hand and arm.
tell us about our sense of touch?
such as pain and temperature? Do some areas of the skin have
better localising power than others?
 Feeling, smelling and tasting 285

rInvestigation 5- ^-Investigation 7- -Assignments-

An interesting aspect of our Which parts of your tongue respond
temperature sense 1 What kind of receptors are
to different tastes?
stimulated when you:
1 Obtain three bowls: the first should All the materials used in this a) move a hair on the back of your
contain ice-cold water, the second investigation must be clean, and the hand,
hot water, and the third water at experiment should be carried out b) cut your finger with a knife,
room temperature. under close supervision. c) read braille,
d) put clothes on,
2 Place your left hand in the cold Work in pairs, one person acting as the
e) place some food in your mouth?
watter, and your right hand in the hot subject.
water for one minute. 2 What is meant by sensory
1 Your teacher will give you four small
adaptation? Give one example of it,
3 When the minute is up, place both beakers containing respectively a
and explain why it is useful.
hands in the room temperature dilute solution of sugar, salt, acetic
water. acid (ethanoic acid) and quinine (a 3 Suggest three reasons why our
bitter substance). Each beaker sense of pain is useful.
What does each hand feel like?
should have a small paintbrush with
4 Explain the difference between
4 Guess the temperature of each bowl / it.
referred pain and phantom pain,
of water, then take the temperature 2 Subject: swallow your saliva and dry and try to explain each.
with a thermometer. your tongue with a tissue, then stick
your tongue out as far as you can. 5 a) Why do you think it is difficult to
What does this investigation tell us taste things when you have a
about our temperature sense? 3 Partner: draw the tongue in outline cold?
on a piece of paper. b) It is said that dogs can taste their
4 With the brush put a little sugar food as it passes down the gullet
solution onto different parts of the (oesophagus). How could you
subject’s tongue and note whether find out if this is true?
or not the subject can taste it. 6 Occasionally people have been
born without any pain receptors. Do
-Investigation 6- you think this would be an
advantage or a disadvantage?
Looking at the tongue Explain your answer.

1 Look at the top side of your tongue 7 A large number of volunteers were
in a mirror: if necessary shine a tested to find out the lowest
torch into your mouth, so as to show (minimum) skin temperature that
it up more clearly. causes the sensation of pain. The
results are shown below.
Can you see any projections
a) Explain in words exactly what the
sticking up from the surface of your
graph shows.
tongue?
b) What conclusions can you draw
How many different kinds of from the results?
projections can you see?

2 Swallow your saliva, and dry your 5 Put a cross in your drawing of the

tongue with a tissue. tongue to indicate the areas

sensitive to sugar. CD 03
3 Place a lump of sugar on your dry vp o3
6 Subject: wash your mouth out with 5 E
tongue. U) 0)
water, and dry your tongue again. ® 2
Can you taste it? Q-o
S ™
O CD
7 Repeat the experiment with the salt, CL ^
4 Let your tongue get wet with saliva, acetic acid (ethanoic acid) and
<D 03
and then place the sugar lump on quinine. -Q Q.

your tongue again. | ®

i£
Indicate in your drawing of the
Can you taste it now? tongue whereabouts each 43 44 45 46 47
substance can be tasted. temperature (°C)
What conclusions do you draw from
this experiment about the way we taste What conclusions do you draw from
things? this experiment about our sense of
taste?
 A look at the eye
Most people depend more
on their eyesight than on any
other sense, for it tells us so much
about the world around us. The
organ of sight is the eye.

Figure 1 The eye, one of our most precious sense organs.

The external structure of the eye

Each eye consists of an eyeball which is held in a socket in the skull (Figure
2). The eyeball is surrounded by a thick coat (Investigation 1). This is
transparent at the front, and white and opaque at the sides and back; it is
called the white of the eye or sclera. The transparent front part is called the
cornea and it is covered by a very thin membrane called the conjunctiva
which is really part of the skin. Occasionally this gets infected and inflamed,
resulting in a disease called conjunctivitis or pink-eye. Though very sensitive
to touch, the cornea does not contain any blood vessels: it gets all its
nourishment from the fluid inside the eyeball.
Beneath the cornea in the centre of the eye is what looks like a black hole:
this is called the pupil and it leads to the inside of the eye. The pupil is
surrounded by the iris, which is the coloured part of the eye.
The eyeball is held in place, and moved, by six muscles. A large optic nerve
runs from the back of the eye to the brain (Figure 3). When you look at
something, messages are sent off in this nerve and as a result you see the
object.

Figure 2 Photograph of a human skull, showing the

eye socket (orbit). The hole at the back of the socket
is for the optic nerve, which connects the eye with
the brain.

Figure 3 The eyeball in its socket. Only three of the

six eye muscles are shown. The remaining ones are
on the other side.
 A look at the eye 287

Figure 4 This diagram shows the main structures

that keep the eye clean. The arrows indicate the way
tears normally flow.

Figure 5 These diagrams show how the external eye

muscles move the eye in its socket. Only two of the
six muscles are shown here.

this muscle contracts

eye looks to left

How is the eye protected?

The eye is a precision instrument and must be protected and kept clean. The
main structures involved in this are shown in Figure 4. The surface of the eye
is kept moist by a lubricating fluid produced by the tear gland. When you both muscles contract
eye looks straight ahead
blink, the fluid is spread over the surface of the eyeball by the eyelids which
act rather like windscreen wipers. The fluid contains a substance called
lysozyme which kills germs. Surplus fluid drains into the duct in the corner
of the eye and trickles down to the nasal cavity. When a person cries, so
much fluid is produced that it cannot be drained away, and so it rolls down
the cheeks as tears.
As well as spreading fluid over the eyes, the eyelids protect them. Thus we
blink when something passes close by, and the eyelashes help to stop sweat
and dirt running into the eyes. Infection of the eyelids can cause a stye in
which the edge of the lid becomes red and sore.
Some animals, such as reptiles and birds, have a transparent shutter which
can slide sideways over the eye. This third eyelid protects the surface of the
eye while allowing it to see at the same time.

How do we move our eyes ?

The muscles which move the eyes run from the sides of the eyeball to the this muscle
back of the socket. Between them, these muscles can rotate the eyes in eye looks to right
various planes within their sockets. The action of two of the muscles is shown
in Figure 5.
Human beings can only move both eyes together. However, certain
reptiles, e.g. the chameleon, can move their eyes independently of one
another. What are the advantages and disadvantages of being able to do this?

Inside the eye

Figure 6 shows the inside of the eye. The two most important structures are
the lens and the retina.
The lens is like a transparent bag. It is held in position by fine ligaments
which run from its edge to the surrounding ciliary body. The eyeball in front
of and behind the lens is filled with a transparent fluid called the humour.
288 Biology for life

Figure 6 The internal structure of the human eye. The retina is a delicate layer of tissue lining the inside of the eyeball. It
The eyeball is filled with fluid. The fluid behind the contains millions of sensory cells which are sensitive to light entering the eye
lens is like a jelly; it is called vitreous humour. It
through the pupil: this is how the eye sees things. The part of the retina
presses on the wall of the eyeball, keeping it
spherical. The fluid in front of the lens is more runny;
responsible for seeing things most clearly is a small area right in the middle,
it is called aqueous humour. It maintains the right immediately behind the lens. This is called the yellow spot or fovea.
pressure in the front part of the eye, and it nourishes Beneath the retina is a layer of black tissue called the choroid. This absorbs
the cornea, which has no blood vessels of its own. the light and prevents it being reflected back out of the eye. There are
numerous blood vessels in the choroid which supply the retina with oxygen
and food substances.
The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye is called the blind spot. It's
the only part of the back of the eye without sensory cells, and so it is
incapable of seeing (Investigation 4).

Controlling the amount of light that enters the eye

If a bright light is shone in your eye, a reflex action occurs (Investigation 3).
The pupil gets smaller and this prevents too much light getting into the eye.
The opposite happens in the dark: the pupil gets larger, so more light can
enter the eye.
Figure 7 Here you can see how the pupil responds These changes in the size of the pupil are brought about by the iris. In the
to a dim and a bright light iris there are muscles which can make it either constrict or open up (Figure 7).
 A look at the eye 289

r Investigation 1- Investigation 4-
Looking at the outside of the eye Demonstrating the blind spot
1 Look at one of your eyes in a mirror. 1 Look at the picture below: hold it move the picture away from you?
about 10 cm from your eyes.
Which structures in Figures 1 and 3 How would you explain this?
can you see? 2 Close your left eye, and look at the
4 Repeat the experiment with both
house with your right eye.
2 Move your eyes up and down and eyes open.
from side to side so as to see the 3 Slowly move the picture away from
’whites’ of your eyes. What happens this time?
your eyes, keeping your right eye
focused on the house all the time. How would you explain the
What structures can you see
running over the 'whites'? difference?
What happens to the ghost as you

rInvestigation 2-
Dissection of the eye

1 Obtain a cow’s or sheep’s eye from

the butcher.

2 Carefully cut away the muscles from

the outside of the eyeball.

What are the muscles for?

3 With scissors cut a hole in the side

of the eyeball.
Assignments
What comes out of the hole?
optic nerve protecting the cornea
What effect does making the hole tear gland sensitivity to light
have on the shape of the eyeball? external eye muscle sending messages to brain
retina moving eyeball
4 Find the lens and the retina.
iris preventing too much light entering eye
5 Cut the lens out of the eye

What does the lens feel like?

1 Each of the structures listed above 3 Explain briefly what causes pink¬
6 What other structures in Figure 6
in the left-hand column is eye and a stye.
can you see?
responsible for doing one of the
4 If you look at something a long way
jobs listed in the right-hand column.
off and then near at hand, your pupil
Write them down in the correct
r Investigation 3- pairs.
gets smaller.
a) How is this change brought
The pupil reflex 2 The pictures below show what a about?
person’s eyes look like if he moves b) Why do you think it happens?
Work in pairs, one person acting as
them in certain ways. By means of
subject.
diagrams like the ones in Figure 5,
1 The subject should close his eyes explain how each position is
for ten seconds and then open brought about.
them.

What happens to his pupils when he

opens his eyes?

2 Shine a torch in the subject’s eye

and watch the pupil.

What happens to the pupil?

3 The subject should look at an object

in the distance and then nearby.

What happens to his pupils when he

does this?
 -How does the-
eye work?
When you take a
photograph, light enters
the camera and is focused by a
lens onto a light-sensitive film at
the back. The eye works
in the same kind
of way.

Figure 1 How the eye focuses on a dot.

What happens when we look at something?

Suppose you are looking at a dot in the distance. Light rays are reflected from
it and enter your eye (Figure 1). The light rays are bent inwards as they pass
through the cornea and lens, so they meet on the retina at the back of the eye.
Here they produce an accurate image of the dot. For the image to be dear and in
focus the light rays must meet exactly on the retina. The bending of light rays in
this way is called refraction, and it plays a very important part in giving us
good eyesight.

Seeing things the right way up

Suppose you are looking at a person. Figure 2 shows how light rays reflected
from the person pass through your eye. Notice that the rays coming from the
head cross those that come from the feet. The result is that the image is
upside down on the retina.
Figure 2 This diagram shows how an image is
Why, then, don't we see everything upside down? The answer is that the
turned upside down by the lens in the eye. The same brain comes to the rescue and turns the picture the right way up for us. An
thing is done by the lens in a camera. experiment has been done in which a man was given a special pair of
spectacles which made him see everything upside down. After a while his
brain made the necessary correction and he began to see things the right way
Figure 3 How the eye keeps an object in focus as it
up again.
gets closer.

object viewed
close by

relaxes and pulls the lens contracts and so the lens takes
into a flat shape. on its normal round shape.
 How does the eye work? 291

Seeing things close at hand

Suppose a distant object comes much closer. If the eye did not adjust in some
A short-sighted person
way, the light rays would meet behind the retina and the dot would be out of
focus. However, the eye does adjust: the lens becomes rounder. This bends
the light rays more, so that they meet on the retina as before (Figure 3).
This adjustment of the eye for looking at near objects is called
accommodation and it is made possible by the fact that the lens is soft and can
change its shape. The change of shape of the lens is brought about by the ring
of ciliary muscles. When the muscle relaxes, the ciliary ring springs outwards
and pulls the lens into a flattened shape. When the muscle contracts, the
ciliary ring moves inwards, releasing the tension on the lens which
consequently becomes rounder.
In old people the lens sometimes hardens, so accommodation becomes
difficult and they find it hard to see things close at hand. This is why
grandma holds her book a long way away when she's reading. However, the
can focus things close by
defect can be remedied by wearing glasses.
Much more serious is when the lens becomes opaque and won't let light
through at all. This is known as a cataract. Thu only remedy is to take out the
lens in an operation. The person must then wear very strong spectacles or
contact lenses. In the latest operations the patient is fitted with an artificial
acrylic lens. but not from afar

Defects of the eye

L 2-
1 Short-sighted people
A short-sighted person can focus on things close by but not a long way off.
This is due to the eyeball being too long, or the lens too strong, with the result corrected by concave spectacles
that the light rays meet in front of the retina.
Short-sightedness is corrected by wearing glasses which bend the light rays
S
outwards before they reach the eye (Figure 4A).
A long-sighted person

2 Long-sighted people
A long-sighted person can focus on things a long way off but not close by.
This is due to the eyeball being too short, or the lens too weak, with the result
that the light rays are directed to a point behind the retina. Long-sightedness
is corrected by wearing glasses which bend the light rays inwards before they
get to the eye (Figure 4B). The same kind of glasses are worn by old people
whose lenses have hardened.

Some people have a defect of the eye called an astigmatism. This is caused by
the cornea and/or lens being unevenly curved, so the light rays meet on the
retina in one plane but not in another. This, too, can be corrected by wearing
1-^ /
glasses.
Various tests can be carried out to find out how good your eyesight is can focus things from afar

(Investigation 1). They are normally performed by an optician.

Seeing in depth
If you look at a solid object such as a book through only one eye, it looks flat. but not close by
However, if you look at it through both eyes, it appears to have depth. In
other words you see it in three dimensions.
So seeing things in depth depends on using both eyes. Each eye sees a
slightly different aspect of the same object. In our brain the two images are
combined to give us a single three-dimensional view of the object.
As well as making the world look more interesting, this helps us to judge corrected by convex spectacles
distances. For example, if you are driving along a road and there are two cars
in front of you, you know roughly how far apart they are. Figure 4 Short sight and long sight, and how they
can be corrected by wearing the right kind of
Seeing things through two eyes is called binocular vision. Can you think of
glasses.
other advantages of having this kind of vision?
292 Biology for life

What does the retina do?

cone rod If you look straight an an object, and then look at it out of the corner of your
eye, you will find that its appearance changes. From being clear and sharp it
becomes indistinct and fuzzy. Also it is difficult to tell what colour it is.
How can we explain this difference? The retina is divided into two parts.
When we look straight at something, we are using the central part
immediately behind the lens: the yellow spot or fovea. This contains sensory
cells called cones which detect things clearly and in colour. When, however,
we look at something out of the corner of the eye, we are using the part of the
retina further out towards the edge of the eye. This contains sensory cells of a
different kind, called rods. They detect things less clearly and in black and
white (Figure 5).

Seeing in the dark

From what's just been said you might have got the idea that the edge of the
retina isn't much use. However, it is good at seeing things in dim light
(Investigation 2). You can prove this by looking at a faint star: it's much easier
Figure 5 The two kinds of sensory cell found in the
retina. The cones are for seeing things clearly and in to see it out of the corner of your eye than by looking straight at it.
colour when it is light; the rods enable us to see The reason for this is that the rods work better than the cones in the dark.
things when it is dark or gloomy, but only in black They contain a substance called visual purple which is broken down by very
and white. small amounts of light. This causes them to send impulses to the brain. No
sooner has the visual purple been broken down than it's re-made and is ready
to be used again. This happens very quickly and is the reason why a
flickering light can sometimes be detected out of the corner of the eye.
Visual purple is made from vitamin A, which is particularly abundant in
carrots. A person who hasn't been getting enough vitamin A in her food has
difficulty seeing in the dark, a condition called night-blindness.
Have you noticed that when you go into a gloomy room from bright
sunlight you can't see anything at first but gradually things become visible?
This is known as dark adaptation. The explanation of it is that all the visual
purple has been broken down by the sunlight and it takes a while for the rods
to re-make it and start working.

How do we see colours?

The ability of the eye to detect colours is due to the cones in the central part of
the retina. The colour of an object is determined by the wavelength of light
reflected from it. Scientists believe there are different kinds of cones for
Figure 6 Is seeing always believing? Here are two
detecting different wavelengths and therefore different colours.. However,
well-known optical illusions.
they only work when the light is good; in dim light you cannot see colours.
Not all animals can see colours. Dogs for example see everything in black
and white. Certain people are completely colour-blind and cannot make out
colours at all. Others cannot tell the difference between red and green, and
this can cause difficulty when looking at warning signs. Various tests can be
carried out to find out if a person is colour-blind (Investigation 3).

Is seeing believing?
What we see depends not only on our eyes, but also on our brain. We have
already seen that the brain turns images the right way up. What else does it
do?
Briefly it does two things: it fills in gaps, and sometimes it distorts things.
The way the brain fills in gaps is dealt with on page 276. The way it distorts
things is shown by optical illusions (Figure 6). The image registered by the
eye is accurate, but the brain plays a trick on us and makes the image
misleading.
To some extent this is because we are used to seeing certain things, and are
baffled by anything unusual. In other words we tend to see what we want to
see, or are used to seeing. Figure 7 illustrates this nicely. Can you think of any
other examples of this?
 How does the eye work? 293

-Investigation 1- ^Investigation 2- rInvestigation 3-

How good is your eyesight? Seeing in the dark Seeing colours
1 Hang a card on the wall on which Do this experiment in a dimly lit room. 1 Obtain two cards, one red and the
there are two parallel lines one other green.
millimetre apart. 1 Stare into a bright light for five
minutes: a bench lamp will do. 2 Look at the two cards out of the
2 Gradually back away from the card corner of your eye.
2 Turn the light off.
until the two parallel lines appear as
one, then stop. Can you tell which colour is which?
3 Look straight ahead. Your teacher
has placed a certain object at the How would you explain your
How far are you from the card?
front of the room. observation?
Compare your distance with that of
Write down the name of the object 3 Obtain a set of colour-blindness test
other people in the class.
as soon as you can tell what it is. cards. On each card there are
3 Hang an eyesight test card on the numerous coloured dots. People
Tell your teacher when you have
wall. with normal colour vision can make
done this.
4 Stand facing the card six metres out certain numbers, whereas
, How long did it take you to colour-blind people can't.
away.
recognise the object?
How many lines can you read? 4 Test your eyes with the cards,
Compare your time with that of following the instructions carefully.
At a distance of six metres, a person others in your class.
with normal eyesight should be able Can you see colours normally or are
What was happening in your eye: you colour-blind?
to read as far down as line 6.
a) while you were staring at the If you are colour-blind, are you
5 Repeat the eyesight test on each
bright light, totally colour-blind or are you
eye separately.
b) while you were in darkness colour-blind only to red and green?
Can you see better out of one eye afterwards?
than the other? How many students in your class, if
What have you learnt about the human any, are (a) totally colour-blind, and
How does your eyesight compare with eye from this experiment? (b) red-green colour blind?
others in your class?
People who are red-green colour-blind
say that they have no difficulty telling
whether the traffic lights are red or
green. How would you explain this?

Assignments
1 The picture below shows a person 2 What are the advantages of having e) If both your eyes are open and
wearing ‘half-moon’ spectacles. two eyes rather than only one? you press the side of one of your
What sort of eye defect do you think eyeballs, you see double.
3 Explain the reason for each of the
he has, and why are these particular 4 Nocturnal animals, i.e. animals
following:
spectacles useful to him? which sleep during the day and
a) When you go into a cinema from
bright sunlight, you cannot see come out at night, tend to have wide
the seats at first, but gradually pupils and lots of rods in their
they become visible. retinas. Suggest a reason for this.
b) If you are trying to see a faint star
5 With a piece of straight-edged
in the night sky, it is better to look
paper cover the top half of the
slightly to one side of it rather
following phrase:
than straight at it.
c) When it is getting dark at night, it HAPPY BIRTHDAY
is impossible to make out the
Can you read it?
colours of cars on the road.
d) If you look at a cinema screen out Now cover the bottom half of the
of the corner of your eye, you can phrase. Can you read it now?
see it flickering. Explain the difference.
 —The ear and —

The structure of the ear

hearing People tend to think of the ear as just a flap on the side of the head, but
there's much more to it than that, as you can see in Figure 1. The flap is
The ear does two jobs: it simply a device for catching sounds and directing them into the hole just in
enables us to hear and it also front. The flap itself is called the pinna and it contains gristle to keep it stiff.
The hole leads into a short tube called the external ear channel. The skin
helps us to keep our balance. In this
lining the first part of the channel is hairy and secretes wax which catches
Topic we will look at the structure germs and dust, preventing them from getting into the ear.
of the ear and the wap it Stretched across the inner end of the channel is a tough membrane, the
works in hearing. ear drum. On the other side of the ear drum is a chamber called the middle
ear. This contains three tiny bones called the ear ossicles: because of their
shapes they are called the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrup
(stapes). They run from the inner side of the ear drum to a membrane
covering a small hole on the other side of the middle ear chamber. This is
called the oval window, and it leads to the inner ear.
The inner ear consists of a series of chambers and canals filled with fluid. It
is made up of two parts which, though connected, do quite different jobs.
The two parts are-

1 The hearing apparatus

This consists of a tube called the cochlea which is coiled like a snail's shell.
Inside the cochlea there are sensory cells which are connected to the brain by
the auditory nerve.
Figure 1 The structure of the human ear, slightly
simplified.
 The ear and hearing 295

2 The balancing apparatus

This is dealt with in the next Topic.
If the air pressure in the middle ear is greater than the
The whole ear is embedded in the temporal bone which forms the side of the pressure outside, the ear drum bulges outwards.
skull just above the pinna.

Why do our ears go pop?

Suppose the pressure in the middle ear chamber was to suddenly increase.
This would make the ear drum bulge outwards. Not only would this be
painful, but it might even burst the ear drum. So it's important that the
pressure in the middle ear should be more or less the same as the
atmospheric pressure outside the ear drum (Figure 2). The structure that
makes this possible is the Eustachian tube. This connects the middle ear with
the throat and it allows air to get in and out of the middle ear.
If you go up in an aeroplane, the atmospheric pressure outside the
ear drum falls. As a result, the ear drum bulges outwards. You can rectify this
by, for example, yawning or swallowing: this opens the Eustachian tube and
so equalises the pressure on the two sides oEthe ear drum. The result is that
the ear drum springs back into its normal position, making your ears pop.
The reverse happens when the aeroplane comes down to land, or if you go
down a deep mine in a lift. In this case the atmospheric pressure increases
causing your ear drum to bulge inwards. You can rectify this by swallowing
or yawning as before.
The Eustachian tube is, therefore, an important part of the ear. The trouble
is that if you have a heavy cold germs may get up it into the middle ear. The
Eustachian tube may then become blocked, and pressure may build up in the
middle ear causing ear ache.
external ear middle ear
channel chamber

How does the ear hear?

Suppose you are walking down the street and there's a loud bang. The noise
sets off vibrations or sound waves which travel through the air in all
directions, rather like ripples in a pond when you throw a stone in it. Within
a fraction of a second the sound waves reach your ear, and the pinna directs
them into the external ear channel.
Being rather small and pressed back against the side of the head, the
human pinna is not much good at catching sound waves. However, the much
larger pinna of an alsatian dog or a fox is more efficient, particularly if it's
pricked up. Of course the human pinna can be improved by putting your
hand behind it.
The sound waves now pass along the external ear channel to the ear drum.
When they hit the ear drum they make it vibrate. This in turn moves the ear
ossicles backwards and forwards, causing the membrane covering the oval
window to vibrate. The vibrations of this membrane then move the fluid in
the cochlea. This stimulates the sensory cells which send off messages in the
auditory nerve to the brain.

Getting used to sounds

If you are subjected to a continuous or repetitive noise, you soon get used to
it - provided of course that it isn't too loud. In fact after a time you may stop
hearing it altogether. We call this adaptation.
There are two possible explanations of adaptation. One is that after a time
the sensory cells in the cochlea stop sending messages to the brain, even
If the air pressure in the middle ear is less than the
though they are still being stimulated. Another is that the messages go on pressure outside, the ear drum bulges inwards.
being sent, but the brain takes no notice of them. Either way after a time the
sound is no longer heard. This means that we do not constantly respond to
background noises that do not really matter. Figure 2 These diagrams show what happens if the
air pressure is not the same on the two sides of the
eardrum.
296 Biology for life

outer ear middle ear inner ear

sensory cells

Figure 3 In this diagram the arrows show the A closer look at the cochlea
passage of a sound wave through the ear. The
cochlea is shown straightened out and its three Look at Figure 3. You will see that the cochlea is divided lengthways into
canals are numbered 1,2 and 3. three canals. These are numbered 1, 2 and 3 in the diagram. They are
separated from each other by delicate membranes which can move up and
down. When the membrane covering the oval window is pushed inwards by
the stirrup, the fluid in the first canal is moved. This pushes the first
membrane downwards, which moves the fluid in the second canal. This, in
turn, pushes the second membrane downwards, which moves the fluid in
the third canal. This finally presses on the membrane covering the round
window, causing it to bulge outwards into the middle ear chamber.
How do these movements cause messages to be sent off in the auditory
nerve? Figure 4 shows the sensory cells in the cochlea. You will see that they
are attached to the membrane which separates the second and third canals.
When this membrane moves up and down, it distorts the sensory cells, and
as a result they send off messages in the nerve.

Loud and soft sounds

If you play a note on a piano, its loudness depends on how hard you hit the
key. This in turn determines the distance through which the wire moves up
and down when it vibrates: this is called the amplitude.
The loudness of a sound is registered by the ear in the same way. Soft
sounds vibrate the ear drum, and hence the cochlea membrane, only slightly,
whereas loud sounds cause much greater vibrations.
Figure 4 This is a simplified cross-section of the There are many different ways of testing one's ears to find out how
cochlea, cut in the plane a-b in Figure 3. The shelf is sensitive they are. Investigation 1 is a simple method.
firm, and when the second membrane vibrates it
distorts the sensory cells, and impulses are sent off
in the nerve fibres to the brain. High and low notes
With a piano you make different notes by hitting different keys. The actual
note, or pitch, depends on how rapidly the wire vibrates: this is called the
frequency. Wires that vibrate at high frequency give high notes, whereas
those that vibrate at low frequency give low notes.
Although the details are different, the ear works in the same kind of way. It
has been found that the cochlea membrane is made of thousands of parallel
fibres which run across it. The fibres towards the base of the cochlea are short
and stiff: they vibrate very rapidly and are sensitive to high notes. In contrast,
the fibres towards the apex are long and more flexible: they vibrate more
slowly and are sensitive to low notes.

What causes deafness?

Figure 5 A hearing aid. A microphone, amplifier
battery and earphone are all housed in a small case There are several different types of deafness, depending on which part of the
that fits neatly behind the ear. Sound waves are
ear is affected.
transmitted via a narrow plastic tube to a mould
which is inserted into the opening of the ear. This is People sometimes become temporarily deaf because they produce too
just one of several types of hearing aid which are much hard wax, which consequently blocks up the external ear channel. This
now available to deaf people. is easily removed by the doctor syringing out the ears with warm water.
 The ear and hearing 297

An explosion, or blow on the side of the head, may rupture the ear drum,
causing deafness. However, the ear drum usually heals quite quickly and
then the person gets her hearing back.
A much more serious type of deafness is caused by connective tissue
growing into the middle ear chamber. This prevents the ear ossicles moving,
in much the same way as a piston may become seized up with rust. If nothing
is done about it, the person may become permanently deaf. However, the
person's hearing can sometimes be improved by wearing a hearing aid which
amplifies the sound waves (Figure 5). In severe cases an operation may prove
helpful.
There are other causes of deafness. For example, it may be caused by
damage to the cochlea. If a person is subjected to a repeated loud sound of a
particular pitch, the sensory cells may become damaged, making him deaf to
that particular note. It's said that some pop singers have become deaf to
certain notes because of this. There is no cure for this kind of deafness.

How can we tell where a sound comes from?

Normally when you hear a sound, you knq.w where it comes from. This is
because we have two ears, one on each side of the head. Suppose you hear a
noise from the right. Sound waves reach the right ear a fraction of a second
before they reach the left ear (Figure 6). So impulses are sent to the brain from
the right ear slightly before they are sent from the left ear. From this the brain
knows that the sound must have come from the right.
Now suppose you can hear a faint buzz and you want to find where it's
coming from. With two ears you can compare the loudness of the sound on
each side of the head, and this will guide you towards the source of the sound
(Investigation 2). Figure 6 Where did that bang come from?

Investigation 1- Investigation 2- -Assignments-

How well can you hear? Finding an object by sound 1 If a person ruptures his ear drum he
finds it difficult to hear until it has
This experiment must be done in a This experiment is best done as a class
healed. Why is this?
quiet room. with one person acting as subject.
Work in pairs, one person acting as 2 Why do your ears go pop when you
1 Blindfold the subject outside the
subject. go up in an aeroplane?
room.
1 The subject should sit down and 3 What jobs are done by each of the
2 Place a ticking clock somewhere in
plug one ear with cotton wool. following:
the room.
(a) the pinna, (b) the ear ossicles,
2 Hold a ticking watch close to the (c) the round window, (d) the
3 Bring the subject in and ask her to
subject’s ear and gradually move it Eustachian tube?
find the clock.
away until he can no longer hear it.
(Someone should stand close to the 4 People who are subjected day after
At what distance does the subject subject to prevent her bumping into day to a very loud noise of a
cease to hear the watch? the furniture.) particular pitch may eventually
3 Hold the watch out of hearing range, become permanently deaf to all
4 Watch the subject’s head as she
then gradually move it towards the sounds of that pitch.
goes about this task.
subject’s ear until he can just hear it. a) What is meant by the word pitch?
In what way do you think the b) What do you think might cause
At what distance does the subject movements of her head help her to find this kind of deafness?
start to hear the watch? the clock?
5 It is claimed that having two ears
Are the two distances which you have What do you think she would do if one of enables us to tell where a sound
measured the same? herears was plugged with cotton wool? comes from. Devise an experiment

If not, which one is the further? to find out if two ears are really
Find out by repeating the experiment
needed for this.
How would you explain the difference? with one of the subject’s ears blocked.

The ear can be blocked with a small

ball of cotton wool.
 How do we keep
Centre of gravity
our balance? Suppose you balance an empty tray on your finger, so that it is horizontal,
like this:
Figure 1 shows an
ice-skater in action.
How does he manage to stay
upright and stop himself
falling over?
Your finger marks the 'balance' point where the weight of the tray is
concentrated. This point is called the centre of gravity. The centre of gravity is
the point through which the weight of a body acts.

C of G

The mass of an empty tray is spread out evenly all over, so the centre of
gravity is in the centre. But suppose there's a cup at one end. This will make
the tray heavier at that end, so the centre of gravity will be shifted in that
direction.

C of G
So the position of the centre of gravity of an object depends or: how the mass is
distributed within it. Figure 2 shows the position of the centre of gravity in a
Figure 1 The ice skater must have perfect balance. few well-known objects.

Stability

Imagine a model human standing in an upright position. The centre of

gravity is immediately above the part of the body on which the model stands,
i.e. the feet:

C of G
With the centre of gravity in this position, the model stays upright and
doesn't topple over: we say that it is stable.
Now suppose we tilt the model slightly to one side, like this:

Figure 2 The centre of gravity is the point through

On letting go, the model returns to its original position: in other words it
which the weight of a body acts. It is indicated by the
remains stable.
arrows in these diagrams.
An object is said to be stable if it returns to its original position when displaced.
 How do we keep our balance? 299

But suppose we tilt the model a bit more, like this:

This time, instead of returning to its original position when we let go, it
becomes unstable and falls over.
Why is the model stable when we tilt it slightly, but unstable when we tilt it
more? The answer lies with the centre of gravity. Look again at the previous
two diagrams. With a slight tilt, the centre of gravity still falls within the area
of the body on which it was standing. But with a larger tilt, the centre of
gravity falls outside this area. When displaced, a body becomes unstable and is
liable to fall over if its centre of gravity falls outside the area on which it was standing.

It's different with people

Now suppose our model is a real man and he leans over as in the last
diagram. His centre of gravity now falls outside the area of his body on which
he stands. However, in contrast to the model, he can stop himself falling
over. This is because various muscles, particularly those in the legs, tighten
up, and the body moves in such a way as to bring the centre of gravity back
into its original position. So the body, having become unstable, becomes
stable again.
This comes into many things we do. Even in a simple action like walking,
the body constantly becomes unstable for a moment, only to regain stability
immediately afterwards. This is even more true of the ice-skater in Figure 1. It
also applies to many animals, particularly agile ones like the one shown in Figure 3 The gibbon is one of the most acrobatic
Figure 3. animals and can leap from tree to tree in the jungle.

How do we keep stable?

balancing apparatus
Stability is maintained by a number of reflexes which are set off by the
stimulation of certain sense organs. Let's look at these in turn.

1 Eyes
The eyes are more important in balance than you may think (Investigation 1).
By looking at fixed objects such as the skyline and the sides of buildings, you
become aware of the horizontal and vertical planes. This helps you to keep
your body in the right position, and it explains why it's difficult to keep your
balance in the dark.

2 Pressure receptors
If you're standing to attention and you lean forward, you can feel the extra
pressure on the front of your feet. This makes you lean back again, so you
don't fall forward. The feeling comes from receptors in the skin which are
sensitive to pressure and they pass messages to the brain (Investigation 3).

3 Stretch receptors
When you lean forward you can also feel tension in the muscles at the back of
your leg. All our muscles have special receptors inside them which are
stimulated by being stretched. We call them proprioceptors. If a muscle is
stretched, as often happens when the body becomes unstable, the body
responds in such a way that the stretching is relieved.

4 Ears
Our ears contain a special balancing apparatus which is shown in Figure 4. It Figure 4 This diagram shows the balancing
apparatus in the ear.
consists of two main parts: the semicircular canals and the ear sac.
300 Biology for life

head facing front

this canal responds to moving

sense organ upright

(There are three

of these sense
organs in each ear)

head moves to left shaking the head

Figure 6 The three semicircular canals are at right angles to each other, so movement of
the head in any plane can be detected by the sense organs.
sense organ
tugged to right The semicircular canals
If you nod or shake your head you can feel your head moving. What's more
you know if it's moving quickly or slowly, or if it changes speed. The organs
which tell you this are the semicircular canals.
The semicircular canals are filled with fluid, and each one has a little
swelling at one end called an ampulla. The ampulla contains a sense organ
which sticks into it like a little finger. If you suddenly move your head in the
same plane as the canal, the fluid tugs on the sense organ (Figure 5). As a
result it sends messages to the brain, telling it that the head has moved.
We have three semicircular canals in each ear, and they are situated at right
angles to each other. Each one is sensitive to movement in a different plane:
one of them responds when you shake your head, another when you nod,
and the third when you move it from side to side (Figure 6).
If you are spun round at a constant speed, as, for example, when you go on
a roundabout, the fluid in the semicircular canal stays still relative to your
head (Investigation 2). However, when you stop, it goes on swirling round

sense organ
tugged to left

Figure 5 These diagrams show what happens to our

semicircular canal organs when we turn our head Figure 7 These diagrams show what happens to the organs in the ear sac when we
suddenly. change the position of the head.
 How do we keep our balance? 301

and round for a while. This stimulates the receptors and makes you feel
dizzy.
Investigation 3-
The part played by pressure and
stretch receptors in balance
The ear sac
Even when your eyes are closed, you know the position of your head, i.e. 1 Stand up with your feet together.
whether it's vertical or horizontal. We get this information from the ear sac Whereabouts do you feel pressure
just beneath the semicircular canals (see Figure 4). on your feet?
The ear sac is filled with fluid, and it contains a tiny ball of chalk which is
2 Lean forward as far as you can.
attached to a group of sensory cells. If your head is upright, the ball sits
Where do you feel most of the
neatly on top of the sensory cells. However, if your head is bent forward, the
pressure now?
ball pulls on the sensory cells (Figure 7). This causes them to send messages
to the brain, telling it that the head is now in this new position. 3 Now lean backwards. Where do you
feel the pressure now?

4 Lean forward again.

Which muscles feel tense?
■Investigation 1- Investigation 2- What movements stop you falling
over?
The importance of the eyes in to see how the semicircular canals
What does this experiment tell us about
balance work
balance?
1 Stand up with your eyes open.
What other part of the body, besides
2 Raise one leg off the floor. our feet and legs, helps us to keep our
balance?
Do you find it easy to stand on one
foot?

3 Now repeat the above with your

eyes closed.

Do you find it harder or easier to

stand on one foot now?

4 Stand up with your feet together and

1 Obtain a circular trough of the kind
shown in the illustration: a circular
PAssignments-
your arms at your sides. Look
cooking mould does nicely. 1 When you are sitting in a bus, which
straight ahead. Note the extent to
sense organs tell you that you are
which you sway from side to side. 2 Half fill the trough with water and
moving? Explain your answer fully.
place it on the turntable of a record
5 Now close your eyes and continue
player. 2 Why do we need three semicircular
to stand as before. canals in each ear, rather than only
3 Float a match on the water, and wait
Are your swaying movements one?
for it to be still: the match will help
greater or less than before? you to see which way the water 3 When you wake up in the morning
Why do you think the swaying moves. you know where your leg is in
movements occur? relation to the rest of your body, i.e.
4 Rotate the turntable quickly through
whether it is straight or bent in a
What part is played by the eyes in a quarter turn.
particular position. What sort of
balance? What happens to the water? receptors give us this information,
6 Sit down and close your eyes. and what part do they play in
5 Spin the turntable slowly at a
helping us to keep our balance?
7 Place the heel of one foot on the constant speed.
toes of the other. 4 Why do you feel dizzy after you have
What happens to the water (a) when
been on a roundabout in a funfair?
Is it easier to do this when you're you start spinning, and (b) once the
looking at your feet? spinning has got underway? 5 Describe an experiment which
could be done to find out how
8 Put your finger on the end of your 6 Stop the turntable suddenly.
important the eyes are in enabling
nose. What happens to the water after the human beings to walk straight.
Can you do this more accurately turntable has stopped?
6 Why do you think people lose their
with your eyes open?. What conclusions can you draw about balance when they have drunk too
What do you think these experiments the way the receptors in the much alcohol?
tell us about balance? semicircular canals are stimulated
when the head moves?
 -Introducing the
The parts of the skeleton
skeleton You can discover a lot about the human skeleton just by looking at it
(Investigation 1). It is divided into two main parts (Figure 1).
Humans, like many other
animals, possess a skeleton 1 Axial skeleton
which forms a framework inside the Structures which lie in the centre of the body, namely the skull, backbone
body. The next two Topics are (vertebral column) and rib cage. The ribs run from the backbone to the
breastbone (sternum). The backbone itself is made up of a chain of bones
about the skeleton and its
called vertebrae (Figures 2 and 3).
functions.
2 Appendicular skeleton
Structures which lie on either side of the body, namely the limb girdles
(shoulders and hips) and the limbs (arms and legs). The limbs are attached to
the girdles, the arms to the shoulder girdle and the legs to the hip girdle. The
Figure 1 The main parts of the human skeleton.

digits

little toe
 Introducing the skeleton 303

main part of the shoulder girdle is the shoulder blade (scapula). We have two
shoulder blades, one on either side of the rib cage and they are completely Back (lumbar) vertebra
separate. In contrast the two sides of the hip girdle are fused with each other
and with the posterior part of the backbone. spinal process (neural spine)

The various bones that make up the skeleton are connected in such a way
that they can move, or articulate, with one another. Notice, for example, the transverse I -U
articulating
articulating surfaces on the vertebrae in Figures 2 and 3. The bones are held process jgglk
/ surface
together by ligaments: these are tough elastic strands which run from one
bone to another across the joints. The most mobile parts of the skeleton are of
£ -JL & %i/^7)\

course the arms and legs (limbs) and in particular the hands and feet.
spinal canal/'
through which
What does the skeleton do? spinal cord
1 body of the

The skeleton does four main jobs:

ran
V j vertebra
(centrum)
1 It supports the body, giving it shape and form. Without it, the whole
body would collapse. Figure 3 Human vertebra, seen end-on.
2 It protects the soft organs. Thus the cranium protects the brain, and the
vertebrae protect the spinal cord. The ribs and breastbone protect the
lungs and heart, and the pelvis shields the reproductive organs.
3 It makes blood cells. Red and white blood cells are made inside certain
bones.
4 It brings about movement. In doing this the skeleton works with muscles
which are attached to it.

What is the skeleton made of?

The skeleton is made mainly of bone, which is hard because it contains
minerals. The main mineral is calcium, and this is why growing children need
plenty of this element in their food. If you take the calcium out of a bone by
treating it with an acid, it becomes soft like rubber (Investigation 2).
Although bone looks dead, it is really very much alive. It is a living tissue
containing blood vessels and nerves, and special bone cells which make new
bone and repair it when damaged (Figure 4).
Between the bones there is a softer material called cartilage (gristle). This
acts like a shock absorber, preventing the bones from jarring when we move Figure 4 Section of bone as seen under the
around. In this respect the cartilage discs between the vertebrae are especially microscope. The bone is laid down in a series of
important, and they also help to make the backbone flexible. Cartilage is also concentric rings round blood vessels. The bone
found in the ear-flap (pinna) and the nose. Like bone, cartilage is a living cells produce an organic material which becomes
hardened by calcium salts.
tissue containing cells (Figure 5).
The skeletons of different vertebrates vary in the amount of cartilage they

,
A%
« * v
✓ A

Figure 5 Section of a small piece of cartilage as

seen under the microscope. Cartilage cells can be
seen in a mass of organic material which they
themselves produce. In contrast to bone, this
remains unhardened.
304 Biology for life

Figure 6 The structure of a typical bone can be seen load

in this diagram of the femur. The femur has to bear
the mass of the body and so it must be strong. This is
achieved mainly by the spongy bone: the fibres form
a frame like the metal lattice in a crane. Below is a
radiograph of the top part of a femur.

contain. In sharks and their relatives the entire skeleton is made of cartilage.
So is the skeleton of the human foetus; however, in this case the cartilage is
gradually replaced by bone.

Inside a bone
If you saw a bone right down the middle you can see its inside (Investigation
3). Figure 6 shows the structure of a bone such as the femur. The outer part
consists of dense compact bone. Beneath this at the end of the bone there is a
criss-cross network of bony fibres called spongy bone. In the centre there is a
cavity filled with a soft substance called marrow. Yellow marrow consists
mainly of fat. Red marrow, which is found in certain bones such as the pelvis
and ribs, is where blood cells are made.

The skeleton of other vertebrates

Man is a peculiar mammal in that he walks on two legs: he is known as a
biped. Most other mammals walk on all fours and are called quadrupeds.
You might expect this to make a lot of difference to the skeleton. However, if
you compare the human skeleton with that of a quadruped such as a rabbit,
you find they are really very similar (Figure 7). The same bones occur in each,
though their individual shapes are different. Other vertebrates have basically
similar skeletons too, though there are individual variations. These can
Figure 7 The skeleton of a rabbit be related to the animal's way of life and how it moves (Investigation 4).
 Introducing the skeleton 305

Investigation 1- Investigation 2 -Investigation 3-

Looking at the human skeleton To find the effect of taking the Looking inside a bone
calcium out of a bone
1 Examine a human skeleton. 1 Your teacher will give you afresh
1 Your teacher will give you a bone bone which has been sawn in half
Which structures shown in Figure 1
which has had all the flesh and down the middle.
can you see?
marrow removed.
Which structures:
2 Obtain a three per cent solution of
a) hold the body up?
hydrochloric acid in which some salt
b) are involved in locomotion?
has been dissolved.
c) protect the soft organs?
3 Put the bone in the acid, and leave it
2 Compare the shoulder and hip
for several days.
bones.
4 After several days lift the bone out of
What do they have in common?
the acid with forceps, and wash it in
In what ways do they differ? water.

Can you explain the differences? £ Dry the bone with a cloth.
Which structures shown in Figure 4
3 Examine the hand and foot in detail. Can you bend the bone?
can you see?
Which structures shown in Figure 1 What effect has the acid had on it?
can you see? What does the bone marrow feel
What is the function of calcium in the like?
In what ways are they suited to their skeleton?
What do you think the marrow is
jobs?
In what chemical form does calcium made of?
4 Examine a vertebra in detail. occur in our bodies?
How could you test your
Which structures shown in How do we get the calcium that we suggestion?
Figures 2 and 3 can you see? need?
2 Now look at a dry bone which has
What are the functions of the What happens if a growing child been cut in half.
vertebrae? doesn’t get enough calcium?
Where is the spongy bone and what
job does it do?

-Investigation 4- Assignments
Looking at other skeletons 1 Each of the words in the left-hand 4 Most dogs enjoy the marrow part of
column is related to one of the a bone. Why is the marrow good for
1 Look at the skeleton of a four¬
words in the right-hand column. them?
legged mammal such as a rabbit.
Write them down in the correct
5 Someone has said that from the
Write down five ways in which it pairs.
mechanical point of view the human
differs from the human skeleton,
tarsals hip backbone is like a skyscraper.
apart from its size.
rib wrist However, someone else claims that
Flow would you explain the pelvis ankle it is more like the leaning tower of
differences in terms of what the carpals chest Pisa. Who do you think is right, and
skeleton has to do? femur leg why?

2 Examine the skeletons of other 2 Which of the structures in the left- 6 Explain the reason for each of the
vertebrates such as a bird, frog and hand column in the previous following:
fish. question: a) It is easy to slice through the skull
a) are important in locomotion, of a shark with a knife.
How do they differ from each other?
b) Ligaments stretch when you pull
b) help us to write,
In each case relate the structure of c) protect the lungs, them hard.
the skeleton to the kind of life which d) are part of the axial skeleton, c) A bone which is treated with acid
the animal leads. eventually becomes soft.
e) play a part in raising the leg?
d) The head of a limb bone such as
3 What are the common names for the femur contains bony fibres.
cartilage, mandible, patella,
vertebral column, scapula?
r—How do we move ?
One of the most
important functions of the
skeleton is to support the body and
enable it to move. In doing
this it works with
the muscles.

Figure 2 A muscle is attached to the bones of the

skeleton by a tough tendon at each end.

whole muscle

Figure 1 The main superficial muscles of a human.

Muscles and the skeleton

The entire skeleton is covered with muscles (Figure 1). This kind of skeleton
in which the bones are situated inside the muscles is called an endoskeleton
and is characteristic of all vertebrates. If you buy a chicken leg, you can see
that the meat (muscle) completely envelops the bone.
A structure like the arm or leg contains numerous muscles which move it in
different directions (Investigation 1). Each muscle is attached to the skeleton
at both ends by a tendon (Figure 2). The tendons are very tough and don't
stretch much when they are pulled.
Each muscle is composed of hundreds of muscle fibres enclosed within a
connective tissue envelope. With a pair of needles you can tease out the fibres
Figure 3 A whole muscle is made of muscle fibres,
which in turn are composed of very fine strands (Investigation 2). Scientists have discovered that they are made up of even
called fibrils. finer strands called fibrils (Figure 3).
 How do we move? 307

shoulder blade (scapula)

shoulder joint, biceps contracts

.humerus triceps relaxes.

biceps,- ulna

radius

triceps. biceps relaxes

triceps contracts .

elbow joint

Figure 4 The biceps and triceps muscles move the

Every muscle has a nerve going to it. When it gets into the muscle, the arm at the elbow joint. These two muscles produce
opposite effects. Such muscles are described as
nerve splits up into branches which supply the individual muscle fibres. The
antagonistic.
point where the nerve joins the muscle fibre is called the nerve-muscle
junction.
When a message reaches the end of the nerve, it crosses the nerve-muscle
junction and then spreads along the muscle fibres making them contract. If,
for some reason, the nerve isn't working, or if the nerve-muscle junctions are
blocked, the muscle cannot contract and becomes paralysed. Certain drugs
block the nerve-muscle functions: an example is curare, which South
American natives used to put on their arrowheads to paralyse the animals
they were hunting. Figure 5 The structure of a typical joint is illustrated
When the body is in a fixed position (as in Figure 1 for example), all the here by the hip joint between the femur and the
muscles are taut: this is called muscle tone. pelvis.

How do muscles move the skeleton?

To illustrate this, let's consider the arm. Two main muscles move the arm: the
biceps bends it and the triceps straightens it (Figure 4). These two muscles
produce opposite effects so they must not contract at the same time,
otherwise the arm won't move at all. The nervous system ensures that this
does not happen. Each muscle has its own nerve supply, so that when
messages are sent to the biceps, telling it to contract, they stop being sent to
the triceps, and vice-versa. Muscles which produce opposite effects are
described as antagonistic.
Muscles such as the biceps which bend a limb are called flexors; those like
the triceps which straighten it are called extensors. Of course we have flexors
and extensors in our legs as well as our arms, and they play an important part
in walking and running.
For the muscles to be effective, the limb bones must move easily against
each other. This occurs at the joints.

Joints
The structure of a joint is shown in Figure 5. It is enclosed within a tough
capsule. Immediately beneath the capsule is a thin synovial membrane which
secretes a fluid into the space inside. This synovial fluid serves as a lubricant
enabling the two bones to slide smoothly against each other. It s like the oil
between the moving parts of a machine.
308 Biology for life

The ends of the two bones are made of cartilage. Being comparatively soft,
this prevents jarring when the two bones move against each other.
Joints are weak points in the skeleton, and it is important that they should
be protected. The knees are particularly vulnerable because of their exposed
position and complicated structure. To protect them, they are covered by a
small bone called the knee cap. Behind and in front of the knee cap there are
cavities filled with synovial fluid which serve as a cushioning device.
If you move your arm around, you will notice that at the shoulder you can
move it in any direction, whereas at the elbow you can only move it
backwards and forwards. This difference is due to the kinds of joints which
are found in these two places (Investigation 3).
The shoulder joint consists of a ball at the top of the humerus which fits
into a cup-like socket. This is called a ball and socket joint and it allows
movement in any plane (Figure 6A). However, the elbow joint is constructed
differently: it consists of two knobs at the bottom end of the humerus which
fit into two grooves at the top of the radius and ulna. This is called a hinge
joint, and it allows movement in only one plane (Figure 6B).
The leg works on the same principle as the arm. What kind of joint do you
think we have at the hip, and the knee?
\

Bones as levers
Suppose you are trying to force open the lid of a box with an iron bar like this:

You are using the iron bar as a lever. A lever is a bar which is turned about a fixed
point. The fixed point is called the fulcrum. In the lever illustrated above,
there is a load (the lid) on one side of the fulcrum, and a force or effort is
being applied by your hand on the other side:

Figure 6 The two main kinds of joint found in the

human body are illustrated here by the shoulder joint
and elbow.

Now some of our bones work as levers. There are three kinds of lever
Figure 7 The three different kinds of lever found in which differ in the position of the fulcrum relative to the effort and load. All
the human body. there are found in the human skeleton, and Figure 7 gives some examples.
 How do we move? 309

r Investigation 1- Investigation 2- rInvestigation 3-

Looking at muscles in relation to the Finding out about the structure of a Studying joints
skeleton muscle
1 Move your arm about at the
Your teacher will provide you with a 1 Your teacher will give you a small shoulder and elbow.
pig’s trotter which has been obtained piece of muscle from the leg of, e.g.,
from the butcher. Flow much freedom of movement is
a frog, rat or chicken.
there at each of these joints?
1 Remove as much of the skin as 2 Put the piece of muscle on a
possible. 2 Move your leg about at the hip and
microscope slide.
knee.
2 Pull the various muscles one by one. 3 With needles tease out the muscle
Flow much freedom of movement is
fibres, and spread them out on the
What movement does each one there at each of these joints?
slide.
produce?
3 Look at examples of the above joints
4 Add a drop of salt solution (0.75 per
3 Cut away one of the muscles from obtained from the butcher.
cent), and cover with a coverslip.
its neighbours, and follow it down to
the bone. Move the bones so as to see what
5 Observe under the microscope (low
kind of movement occurs at the
/ power).
4 Observe the tendon by which the joint.
muscle is attached to the bone. Can you see the individual muscle
How much freedom of movement is
fibres?
5 Feel the tendon and test its strength there?
by pulling it. What do they look like?
How does the amount of freedom of
Flow does it differ from the muscle? Can you see anything inside them? movement fit in with the structure of
the joint?
6 Flow is the tendon joined to the At a guess, how many fibres do you
muscle? think the muscle possesses 4 Examine the structure of the joint.
altogether?
Meat that comes from the end of a Which structures in Figure 5 can you
muscle is often tough and gristly. Why is it an advantage for the see?
muscle to be made up of lots of
Why do you think this is? What enables the two bones to
separate fibres?
move smoothly against each other?

Assignments
1 What job does each of the following 4 The diagram, right, shows some of 5 Look at the three kinds of lever
structures do: the muscles, bones and nerves in shown in Figure 7.
a) tendons, the human arm. a) Give one further example of each
b) synovial fluid, a) What will happen to the position type of lever, in either the human
c) nerve-muscle junction, of the forearm if muscle X or some other animal.
d) spongy bone, contracts? b) Suggest possible advantages
e) intervertebral discs? b) What happens to muscle X when and disadvantages of each type.
muscle Y contracts?
2 The following table gives the
c) What happens to muscle X when
maximum speeds of four different
messages travel down nerve 1 ?
animals in kilometres per hour:
d) When messages are travelling
cheetah 70 down nerve 1, what happens to
greyhound 64 messages in nerve 2?
racehorse 64 e) If the distance AB is 2 cm and BC
human 29 is 28 cm, what effort must be
exerted by muscle X to lift a
Suggest reasons why the human
bucket weighing 20 kg?
has the slowest speed of the
f) If muscle X was attached to the
animals listed.
forearm bone at point D, would it
3 Why is it important that tendons require more or less effort to
should not stretch when a muscle raise the same load? Explain
contracts? your answer.
!—Aches, pains and
broken bones
In this Topic
we will look at some
of the things that can go wrong
with our skeleton
and muscles.

Figure 1 An injured footballer about to be taken off the pitch.

Broken bones
A broken bone is called a fracture. There are many different kinds of
fractures, some more serious than others (Figure 2).
Suppose you break your arm. The first thing the hospital does is to take an
X-ray. A machine sends a beam of X-rays through your arm: the rays pass
through the skin and muscles, but not through the bones. Behind your arm is
a photographic film which goes dark everywhere except where the bones are.
So an X-ray photograph will show up the bones in the body, and any breaks
can be seen clearly (Figure 3). In hospital X-ray pictures are taken by a
specially trained person called a radiographer.

How does a broken bone mend?

A bone mends in three main stages (Figure 4):
1 When the bone is fractured, blood vessels are broken, so much bleeding
occurs. The blood congeals around the fracture, forming a clot. This may
press on the surrounding tissues, causing a lot of pain.
2 Bone cells multiply and move, into the blood clot where they lay down
new bone tissue. In this way the two separated parts of the bone become
joined together again (Figure 5). In the mending process, a ring of new
bone tissue is formed round the fracture, so the mended bone is slightly
thicker in the region of the fracture - rather like the joint which a plumber
makes when connecting two lengths of pipe.
3 The new bone is now re-modelled: any unwanted bits are broken down
and reabsorbed, so the final mend is almost undetectable in an X-ray.

Figure 3 An X-ray of a fractured arm.

 Aches, pain and broken bones 311

For a broken bone to heal neatly, the two ends must be correctly
positioned, which means that the arm must be kept still. This is achieved by
putting the limb in plaster or holding it in position with a splint (Figure 6).
A severe fracture may take many months to heal, much longer than it takes
other tissues such as skin. This is because it takes a long time for bone tissue
to grow and harden.

What is a slipped disc?

The cartilage discs between the vertebrae in the backbone are made up of two Figure 5 The top X-ray shows a fractured tibia and
parts: the outer part is hard and fibrous, whereas the middle part is soft and fibula just after a car accident. The bottom X-ray
rubbery. shows the same bones six months later, after being
splinted.
Now these discs have to carry a heavy load. Sometimes the strain is so
great that the outer part of the disc splits open, and the rubbery material
bulges out (Figure 7). This may press on a nerve, causing a lot of pain. So the
disc doesn't really slip: it bursts.
Whereabouts the pain occurs depends on which part of the backbone is
affected. If the disc is towards the top of the backbone, the person gets
neck-ache and arm-ache; if it's in the middle, he gets back-ache; and if it's at
the bottom, he gets leg-ache. In this last case it is the sciatic nerve which is
pressed and so it is called sciatica.
A person with a slipped disc in his back wears a special corset which holds
the vertebrae still and thereby relieves the pain. If the disc is in his neck, he
wears a special collar. If the pain is very bad, an operation may have to be
performed in which the protruding part of the disc is removed.

top of back

spinal nerve

Figure 7 A slipped disc. The cartilage disc has burst and a rubbery bulge sticks out of it Figure 6 This injured miner is put in splints before
as shown. being moved.
312 Biology for life

Faulty joints
All sorts of things can go wrong with our joints. One of the most common
mishaps is to wrench one of them, thereby tearing a ligament or tendon. This
is called a sprain. A sprained ankle may be caused by suddenly twisting the
foot inwards, which tears the ligament on the outer side. The same kind of
thing can happen in the wrist.
You sometimes hear of footballers who need to have a cartilage removed
from their knee. Since the knee has to bear a considerable strain, the knee
joint contains a pair of cartilage pads, which serve as extra shock absorbers.
Now occasionally one of these pads becomes loose and gets pushed out of
place (Figure 8). This can be an awful nuisance as well as painful, and on
occasions it may 'lock' the knee joint completely so that no movement is
possible, highly embarrassing for a footballer if it happens in the middle of a
game! The only answer is to remove the cartilage in an operation.
Sometimes a joint becomes swollen and painful because its lining gets
inflamed and produces too much synovial fluid. This tends to happen in
joints which are used a lot, particularly the knee and elbow. Tennis players
often suffer from it, and it's called tennis elbow.
Just in front of the knee cap is a small sack containing synovial fluid. This,
too, can become inflamed, particularly in people who kneel a lot: it's called
water on the knee. Usually these conditions are put right by bandaging the
joint and resting it.
Sometimes a person is involved in an accident in which the upper arm bone
is forced out of the shoulder socket; in fact with some people this can happen
remarkably easily. It is called a dislocated shoulder. The doctor can usually
put the arm back by moving it about in a certain way.
Occasionally a baby is born with the head of the femur outside its socket.
This is called a dislocated hip (Figure 9). The doctor puts this right by moving
Figure 8 The knee joint has a pair of cartilage pads
the legs about in such a way as to bring the head of the femur back into its
which sometimes get displaced.
socket. The child is then put in plaster with its legs pushed far apart for many
months. This condition may run in families; a simple test is carried out
Figure 9 An X-ray of a dislocated hip joint. immediately after birth on all babies to make sure their hips are all right.
 Aches, pain and broken bones 313

Figure 10 These diagrams show the main difference between osteo- and rheumatoid
arthritis.

Arthritis
Many people complain of arthritis: the joints swell up and hurt, and
movement is difficult. There are two kinds of arthritis (Figure 10):

1 Osteo-arthritis
This occurs mainly in elderly people and is due to wear and tear of the joints.
The cartilage gradually breaks down so the joints lose their shock absorbers,
and the bones no longer move smoothly against each other.

2 Rheumatoid arthritis
Figure 11 This person has torn his Achilles tendon,
In this case connective tissue grows into the joints and eventually hardens, so with the result that he can no longer stand on tiptoe.
the two bones become fused together, making movement impossible. This
kind of arthritis tends to run in families and can start at any age.
-Assignments-
Arthritis is a painful and crippling disease, but a lot can be done about it these
days. For example, it is possible for the head of the femur to be replaced by a 1 Why is a broken arm usually put in
stainless steel 'ball', and the socket to be replaced by a plastic 'cup', so the plaster?
person is given an artificial hip joint. 2 ’My back is killing me.’Give two
possible things that might be wrong
Muscle troubles with this person’s back.

Many people suffer from aches and pains in their muscles, particularly as 3 Why do footballers sometimes have a
they get older. The general name for this is rheumatism or lumbago. cartilage removed?
Doctors aren't certain what causes rheumatism, but it may be caused by 4 Explain each of the following: sprained
inflammation of the connective tissue in the muscle: the tissue swells up and ankle, water on the knee, dislocated
presses on the nerve endings and blood vessels, preventing blood flowing hip, cramp, rheumatism.
through the muscle and thus causing pain.
5 People sometimes suffer from a painful
Rheumatism tends to be brought on by cold and damp, but there's no
knee because they spend so much
doubt that warmth and massage can bring relief. Otherwise, not much can be
time kneeling. What do you think
done about it.
causes the pain?
Everyone gets cramp from time to time. This is caused by a muscle spasm:
the muscle suddenly contracts so powerfully that it hurts. Cramp is brought 6 In an X-ray why do the bones show up
on by cold, or by using a muscle a great deal. Stitch is a type of cramp which but not the skin, connective tissue
occurs in the abdominal muscles, usually after a hard bout of exercise. blood vessels and nerves?
Finally, people sometimes tear a muscle or tendon in an accident. In severe
7 Old people tend to get shorter.
cases the muscle or tendon may be torn right across (Figure 11). The two ends
Suggest reasons for this.
must be stitched together before they will heal.
In recovering from bone and muscle ailments people can be greatly helped 8 Why is it important that fractures should
by physiotherapy. This involves exercising the muscles and joints, and mend neatly?
treating them with heat and massage.
 —How do other—
organisms move?
Organisms move
in different ways. Here
we shall look at just a few examples
to gain some idea of the
methods used.

Figure 1 The photograph of a live amoeba was taken down the microscope while the
organism was moving.

How does Amoeba move?

If you watch a live amoeba moving under the microscope, you will see that
the runny endoplasm flows towards one end of the cell. As a result a bulge
grows out. This is a pseudopod or 'false foot'.
Figure 2 Amoeba moves by the runny endoplasm Watching an amoeba, it looks as if the soft endoplasm is being squeezed
flowing forwards. At the front end the fluid into the pseudopod, rather like toothpaste being squeezed along its tube. In
endoplasm changes into the more solid ectoplasm,
this way the animal 'oozes' slowly from place to place (Figures 1 and 2).
and at the rear end the reverse takes place.

How does Hydra move?

Hydra spends most of its time attached to stones or pieces of weed by its foot.
But if the animal is hungry, or there is something in the water which it does
not like, it will go for a 'walk'. It does this by a strange looping or
somersaulting motion (Figure 3). The body alternatively stretches out, then
closes up. This is brought about by contraction of its muscle tails (Figure 4).
The muscle tails are also responsible for the writhing movements of the
tentacles which help the animal to catch prey.

Figure 4 The epithelial cells in Hydra's body wall are drawn out on their inner side to
form contractile muscle tails.
 How do other organisms move? 315

How does the earthworm move?

the front
bulge passes /o, of the body
You can learn a lot about how worms move by watching one crawling on a
back along lengthens and
A
piece of paper (Investigation 1). Bulges pass backwards along the body like the body pushes forward
waves (Figure 5). Where a bulge occurs, the bristles stick out. They enable the
worm to get a firm grip on the sides of its burrow as it moves forward.
If you watch an earthworm moving, you will see that it constantly changes
its shape: one moment it is long and thin, the next moment it is short and fat.
These changes in shape are brought about by the muscles in the body wall
which press against the fluid inside the body cavity. This is described as a
hydrostatic skeleton.
The muscles in the body wall consist of numerous slender muscle fibres
packed close together. They are arranged in two layers. In the outer layer the
muscle fibres run round the worm in a circular direction: these are called
circular muscles. In the inner layer the muscle fibres run longways: they are
called longitudinal muscles. body cavity
To make the worm long and thin, the circular muscles contract and the containing fluid
body wall under pressure
longitudinal muscles relax. To make it short and fat, the longitudinal muscles
contract and the circular muscles relax. circular muscle
/
when this contracts
the body becomes
long and thin_
How do insects move?
longitudinal muscle
In common with other arthropods, insects have a hard cuticle which also when this contracts
the body becomes
serves as a skeleton. Because it is outside the muscles which work it, it is short and fat_
known as an exoskeleton.
Figure 6 shows how the muscles move the leg. At the joint there is a ball
and socket pivot which works like a see-saw (Investigation 2). Figure 5 These diagrams show how the earthworm
The muscles which straighten the leg are called extensors. Those which moves by bulges passing back along the body.

bend it are called flexors. These two muscles produce opposite effects: when Figure 6 This diagram shows how the muscles are
arranged inside the leg of an insect and how they
one contracts, the other must relax, otherwise the leg will simply stay still.
make the leg move.
Some insects, such as grasshoppers and locusts, can hop. Hopping is
achieved by the third pair of legs. These are longer, stouter and more
powerful than the others, and the extensor muscles inside them are
particularly well developed.
The wings are worked by muscles inside the thorax. When the muscles
contract, the wings go up and down (Figure 7). The locust beats its wings
about twenty times a second, but certain midges can beat them over 1000
Figure 7 Muscles inside the thorax make the wings
times a second. go up and down.

longitudinal muscles
when these muscles contract
roof of thorax the wings go down

vertical muscles
when these muscles contract
the wings go up
316 Biology for life

How do fish swim ?

You can discover much about how fish swim by watching one swimming in
an aquarium (Investigation 3). You will see that it swings its tail from side to
side. As the tail sweeps through the water, it drives the fish forward (Figure
8). The tail fin, with its large surface area, increases the forward thrust.
The movements of the tail are brought about by contraction of the muscle
blocks, first on one side and then on the other. In Figure 8 note that the
skeleton is internal to the muscles. We call it an endoskeleton; it is the kind of
skeleton found in all vertebrates. Some fish can swim quite fast: speeds of
over 60 km/h are quite common, and certain fish can move at over 100 km/h.
When a boat moves through the water it tends to rock about. In fish this is
prevented by the fins, which keep the body steady, rather like the feathers at
the back of an arrow or dart (Figure 9).
If you watch a fish swimming in an aquarium, you will see that it
constantly changes direction, and sometimes slows down and stops. These
steering and braking movements are achieved mainly by movements of the
pectoral fins.
Most fish possess a swim bladder which keeps the body up in the water.
This is a sausage-shaped bag full of air, rather like a balloon, which is situated
towards the upper side of the body cavity.
Sharks and rays do not have a swim bladder, so their only way of staying
up in the water is by swimming. If they stop swimming they sink to the
bottom.

to side as shown in this diagram. returns to its original position (dotted arrows). Three kinds of instability are shown here:
rolling, pitching and yawing. Notice which particular fins stabilise the fish in each case.

Figure 10 The frog jumps by straightening its

powerful back legs.
 How do other organisms move? 317

How do frogs and toads move?

Being vertebrates, frogs and toads have an endoskeleton. You can discover
how they move by watching them in the laboratory (Investigation 4).
Figure 10 shows what happens when a frog jumps. Frogs are expert
hoppers because their back legs are long and have powerful muscles (Figure
11). The same sort of action enables the frog to swim, and the webbed foot
gives the frog a good push against the water (Figure 12).
Toads can hop too, at least some species can, but they are not as expert as
frogs. They tend to walk rather than hop.

How do birds fly?

Birds fly by flapping their wings, or by gliding. When fully spread out, the
wings have a large surface area (Investigation 5).
The bird's wing is equivalent to the human arm. However, instead of
having five equal fingers, there is just one long one. The others are small or
Figure 11 The leg of a frog skinned to show the
absent (Figure 13). The 'thumb' forms the so-called bastard wing, which
muscles.
sticks out in front.
/

When gliding the wing acts as an aerofoil: air flows over it in such a way
that the pressure below the wing is raised whilst the pressure above it is
lowered (Figure 14A). The result is that the bird is given lift. The same
principle keeps aeroplanes and gliders in the air. The bastard wing smooths
the flow of air over the top of the wing, thereby preventing turbulence which
could make the bird stall (Figure 14B). When gliding, the bird makes use of
rising air currents to hold it up in the air.

hand lower arm upper arm

bastard wing
radius
tough strand ulna
links the feathers
Figure 12 The frog swims by straightening its back
legs and pushing its webbed feet against the water.
humerus

flight feathers
Figure 13 The structure of a bird’s wing.

A How the bird gets lift B What might happen if the bastard
wing was removed

bastard wing

reduced pressure
on this side

the bird stalls!

Figure 14 End-on view of the wing of a gliding bird.

The leading edge of the wing is to the right, and the
arrows indicate the air-flow.
318 Biology for life

Figure 15 These diagrams show how the muscles

The wings are operated by powerful flight muscles, which are attached to
work in pulling the bird’s wing up and down.
the breastbone (Figure 15). The breastbone has a deep keel to increase the
area for the attachment of these large muscles. They make up the 'white
meat' which is so good to eat in a chicken or turkey. There are two flight
muscles. One pulls the wing down and the other pulls it up. The muscle
which raises the wing has a tendon which runs through a hole at the point
where the humerus joins the main skeleton. In pulling the wing up, this
muscle works like a pulley.
When the bird flaps its wings, the feathers behave like the slats of a
Venetian blind or louvre window: they close when the wing goes down and
open when it goes up (Figure 16). In this way the bird is given plenty of lift as
the wings are lowered, but it is not dragged downwards when they are
raised.
Birds have several other features which help them to fly. They are
streamlined and light. To make them light, they have air sacs inside their
bodies and their bones are hollow. Their tail feathers play an important part
in balance, and their muscles help to make them very agile. Can you think of
any other ways birds are adapted for flight?
Birds are certainly expert flyers and can achieve high speeds. A racing
pigeon can fly at 60 km/h for long periods, and swifts can reach speeds of
Figure 16 These diagrams show what happens when
a bird flies in a straight line. over 150 km/h in still air.
 How do other organisms move1 319

Investigation 1 - -Investigation 3 - -Investigation 5 -

Watching the earthworm moving Watching a fish swimming Looking at the bird’s wing
For this investigation you will be given a 1 Watch a fish, such as a goldfish, 1 Examine a bird’s wing.
live earthworm in a dish. swimming in an aquarium tank.
How are the feathers attached to it?
Handle it as little as possible, otherwise 2 As the fish moves along, describe
it will get tired and you will not be able 2 Lay the wing on a piece of squared
the actions of the tail and the fins.
to see much movement. paper, and trace round it with a
What makes the fish move forward? pencil.
1 Put the worm on a piece of rough
paper and watch it moving. How does it turn left and right? 3 Count the number of squares within
the outline of the wing, and work out
What happens to its shape as it How does it swim up and down?
its approximate surface area.
moves? How does it stop?
4 Now examine awing of the same
2 Put your ear very close to the worm What stops it rolling around in the size from which the feathers have
and listen carefully. water? been removed.
What can you hear? 3 Observe other actions which the fish 5 Using the squared paper, work out
Explain the sounds. performs: in particular watch the the surface area of the featherless
mouth and operculum. wing.
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 with the worm
on a white tile or a sheet of glass. Explain your observations. What is the surface area of the wing
with feathers?
Does it move as quickly now? How is the external structure of the fish
Can you hear the same sounds? suited to its method of movement? What is its surface area without
feathers?
Explain your observations. To what extent is the fish similar to
different types of boats? By how many times do the feathers
What sort of muscles and skeleton
increase the surface area of the
would be needed to bring about the
wing?
changes in shape which you have
observed? Why is this important to the bird?

-Investigation 2 - 'Investigation 4 '

-Assignments -

How does the arthropod leg work? Watching a frog or toad moving 1 Explain the difference between an
You will need a leg of a large crab such exoskeleton and an endoskeleton.
In this investigation you will be
as the shore crab Carcinus. handling a live vertebrate. When you 2 For the earthworm to move in the
pick it up, carry it gently but firmly. Try way it does (Figure 5), the body
1 With a pointed scalpel blade, cut a
not to frighten it. If you are squeamish must be divided up into a series of
rectangular window in the largest
or get into difficulties, your teacher will separate watertight segments.
section of the leg (the fourth section
help you.
from the far end). Why is this necessary?
1 Place a live frog or toad in a
3 A student observes an earthworm in
cardboard box.
the laboratory. She taps its head
2 Watch it hopping or walking. with a pencil. The worm immediately
changes its shape from long and
What part is played by its hind legs
thin to short and fat.
when it hops or walks?
2 Remove the soft, white muscles a) Explain how this change in
from inside the leg, leaving the 3 Put your frog or toad in a tank of shape is brought about.
tendon-like processes to which they water. b) What use is this response in the
are attached. worm’s natural environment?
4 Watch it swimming,
3 With small forceps, grasp each 4 How do these animals propel
How does it differ from a human
process in turn and pull gently. themselves forward: a fish, a toad
doing the breast stroke?
and a bird?
Do you find that one of the
In what ways are the animal’s hind
processes flexes the leg and the 5 Look up the meaning of antagonistic
legs adapted for swimming?
other extends it? muscles on page 307. Give
What does it use its front legs for? examples of antagonistic muscles in
What kind of skeleton has the crab got?
four animals mentioned in this Topic.
How do the joints work?
Continuation
oflife
 —Producing—
Asexual methods
offspring Many organisms reproduce on their own without the help of another
individual. We call this asexual reproduction. This kind of reproduction takes
Producing offspring place when there is plenty of food available and conditions are good for
involves reproduction. Here growth. These are the main methods.

we will look at the various ways

Splitting (fission)
organisms reproduce. This method is used by single-celled organisms. Take Amoeba for example.
When it is ready to reproduce it simply splits into two (Figure 1). First the
nucleus splits, and then the rest of the body. The two little amoebas then feed
and grow. When fully grown, each splits again. In good conditions this may
happen about once a day.
We call this process binary fission. Binary means 'two', and fission means
'splitting', so the term literally means 'splitting in two'.
Bacteria also reproduce by splitting, but they do it faster than Amoeba: that's
why there are so many of them. In suitable conditions some bacteria can split
once every twenty minutes. This may not seem very fast, but try working out
how many bacteria would be formed from one original cell after six hours!

Budding \
An organism that reproduces by budding is yeast (Investigation 1). Yeast is a
fungus, but it differs from most fungi in that it usually consists of single cells.
When budding occurs the cell sends cut a small outgrowth which gets larger
and eventually breaks off as a new cell (Figure 2). Sometimes the new cell
starts budding before it has broken away from the old cell: this can give rise to
chains or clumps of cells.
Hydra is another organism which reproduces by budding: a new hydra
grows out of the side (Figure 3). To begin with the bud gets food from its
Figure 1 An amoeba reproduces by splitting into parent. Eventually the new hydra breaks away and becomes independent.
two (binary fission).
Spores
A spore is a tiny spherical cell that will grow into a new individual. An
example of an organism that produces spores is pin mould, the fungus that
grows on bread and other kinds of food. The fungus consists of a mass of fine
threads from which branches grow upwards. The spores are released from a
spore case at the end of each branch. The spores are dispersed by wind.
Another fungus that produces spores is the mushroom. A mushroom
doesn't look much like pin mould. However, in the soil there are lots of fine
threads, similar to those of pin mould. The mushroom itself is the
spore-forming body (Investigation 2).
Mosses and ferns also produce spores. They are formed inside spore
capsules. In mosses the spore capsule is at the top of a stalk which sticks out
of the leafy part of the plant (Figure 4 top). In ferns the spore capsules are in
groups on the underside of the fronds (Figure 4 bottom). When ripe, the
capsules open and the spores are scattered.

Figure 2 Scanning electronmicrograph of yeast

budding. Figure 3 The hydra reproduces asexually by budding.
 Producing offspring 323

Vegetative reproduction
Flowering plants reproduce asexually by a special method which we call
vegetative reproduction. This is described fully on pages 380 - 83.

The pros and cons of asexual reproduction

The advantage of asexual reproduction is that a lot of new individuals are
produced quickly without the need for a partner. However, all the new
individuals are exactly like the parent. In other words no variety is produced by
asexual reproduction. What's more, if the parent has any harmful genes these
will be passed on to the offspring.

Sexual methods
Sexual reproduction involves two individuals, normally a male and female.
It's a complicated process but basically what happens is that chromosomes
from the two individuals are brought together. Usually this involves a sperm
uniting with an egg.
In many cases sexual reproduction takes place when conditions are not
good for growth. It provides a means, by which the species survives
unfavourable periods such as winter or a dry season.
Now let's look at some examples. We will start with more advanced
organisms such as vertebrates and flowering plants. Then we will look at
some lower organisms for comparison.

Fish
Most bony fish reproduce by the male and female releasing their sperms and
eggs into the surrounding water. The sperms then swim to the eggs and
fertilise them. We call this external fertilisation. Some fish produce vast
numbers of eggs. For example, a cod can produce as many as eight million at
one time.
The chances of the eggs being fertilised are greatly increased if the male
releases his sperms close to the female's eggs. The stickleback or 'tiddler'
shows how this can be achieved. In the mating season, the male stickleback
develops a red breast and builds an underwater nest out of pieces of weed
which he glues together with a substance made by his kidneys. He then lures
a ripe female to his nest by showing her his red breast. The female enters the
Figure 4 Above is a moss plant showing two ripe
nest and lays her eggs (Figure 5). She leaves the nest through the other side.
spore capsules. Below is the underside of part of the
The male may persuade several other females to lay eggs in the same nest. frond of a fern showing groups of spore capsules.
When there are between 50 and 100 eggs in the nest, he enters and releases Each group is protected by a shield.
his sperms on top of them.
The male now looks after the fertilised eggs, guarding them against other
fish which might eat them, and fanning them with his tail. This stirs up the
water and helps to get oxygen to the eggs. After they have hatched, the male
looks after the young sticklebacks for a few days until they are able to fend for
themselves.

Amphibians
Although frogs and toads live on land, they breed in water. The male mates
with the female by climbing on her back, and fertilisation takes place in the
water. The fertilised egg develops into a larva (the tadpole), which eventually
changes into the adult (see page 364).

Reptiles and birds

Great advances are shown over amphibians. The males and females mate on
land, and the sperms are put inside the female body where they fertilise the
eggs. This is called internal fertilisation. The fertilised eggs are coated with a
protective shell before being laid. The embryo is provided with a store of food
inside the shell: this is the yolk. The embryo grows and develops and
eventually hatches. Figure 5 This drawing shows a female stickleback
Reptiles and birds take care of their eggs and young. This helps them to inside the nest which has been made by the male.
survive and it means that fewer eggs need to be produced (see page 367). The male prods her tail and this makes her lay eggs.
324 Biology for life

Mammals
Mammals, too, have internal fertilisation. What's more the embryo grows
and develops inside the mother and is born at a reasonably advanced stage.
Animals which bear live young like this are described as viviparous.
Mammals take particular care of their young, feeding them on milk and
teaching them to fend for themselves. Mammalian reproduction is dealt with
in detail on pages 338 - 53.

Flowering plants
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants is dealt with on pages 368 - 79. The
problem of bringing the male gamete to the egg is solved by having pollen
grains. And the problem of dispersal is solved by having seeds and fruits.
Seeds also help the plant survive unfavourable seasons.

Now let's look at some lower organisms for comparison.

Spirogyra
Spirogyra reproduces sexually by conjugation. Two filaments lie side by side.
Short tubes grow from each filament, connecting next-door cells (Figure 6).
Through the tubes the contents of one cell move into the other, and their
Figure 6 These diagrams show what happens when nuclei combine. The cytoplasm then rounds off to form a zygote. This
two cells of Spirogyra conjugate. develops a thick wall, becoming a zygospore. The process just described
takes place between an entire row of cells all at the same time. As a result, a
zygospore develops in each cell. Eventually the cell walls break open and the
zygospores sink to the bottom of the pond. Here they survive the winter or
the pond drying up. When conditions improve they burst open and new
filaments grow out (Figure 7).

Pin mould
Pin mould can also reproduce sexually by conjugating (Figure 8). Two
threads from different moulds grow towards each other. Their tips meet and
Figure 7 A zygospore of Spirogyra splits open and a
swell up. The walls separating them break down, and the nuclei from the two
new filament grows out. threads fuse together in pairs. A round ball-like zygote is formed. This
develops a thick wall and becomes a dormant zygospore. The zygospore can
survive for up to a year, even in bad conditions.
i
When conditions are suitable, the zygospore bursts open and sends out a
the tips
of two threads thread which grows upwards. A spore case is formed at the end. Spores are
meet and swell up
released from the spore case as in asexual reproduction.

2
the wall
Hydra
between them If you look at hydras, you may see bumps sticking out from the side of the
breaks down and their
contents mix together body. These are called testes and ovaries (Figure 9).
Each testis contains numerous sperms, and each ovary contains an egg.
3 The sperms and eggs are formed from packing cells in the ectoderm.
a thick-walled When the testes and ovaries are mature, they burst open. The sperms swim
——
zygospore is formed
to an open ovary of another hydra, and one of them fertilises the egg. The
fertilised egg then divides up into a little ball of cells, the embryo. A hard wall
is formed round it: this is called a cyst. The cyst drops out of the ovary, and
sinks to the bottom of the pond. When the winter comes or the pond dries up
4 the parent hydra dies, but the cyst survives. When conditions improve it
the zygospore bursts open, and a young hydra emerges.
bursts open
t and out grows The hydra in Figure 9 has a testis and an ovary. It is a hermaphrodite,
a short thread
which forms producing sperms and eggs. Some species of Hydra are hermaphrodites,
1] a spore case others have separate sexes.
at its end
MM The eggs of a hermaphrodite may be fertilised by its own sperms: this is
known as self-fertilisation. But self-fertilisation has disadvantages, and most

* hermaphrodites have ways of preventing it. Hydra prevents self-fertilisation

like this: in an individual hydra the testis matures before the ovary, so the
Figure 8 Pin mould can reproduce sexually. sperms are released before the egg is ready to be fertilised. The sperms must
Threads from the two neighbouring moulds therefore swim to an egg in another individual. We call this cross¬
conjugate. fertilisation.
 Producing offspring 325

The earthworm
Earthworms reproduce sexually by copulating with one another. They do
this at night on the surface of the ground. The worms come together in pairs
as shown in Figure 10. They become glued together by slime (mucus) which
is produced by their saddles.
Worms are hermaphrodites. When they copulate, sperms pass from each
individual into the other. In this way the eggs in both worms become
fertilised and self-fertilisation is avoided. The eggs are then laid in the soil.
Eventually they hatch into new worms.

Pros and cons of sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction does not produce lots of new individuals quickly, as head saddle

asexual reproduction often does. However, it has the great advantage that
the offspring differ from their parents and from one another. In other words, Figure 10 Earthworms copulating. The diagram
sexual reproduction gives rise to variety. shows what happens. Sperms pass from each worm
into the other as indicated by the arrows.
Another advantage is that if the parents have any harmful genes these will
not necessarily be passed on to the offspring.

Investigation 1 - Investigation 2 - Assignments -

Looking at yeast budding To see if a mushroom produces 1 In good conditions a bacterial cell
spores splits every twenty minutes. How
1 With a pipette put a drop of the many would be formed from a single
yeast on a slide. 1 Obtain a mature mushroom and cut
original one after ten hours?
the cap off the stalk.
2 Add a drop of a stain such as 2 One mushroom may produce ten
methylene blue or lactophenol. 2 Place the cap, lower surface
thousand million spores in a few
downwards, on a sheet of paper.
3 Cover it with acoverslip. days. Why so many?
3 Cover it with an inverted dish.
4 Look at your slide under the 3 Explain the difference between
microscope: low power first, then 4 After a day or two, remove the dish a) internal and external fertilisation,
high power. and lift up the mushroom cap. b) self-fertilisation and cross¬
fertilisation.
Can you see the yeast cells clearly? What does the paper look like now?
4 Why are eggs much larger than
Are any of them budding? Explain what you see.
sperms?
5 Place a few spores on a slide and
5 Choose one hermaphroditic
look at them under the microscope.
organism and explain how it
Why do you think they are so small? prevents self-fertilisation.
 —How do living-
Measuring growth
things grow ? There are many different ways of measuring growth, depending on the
organism in question. Usually we measure some dimension such as height,
Growth is the increase in size length or mass at regular intervals of time. Investigations 1 and 2 and
which takes place as an organism Assignment 5 will introduce you to some of the methods and difficulties
involved.
develops. It ensures that the organism
is the right size to survive in
its environment. How does growth take place?
Most animals and plants are composed of many cells. However, they usually
start off as a single cell, the fertilised egg. This divides into two cells, then into
four, eight, sixteen and so on. This process of cell division is the basis of
growth.
Figure 1 shows what happens when a cell divides. The nucleus divides
first, and then the rest of the cell divides across the middle. At first the
daughter cells are smaller than the original parent cell, but they soon grow to
full size. For this to happen they must take in food substances to provide the
necessary materials and energy. This is why a growing organism needs
plenty of food.
Eventually the cells change their shape and form and turn into particular
types of cell, depending on their position in the body. In the human body, for
example, a cell might develop into a smooth muscle cell if it happens to be in
the wall of the gut, or into a brain cell if it's in the head (Figure 2). The process
by which cells become specialised like this is called differentiation, and it
plays a vital part in the construction of the full-grown adult organism.
Normally once a cell has become specialised in this way it does not divide
any more.

Figure 1 Cell division is the basis of growth in a

multicellular organism. Growth in humans
In a growing child cell division takes place in all parts of the body. As a result,
the child gets steadily larger. However, different parts of the body grow at
different rates: this is because cell division occurs more quickly in some places
than in others. For example the head grows quickly in the early stages of
development in the womb and then slows down, whereas the legs and arms
grow slowly at first and then speed up later (Figure 3).

Figure 2 A cell may change its shape and form, and

develop into a particular kind of cell with a specific
function.

Figure 3 These diagrams show how different parts

of the body increase in size during the first twenty
years of a person's life.
 How do living things grow? 327

Eventually no more cells are added to the body, and so the person stops
growing. In humans this happens at the age of about eighteen, though in
most other animals it occurs much sooner.
Certain cells need to be replaced, so these go on dividing throughout life:
they include the cells at the base of the epidermis in the skin and the cells in
the bone marrow from which blood cells are formed. Cells will also start
dividing again when the body is cut or damaged, to patch up the wound and
heal it.

Growth in insects
You will remember that insects have a hard cuticle that cannot stretch. An
insect can only grow if it sheds its cuticle first. This process is called moulting
or ecdysis.
The first thing that happens during moulting is that a fluid is formed
underneath the cuticle. This fluid dissolves all but the hard outer layer of the
cuticle. The insect then expands, usually by swallowing air, and blows up like marks made on the root appearance later
a balloon. This causes the old cuticle to split, and the insect struggles free. at equal intervals
Meanwhile a new cuticle has been formed /
under the old one. This is soft at
first and as the body expands, it stretches. When the old cuticle has been cast Figure 5 An experiment to show whereabouts
off, the new one starts to harden. Once the new cuticle has hardened, the growth occurs in a young bean root.
insect cannot expand any further until the cuticle is cast off again. An insect
such as the locust may moult five or six times. So insects do not grow
smoothly as humans do, but in a series of spurts (Figure 4).

Figure 4 A cockroach grows in spurts, increasing its size every time it moults. The
arrows indicate when moulting occurs. Many more moults take place than are shown
here.

Growth in plants
We have seen that in a growing child cell division takes place all over the
body. This is true of most animals. In a young plant, however, cell division is
restricted to certain regions called meristems. The main meristems are at the
tip of the shoot and root (Investigation 3). If you make marks on a young
shoot or root, you can see exactly where growth is occurring (Figure 5).
Consider a growing shoot (Figure 6). In the tip, cells are continually
dividing. These young cells draw in water by osmosis and expand. This has
the effect of lengthening the shoot, and helps it to thrust its way upwards.
The same kind of thing happens in the roots as well, and it helps them to
push their way down into the soil. So in plants growth is achieved not just by
cell division, but by cell expansion as well (Investigation 4).
While the cells are expanding, they differentiate into specialised tissues
according to their position in the plant and the task which they have to Figure 6 This diagram shows where cell division
and expansion take place in a growing shoot. The
perform. For example, most of the cells in the shoot develop into packing
same applies to the root.
tissue but in certain regions they develop into transport tissues.
328 Biology for life

How does a stem get thicker? rInvestigation 1-

The kind of growth just described makes the stem get longer. However, as
you know, stems get thicker too. Think of a tree, for instance, whose trunk Measuring the growth of an animal
gets thicker year by year. As this occurs after the stem has increased in length,
If you have a young pet, such as a
we call it secondary growth or secondary thickening.
kitten or puppy you can carry out this
This is how secondary growth occurs. At the same time as the stem is
investigation at home. Alternatively you
getting longer, a layer of cells develops inside it called the cambium. If you
can do it in the laboratory, using a
look at a cross-section of the stem, the cambium appears as a ring of cells
small mammal such as a mouse or
situated between the xylem and phloem (Figure 7). Now the cambium cells
gerbil.
are able to divide long after the other cells have stopped doing so. They
divide to form new xylem tissue (wood) towards the inside, and new phloem 1 With a ruler measure the animal’s
tissue towards the outside. In fact far more xylem tissue is formed than length from the tip of its nose to the
phloem, so the amount of wood in the stem increases greatly. base of its tail.
Meanwhile another layer of dividing cells is formed just under the surface
2 Weigh the animal and find its mass.
of the stem. This is called the cork cambium, and its cells divide to form the
hard corky part of the bark. 3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 at regular
Secondary growth takes place mainly in the summer, or in the rainy season intervals (at least once a week) until
in the tropics. In the winter or dry season it slows down or stops. If you cut a growth appears to stop.
tree down, you can see rings of wood corresponding to each year's secondary
4 Plot your results on a piece of graph
growth: they are called annual rings (Figure 8). By counting the rings you can
paper, putting length and mass on
tell the age of the tree. You can do the same with individual twigs
the vertical axis, and time on the
(Investigation 5).
horizontal axis.
The secondary growth described above occurs in all dicotyledonous shrubs
and trees and it enables some of them to get very large. However, it does not Did the length and mass stop
occur in monocotyledonous plants, which is why few monocotyledons reach increasing at the same time? If not,
the size of trees. Palms, however, are an exception: they can grow to can you explain the reason?
considerable heights because they develop a lot of wood in their stems.
5 Workout the percentage increase in
size which occurred between your
first and last readings.

percentage increase =

final size-initial size w „nn

: — ; : X 1UU
initial size

■Investigation 2-
Measuring the growth of a plant
For this experiment use maize, wheat
or oats.
Figure 7 Secondary growth enables a stem to get wider year by year. 1 Soak the seeds in hot water and sow
them in moist soil.

2 When the shoot appears measure

its length.

3 Repeat this at regular intervals

(every day if possible) for at least a
week.

4 Plot your measurements on graph

paper, putting length of shoot on the
vertical axis and time on the
horizontal axis.

Flow does the growth of the plant

compare with (a) a mammal, and (b)
an insect?

Figure 8 Annual rings in the cut end of the trunk of a felled oak tree.
 How do living things grow? 329

Investigation 3- -Assignments-
To find where growth takes place in a root 1 Fill in the missing words in this
1 Obtain a bean seedling with a root 4 Put the cork in a jar with a little water passage:
at least 2 cm long. in the bottom to keep it moist, and In order for an organism to grow, its
cover it with a sheet.of glass. cells_(a)_This process
2 With Indian ink, make a series of
requires_(b)_which comes
marks along the length of the root 5 After several days examine the
from the organism's_(c)_
one mm apart. Use the special ‘pen’ seedling.
Later on the cells __(d)_into
shown in the illustration.
Are the marks still the same different types of cells depending
3 Pin the seedling to a piece of cork distance apart? on their_(e)_in the body.
with the root pointing downwards.
Where does growth occur in the 2 Give three ways in which growth in
root? animals differs from growth in
flowering plants.

3 Explain briefly how a growing stem

increases in length, and how later it
increases in width.

4 With a ruler measure in millimetres

the width of the head and the length
of the legs in the diagrams in Figure
3. Plot the results on a sheet of
graph paper so the curves can be
compared.
a) Which grows more quickly
between the ages of five and
fifteen years, the head or the
legs?
Investigation 4- -Investigation 5- b) By how many times does one
grow faster than the other?
Examining the inside of a young root Secondary growth in a plant
5 A scientist sows a large number of
1 Look at a prepared longitudinal 1 Obtain prepared transverse seeds all at the same time, and he
section of a young root under the sections of a series of twigs of wants to measure the rate of growth
microscope. different ages. of the seedlings. Here are three
methods which he might use:
2 Observe the cells just behind the Alternatively you can cut your own
a) He measures the heights of the
tip. sections with a razor blade.
shoots of 50 plants every day
If you do this, stain the sections by
Draw one of the cells in outline to and takes the average.
putting them in a watch glass full of
show its shape. b) He digs up five plants every day,
acidified phloroglucin. This will
removes the soil from their roots,
What were these cells doing when show up the woody part of the twig
and estimates their fresh mass
the root was alive? by staining it red.
by weighing them.
How do you know? 2 Put the sections against a light c) He digs up five plants every day
background and if necessary look and dries them by heating them
3 Now look at the cells further back.
at them through a hand lens. in a hot oven until all traces of
Draw one of them to show its shape. water have been driven off. He
How do they differ in appearance?
then weighs them, thereby
How did the cells come to be this Can you tell how old each one is?
obtaining their dry mass.
shape? 3 Look at the cut end of a series of Write down the advantages and
How does the change in shape help older stems or branches. disadvantages of each method.
the root to grow?
How do they differ in appearance? In method (c) how could the
What happens to the various cells after Can you tell how old they are? scientist be certain that all the water
they have changed their shape? had been removed from the plants
If you look at the annual rings in a felled before he found their dry mass?
How does the kind of growth seen in tree, you sometimes see that some
this plant differ from human growth? rings are much wider than others. How Which is the most accurate method
would you explain this? of measuring growth, and why?
 How is growth
The part played by the environment
controlled? For good growth the right conditions are needed. For example, there must be
plenty of food and a suitably high temperature. A tadpole will grow more
What makes an organism quickly in a warm pond than in a cooler one.
grow at a certain rate, and to For plants light is important. This can be seen by growing a seedling in the
dark (Investigation 1). As if in an effort to reach the light it grows rapidly,
a particular size? In this Topic we
becoming tall and spindly. The leaves don't expand and the plant is yellowish
will look into this question, and also because the green chlorophyll can only be formed in the light. A plant in this
see what happens when growth state is described as etiolated (Figure 1).
goes wrong.
The role of hormones in plants
If you cut off the tip of a shoot, the part behind will stop growing. Flowever,
if you put the tip back, the shoot will start growing again (Figure 2). There
seems to be something in the tip which stimulates growth to take place
(Investigation 2).
What is it? Figure 3 shows an experiment that was done to find the answer.
The tip of a shoot was cut off and placed on a small block of agar jelly.
Deprived of its tip, the shoot stopped growing. After a few hours the agar
block was placed on the cut end of the shoot. The result was that the shoot
started growing again.
This experiment suggests that the tip of the shoot produces a chemical
substance which passes down the shoot, making it grow. Scientists have
managed to isolate this substance and have named it auxin. Two other
experiments supporting the auxin theory are illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 1 The seedling on the left was grown in the

light; the one on the right was grown in the dark.
Notice that the distance between the nodes, the
internode, is greater in the seedling grown in the
dark. It is etiolated.

Figure 2 Experiment to find out if the tip of a shoot is

needed for growth to occur.

Figure 3 Experiment to find out if a hormone

produced by the tip makes the shoot grow.
 How is growth controlled? 331

Auxin is produced at the tip of the shoot and then it slowly diffuses down
to the roots producing various effects on the plant as it flows along. It
therefore functions as a hormone or 'chemical messenger'.
Auxin doesn't always stimulate growth; sometimes it stops it. For example,
as it passes down the stem, it tends to prevent side branches growing out,
thus making the plant tall and straight. If you cut the apical bud off such a
plant, the flow of auxin stops and side branches will then develop
(Investigation 3). Gardeners sometimes cut the tops off plants to make them
more bushy (Figure 5): this is the secret behind making a thick hedge.
Since auxin was isolated, scientists have discovered other hormones which
play an important part in plant growth. Nowadays these substances, or very
similar ones, are manufactured in chemical factories; they are known as
growth substances and are much used in gardening and horticulture. For
example, a substance similar to auxin is used for helping cuttings to 'take'
(see page 382): the stem is dipped in the substance and this stimulates roots to
grow out from it (Investigation 4).

The role of hormones in animals

In humans a growth hormone is produced by the pituitary gland at the base
of the brain, and this speeds up growth. If too little of this hormone is
produced during childhood, the person remains short and becomes a dwarf.
On the other hand, if too much is produced, the person may grow into a giant
(Figure 6).
Another hormone which helps children to grow is thyroxine: this is
produced by the thyroid gland in the neck (see page 281).
Hormones control growth in other animals too. For example, scientists
have carried out experiments which show that in insects growth is brought
about by a hormone produced by certain cells in the brain. This is called
moulting hormone and it stimulates the insect to shed its cuticle and grow.
Another hormone, produced by a gland in the thorax, prevents moulting.
This is called juvenile hormone because it keeps the insect in a young state.
Whether the insect moults or not at a given time depends on the balance
between these two hormones. Figure 4 These two experiments support the theory
that the growth of a shoot is stimulated by a chemical
substance produced in the tip.

1 apical bud cut off 2 lateral buds give rise to

side branches

Figure 5 This picture shows what happens if you cut the apical bud off a plant. Figure 6 A pituitary giant and dwarf side by side.
332 Biology for life

When growth goes wrong

We have seen that growth takes place by cell division, and that in animals
benign tumour
The tumour cells stay in one place. there comes a time when it stops. Some kind of control process prevents the
cells dividing any more.
On occasions this control process may break down in some part of the body
and the cells start dividing again. This results in the formation of a
disorganised mass of cells which don't perform a useful function. Doctors call
this a growth or tumour.
There are two kinds of tumour: benign and malignant (Figure 7). A benign
tumour stays in one place and does not harm the surrounding tissues except
by pressing on them. In contrast a malignant tumour spreads: cells become
detached from it and are carried by the lymph or blood to other parts of the
body where they invade and destroy the tissues and grow into new tumours.
Tumours which spread like this are known as cancer (carcinoma).
Cancer is second only to heart disease as a cause of death, and people are
very frightened of it. However, there are many cases of people being cured of
it and better methods of diagnosis and treatment are constantly being
devised. The surest remedy is for a surgeon to remove the tumour before it
has a chance to spread, but cancer can also be treated by drugs and
radio-active rays (radiotherapy). Such treatment kills the tumour cells or at
least stops them dividing (Figure 8).
The success of the treatment depends partly on how soon the tumour is
discovered. A person who has a complaint that won't go away should go to
o o o o the doctor. A persistent cough, chronic indigestion, a lump under the skin,
bleeding from the anus - any of these might be a sign of cancer if they don't
clear up. A quick test can often be carried out to see if it's serious. For
example, a chest X-ray will show up cancer of the lung, and a doctor can find
out if a woman has cancer of the womb by taking a smear from the neck
(cervix) of the womb: this is called a cervical smear. The doctor then looks at it
malignant tumour under the microscope to see if there are any abnormal cells there. If cancer is
The tumour cells break away and developing, it may be necessary to remove the womb. This operation is called
spread to other parts of the body.
a hysterectomy.
What causes cancer? There are many possible causes, and a great deal of
research is going on into this question. You cannot catch it from other people,
Figure 7 two kinds of tumour which can occur in but it can be brought on by environmental hazards such as atomic radiation,
humans and other animals. asbestos dust and smoking.

Figure 8 A patient being positioned on the treatment

couch before receiving radiation therapy from a
computer-controlled machine.
 How is growth controlled? 333

-Investigation 1- Investigation 3- -Investigation 4-

To find the effect of growing a To find the effect of removing the To find the effect of a growth
seedling in darkness apical bud from a plant substance on cuttings
1 Obtain two potted bean seedlings 1 Obtain two potted plants which do 1 Cut off two healthy side-branches
whose shoots have just appeared. not have any side-branches. from a mature geranium or coleus
plant. Make the cut just below a
2 Cover one of the pots with a 2 Cut off the apical bud at the top of
node.
cardboard box. Leave the other one the stem from one of the plants, but
uncovered. not from the other one. 2 Obtain some rooting hormone from
a gardening shop and make up a
3 Water the plants occasionally so as
solution of it.
to keep the soil moist.
3 Pour the solution into a small beaker
4 Observe the seedlings after about
to a depth of not more than 2 cm.
two weeks.

In what ways do they differ in 4 Pour distilled water into a second

beaker to the same depth.
appearance?
5 Stand one of the cuttings in the
Compare their overall heights and the
beaker of hormone, and the other
lengths of their internodes.
cutting in the beaker of water. Leave
Explain why the two plants differ. them side by side in a warm, evenly
lit place and observe them at
intervals during the next week or so.

Do the cuttings produce roots from the

3 Observe the two plants at intervals
cut stem?
during the next few weeks.

-Investigation 2- How do they differ in appearance?

If so, which one produces them first?

What conclusions would you draw from

What effect has been produced by
To find the effect on growth of this experiment?
removing the apical bud?
cutting off the tip of a shoot
Is it sufficient to do this experiment on
1 Obtain a dish containing about only two cuttings?
twelve seedlings of e.g. wheat,
barley or maize. The shoots should
be at least 10 mm long.
-Assignments—-
2 With small scissors cut the tips off
six of the shoots: make your cut not 1 Give the name of one hormone b) What do you think the effect
more than 4 mm behind the tip. which controls growth in plants and would be in each case, and why?
one which controls growth in
3 Leave the dish in a uniformly lit 4 What is the difference between a
animals. In each case say where the
place for several days. benign and a malignant tumour?
hormone comes from.
4 After several days, observe the 5 Which of the experiments in Figure 4
2 Explain the reason behind each of
seedlings. best supports the hypothesis that
the following:
growth of a shoot is stimulated by a
How does the appearance of the a) A gardener cuts the tops off a
hormone produced at the tip7 Give
decapitated seedlings differ from row of shrubs so as to make a
reasons for your choice.
the others? thick hedge.
b) He dips his cuttings in 'rooting
What conclusions can you draw about powder’ before he sticks them in
how growth is controlled in the shoots? the soil.

3 The diagram on the right shows an

experiment which a scientist carried
out on the shoots of three growing
seedlings. In each case a thin piece
of metal was placed between the tip
and the rest of the shoot.
a) What do you think the scientist
was trying to prove?
|—Growth responses
Growth responses
in plants Plants don't respond to stimuli by moving from one place to another. Instead
they normally respond by growing in a particular direction. Such growth
The way plants responses are called tropisms. They are much slower and longer-lasting than
grow explains how they the responses given by animals.
Plants respond to three main kinds of stimuli: light, gravity and touch.
respond to stimuli.
Let's look at each in turn.

Light
Look at Figure 1. This shows the effect of lighting some seedlings from one
side. The seedlings have bent over towards the light. Most plants respond to
light in this way, and it ensures that the leaves get plenty of light for
photosynthesis. A growth response to light is called phototropism. A
structure such as a shoot which grows towards light is said to be positively
phototropic.
How is this response brought about? A simple experiment helps us to see
how (Investigation 1). A shoot has its tip covered with a little foil cap, and is
then lit from one side. Instead of bending towards the light, it grows straight
up (Figure 2).
It seems that normally the tip receives the light stimulus, but the bending
itself occurs behind the tip. This suggests that some kind of message is sent
from the tip to the part of the shoot a little further back.
On page 330 some experiments are described which show that a shoot is
Figure 1 These cress seedlings were lit for several
days from the right-hand side. made to grow by a hormone called auxin produced in the tip: the auxin
passes down the shoot causing the cells behind the tip to expand. We can
explain the shoot's response to light by suggesting that when the shoot is lit
from one side more auxin gathers on the dark side than on the light side, so
the dark side grows faster.,
An experiment can be done to test this idea (Figure 3). The tip of a shoot is
cut off and placed on a block of agar jelly which is divided by a thin partition
into two halves. The tip is then lit from the right. After a while, the light is
turned off and the agar block is placed on the top of the cut shoot. The result
is that the shoot bends over to the right.
How can we explain this result? It seems that more auxin from the tip gets
into the left-hand side of the agar block than into the right-hand side. So
when it is placed on the cut shoot it causes more growth on the left-hand
side.
These and other experiments all point to the same conclusion: lighting a
shoot from one side causes more auxin to be present on the dark side than on the light
side and this makes the shoot bend towards the light (Figure 4).

Figure 2 An experiment to find out if covering the tip

of a shoot affects its response to light.

Figure 3 An experiment to find out if a hormone is

responsible for making a shoot bend towards light.
 Growth responses in plants 335

What about roots - how do they respond to light? Experiments indicate

that the roots of most plants don't respond to light at all. However, some
roots grow away from light, that is they are negatively phototropic.

Gravity
Look at Figure 5. This shows what happens if you place a newly germinated
broad bean seedling in a horizontal position in the dark; it is put in the dark
so as to avoid any effects caused by light. The result is that the shoot bends
upwards and the root downwards. This is a growth response to gravity, and
it is called geotropism. If a structure grows towards gravity, we say it is
positively geotropic; if it grows away from gravity, we say it is negatively
geotropic. Whatever way up a seed is, the shoot always grows upwards and
the root downwards (Investigation 2). This means that if you plant some
seeds, you need not worry which way up they are: nature will always make
sure that the shoots and roots grow in the right direction.

The seedling is kept in the dark throughout the experiment.

Figure 4 The direction of light affects the distribution

of auxin inside the shoot.

t Marks are made at 1 mm intervals

on shoot and root of vertical seedling.

1 The seedling is 2 The seedling is now placed 3 The shoot bends upwards
in its normal sideways (horizontal). and the root downwards,
position (vertical).

Figure 5 An experiment to show how a bean seedling responds to gravity.

Now look at Figure 6. Marks are made at equal intervals along the straight
shoot and root of a seedling which is growing vertically. The seedling is then
placed in a horizontal position. As the shoot bends upwards, the marks on 2 The seedling is then turned
the lower side gradually get further apart. This suggests that growth occurs into the horizontal position.

more quickly on the lower side than on the upper side. However, in the root
the marks on the upper side get further apart, which suggests that in this case
Figure 6 An experiment to show that the shoot and
growth occurs more quickly on the upper side than on the lower side. In both root respond to gravity by growing more quickly on
instances growth takes place behind the tip where the cells are actively one side than the other. The way the lines get
lengthening. pushed apart suggests that growth takes place in
How is this response brought about? One possible explanation is that the the positions marked by the arrows.

auxin which is produced at the tip of the shoot moves to the lower side
causing it to grow faster on that side; however, in the root it produces the
opposite effect: it causes it to grow more slowly on the lower side.
Scientists believe that this is the correct explanation for the shoot.
However, the root's response is thought to involve another hormone,
produced by the root cap, which slows down growth on the lower side
(Figure 7).
Look again at Figure 5. Imagine you were to turn the seedling round so that
the shoot points downwards and the root upwards. You would expect the
shoot and root to change their direction of growth, the shoot bending
upwards and the root downwards. This is precisely what happens.
Experiments of this sort can be done with an instrument called a klinostat
(Investigation 3). The results suggest that, however much you change the Figure 7 The mechanism by which the shoot and
seedling's position, the shoot and root always grow in the right direction. root are thought to respond to gravity.
336 Biology for life

Touch
Many people grow sweet peas in their gardens. This plant has a floppy stem,
so it can't support itself. However, it can grow upwards, clinging to poles and
fences by means of tendrils. The tendrils are modified leaves and when they
touch an object they wind themselves round it. The side of the tendril which
is touching the object grows more slowly than the other side, so it is made to
bend round it.
There are many other climbing plants besides sweet peas. Some of them,
such as grape vines, have tendrils; in others, such as runner beans and
honeysuckle, the stem winds itself round firm objects such as poles,
drainpipes or the stems of other plants (Figure 8).
Some specialised plants respond remarkably quickly to touch. For example,
the leaves of the sensitive mimosa plant fold inwards when you touch them
with your finger.
Quick responses are also given by carnivorous plants, which feed on small
animals such as insects and spiders. An example is Venus fly-trap, a tropical
plant which is often a curiosity in greenhouses. This has a leaf which is
divided into two halves by a hinge down the middle. The two 'half-leaves' are
set at an angle to each other like an open book (Figure 9). If an insect such as a
fly lands on the surface of the leaf, it sets off a response in which the two
sides of the leaf suddenly close up together trapping its prey. Rigid spines
round the edge of the leaf prevent the insect getting out. Thus imprisoned,
the insect's body is broken down by digestive juices which are secreted by
special cells in the leaf. It takes up to a week for the insect to be digested and
absorbed, after which the leaf re-opens.
Figure 8 The stem of this honeysuckle is twisting This response is rather like an animal reflex. However, the plant has no
round a supporting branch.
nerves or muscles, so the mechanism is quite different. No one knows for
certain how it is brought about.

Other responses
Plants respond to water, chemicals and temperature. Thus roots tend to grow
towards soil which is well watered, contains the right chemicals, and is
reasonably warm; and they grow away from poor soil which does not have
these qualities.
In temperate regions seeds will not usually germinate unless they are
chilled beforehand, which ensures that they do not germinate until after the
winter; and for flowering to occur, plants need to be given a certain amount
of light beforehand.

What causes flowering?

Flowering is a good example of plants responding to stimuli. Many plants
will only flower after they have been given a certain amount of light each day.
The amount needed varies from one kind of plant to another. Some need long
days and short nights, others need long nights and short days. In temperate
regions long-day plants tend to flower in the summer, whereas short-day
plants flower in the spring or autumn. It is possible to play a trick on a plant
and get it to flower early (or late) by altering the amount of light it receives.
For example, if you give a long-day plant extra light during the winter it will
flower early. Horticulturalists sometimes do this in order to have a good
supply of plants for selling in the winter. Responding to the amount of light
received per day is known as photoperiodism; scientists have discovered that
the stimulus is perceived by the leaves and that it causes the release of a
hormone which makes the flower buds open.
Temperature is also important in controlling flowering in temperate
regions. In order to flower later on, seeds and bulbs often need to be
subjected to a brief period of cold first. This ensures that when a bulb has
been formed it won't send up another flowering shoot until next year.
Figure 9 The Venus flytrap is an unusual plant in that However, you can make a bulb flower early by putting it in a refrigerator for a
it responds quickly to the stimulus of touch. few weeks: in effect you are kidding the bulb that it has been through winter!
 Growth responses in plants 337

Investigation 1- -Assignments-
To find which part of a shoot responds to light
1 Describe an experiment which you
would do to find out if a bean root
responds to light coming from one
side.

iiiiii 2 Mr Lewis spends the morning in the

garden. He plants some seeds and
puts many of them in the soil upside
1 Obtain a dish containing about 4 Light the dish from one side, as down.
twelve seedlings of e.g. maize or shown in the illustration, and leave it Does this matter? Explain your
oats. The shoot should be at least for several days. answer.
10 mm long.
How does the appearance of the 3 A small quantity of auxin is painted
2 Make six little’caps’out of covered seedlings differ from the onto one side of the shoot and the
aluminium foil. others? root of a seedling. How do you
3 Put a cap on six of the shoots so that What conclusions can you draw about imagine the seedling will appear
it covers the tip, as shown in the how shoots respond to light? after 48 hours? Illustrate your
illustration. answer with drawings.

4 A young bean seedling is placed in

a klinostat in the position shown in
rInvestigation 2- the diagram below. The seedling is
then rotated slowly for two days.
To find if a seedling responds to gravity Draw what you suppose would be
the shape of the seedling at the end

o o O 0
of the two-day period.

1 Obtain six bean seedlings whose 4 Cover the tank with an upturned
roots are just visible. cardboard box so as to keep the
seedlings dark.
2 With pins attach them to a sheet of
cork in various positions as shown in 5 After about a week observe the
the illustration. seedlings and sketch their
5 Describe one experiment which in
appearance.
3 Put the cork in a small aquarium your opinion provides the strongest
tank with a little water at the bottom, What conclusions do you draw evidence that a hormone is involved
and put a sheet of glass on top. regarding the way the shoot and root in making a shoot bend towards
respond to gravity? light.

CInvestigation 3-
Experiments with a klinostat

A klinostat is a small cylindrical

chamber which can slowly rotate. The
chamber contains a piece of cork to
which young seedlings can be pinned.

1 Obtain two young bean seedlings

whose roots are about 1 cm long.
Put some moist cotton wool in the 6 After several days, observe the two
2 Pin one of the seedlings to the cork klinostat chamber and the beaker seedlings.
in the klinostat as shown in the so as to keep the seedlings moist.
How do they differ in appearance?
left-hand illustration.
Cover the klinostat and beaker with Explain your observations.
3 Pin the other one to a piece of cork an upturned cardboard box, and
Repeat the experiment with beans
in a beaker as shown in the right- leave the klinostat running for
pinned through in different positions.
hand illustration. This is your control. several days.
 — The human —
The reproductive system of the male
reproductive The reproductive system of the human male is shown in Figure 1. Many of

system the structures you can see for yourself by dissecting a mammal such as a rat
(Investigation 1).
The testes are suspended in the scrotal sac (scrotum) just behind the penis.
In this topic we will Their job is to manufacture sperms. Because they are positioned outside the
main body cavity, they are slightly cooler than the rest of the body. This is
see how sperms and eggs
important because the testes make sperms more rapidly in cool conditions.
are brought together in the human. During development of a baby boy, the testes start off in the abdominal
This will involve studying cavity, but later they move down into the scrotal sac. Normally this has
the reproductive system. happened by the time the baby is born, but occasionally one or other testis
does not come down until after birth.
Each testis is made up of a large number of narrow sperm tubules where
the sperms are made. If they were placed end to end, these tubules would be
over 500 metres long, that's long enough to go right round a football pitch.
This gives the testes a high production rate.
As the sperms are produced, they move into a coiled tube called the
epididymis where they are stored. The epididymis lies alongside the testis in
the scrotal sac and it leads to the sperm duct. This is connected with the
urethra which runs down the centre of the penis. The head of the penis,
known as the glans, is highly sensitive and is protected by the foreskin. The
foreskin is sometimes removed in the operation known as circumcision: this
may be done for religious reasons (for example all Jews normally have it
done), or because the foreskin is too tight. The operation is carried out at an
early age, and there is no evidence that it is in any way harmful.
Various glands open into the sperm ducts and urethra. These include the
Figure 1 The reproductive system of the human seminal vesicles and the prostate gland which is wrapped round the top of
male.

front view side view

tube from bladder

seminal vesicle
pubis bone

prostate gland

sperm duct

urethra
rectum

epididymis

head of penis (glans)

foreskin
testis anus
sperm duct
scrotal sac (scrotum)
epididymis

sperm tubules

the penis circumcised (foreskin removed)

 The human reproductive system 339

the urethra like a scarf. The glands produce a fluid which keeps the sperms
alive and helps them to swim vigorously. This fluid, together with the sperms
themselves, make up semen. If ejaculation does not occur, the sperms simply
die and disintegrate.
If you look at Figure 1 you will see that the bladder and sperm ducts both
open into the urethra. However, urine and semen never pass down the
urethra at the same time. This is because it's impossible to urinate and
ejaculate at the same time.

The reproductive system of the female

The female's reproductive system is shown in Figure 2, and as with the male
the various structures can be seen by dissecting a mammal such as the rat
(Investigation 2). There are two ovaries, one on either side of the abdomen.
Once every 28 days or so one or other of the ovaries produces an egg which is
shed into the oviduct. The oviduct is also known as the Fallopian tube. The
egg moves slowly down the oviduct towards the uterus. If it isn't fertilised
within a day or so it will die.
The uterus, or womb, is where the baby'develops. Its lower end is called
the neck or cervix. The cervix opens into the vagina. When an egg is shed
from the ovary, watery mucus is produced by the cervix: this helps the
sperms to swim through to the uterus.
In Figure 2 you will see that the vagina opens to the outside quite
separately from the tube that carries urine from the bladder. Close to the
urinary opening is a small protuberance called the clitoris. This is the
female's equivalent of the penis and it can become erect during sexual
excitement. Figure 2 The reproductive system of the human
female.

front view side view

oviduct (Fallopian tube)

340 Biology for life

Figure 3 In intercourse sperms pass from the male

to the female as indicated by the arrows in this Intercourse
diagram.
For sperms to get to the egg, intercourse (copulation) must take place.
First the penis of the male becomes stiff and hard. This is called an erection,
and it's brought about by the blood pressure increasing in the penis. The
male then puts his erect penis into the vagina. Drops of fluid, secreted by the
male's glands, emerge from the tip of the penis and serve as a lubricant, as
does mucus lining the vagina.
The male then moves his penis rhythmically inside the vagina. The head of
the penis is very sensitive, and repeated stimulation of it results in ejacula¬
tion: this is a reflex in which the semen is expelled from the urethra with
considerable force. It's brought about by a series of contractions which sweep
down the sperm ducts and along the urethra.
Ejaculation is accompanied by a pleasurable feeling called an orgasm. The
female may experience an orgasm too, though it usually takes longer for her
to reach this point. It's brought about by stimulation of the clitoris.
Normally the male produces about 4 cm3 of semen: that's about a
teaspoonful. This may not seem much but it can contain as many as 500
Figure 4 After the egg has been fertilised it million sperms. Once deposited in the vagina, the sperms swim through the
develops into a little ball of cells which becomes
mucus lining the uterus and up the oviducts (Figure 3).
implanted in the lining of the uterus.
 The human reproductive system 341

If there's an egg in the oviduct, one of the sperms may bump into it and
fertilise it. Although it's only a short distance from the vagina to the top of the
oviduct, the sperms are very small and the journey is not an easy one. Many
never reach the egg. The reason why so many are produced is to raise the
chance of one of them getting through.
What happens if there is no egg in the oviduct? The sperms can stay alive in
the oviduct for as long as eight days. However, they are able to fertilise an
egg for only two or three days. If an egg is shed from the ovary within this
time, it may get fertilised.
What happens if an egg is produced and there are no sperms to fertilise it?
The egg is capable of being fertilised for at least a day after ovulation, so if
intercourse occurs within this time fertilisation may occur.

What happens to the fertilised egg ?

After fertilisation, the egg divides up into a little ball of cells which moves
down the oviduct to the uterus (Figure 4). It then sinks into the soft lining of
the uterus, a process called implantation. The ball of cells is called the embryo.
We shall see what happens to it presently.

Investigation 1- rInvestigation 2- ^Assignments-

Looking at the male reproductive Looking at the female reproductive 1 Why is it important that a very large
system system number of sperms should be
present in the semen?
1 Your teacher will give you a male rat 1 Your teacher will give you a female
which has been dissected so as to rat which has been dissected so as 2 Why is it an advantage for the testes
show the reproductive system. to show the reproductive system. to be situated in the scrotal sac
outside the main body cavity? Can
2 Find the penis and scrotal sacs. 2 Find the ovaries. These are small
you think of any disadvantages?
round organs on either side of the
3 Cut into one of the scrotal sacs
abdominal cavity. 3 The diagram below shows a
and locate the testis.
transverse section through a penis.
3 Locate the oviduct and uterus.
What is the coiled tube lying
alongside the testis? The female rat differs from the
human in having a Y-shaped uterus
Where does it lead?
as shown in the illustration below.
Which other structures shown in
Figure 1 can you see in your
dissected rat?

The male rat differs from the human

in having relatively larger seminal
vesicles. They look rather like a) What is the name of the structure
cauliflowers, one on each side labelled A?
of the bladder. b) Give two functions of this
structure.
4 Feel the hard bone covering the top
c) At what particular times does it
end of the urethra. perform each of these functions?
What other structures shown in
What is this bone? Figure 2 can you see in your rat? d) What is the function of the
spongy tissue?
What do you think it is for? 4 Feel the hard bone just posterior to
e) Why is this function important?
the uterus.
4 Which structures in the female are
What is this bone?
eguivalent to these structures in the
What do you think it is for? male:

5 Find the opening of the vagina to the (a) penis, (b) testes, (c) sperm
exterior. ducts, (d) urethra?

There is another small opening close In each case say in what respect the
to the vaginal opening: what is it? structures are equivalent.
 Eggs, sperms
The structure of eggs and sperms
and sexual A human sperm is shown in Figure 1. It is extremely small and is shaped like
a tadpole with a head and tail (Investigation 1). The tail flaps from side to
development side, enabling it to swim. The sperm consists of only one cell, and the nucleus
is in its head.
A human egg is shown in Figure 2. It, too, is a single cell but it is much
In this Topic
larger than the sperm. It is shaped like a round ball and is surrounded by a
we will look at thin membrane and a layer of jelly. The nucleus is situated towards the
eggs and sperms and see centre.
when and how they The nuclei of the sperm and the egg contain chromosomes, thread-like
are formed. bodies which carry genes. The genes are responsible for passing on the
parents' characteristics to the offspring.

How are eggs and sperms made?

Sperms are made in the testes of the male (Figure 3). Eggs are made in the
ovaries of the female (Figure 4). If you look at thin sections of the ovary and
testis under the microscope you can see the eggs and sperms developing
(Investigations 2 and 3). Collectively eggs and sperms are known as gametes,
and the ovaries and testes are called gonads.

What happens to eggs and sperms?

If left on their own, eggs and sperms simply die. However, if a sperm gets
close to an egg, it bumps into it repeatedly and sooner or later it penetrates it.
The nuclei of the sperm and egg then join together. The process by which a
sperm fuses with an egg is called fertilisation (Figure 5). The fertilised egg is
called a zygote.

Sexual development
A new-born baby has a complete set of sex organs. However, the testes of a
baby boy are not yet able to make sperms, and the ovaries of a baby girl can't
produce eggs although thousands of immature eggs are already present, ready
and waiting.
Between the ages of about twelve and fourteen, the sex organs suddenly
become active: the testes start making sperms, and the ovaries start
producing eggs. This change constitutes puberty, and only when a person
reaches this stage is he or she capable of producing children. A young person
who has reached puberty is called an adolescent. The time when puberty
occurs varies from person to person: it usually occurs slightly earlier in girls
than in boys, and interestingly it occurs earlier now than it did about 50 years
ago. Why do you think this is?

Figure 1 A human sperm. The head is about three

micrometres wide and the whole sperm, including
the tail, is about 60 micrometres long.

Figure 2 A human egg with a sperm alongside to

show their relative sizes. The egg has a diameter of
about a tenth of a millimetre: that is, about 40 times
wider than the head of the sperm. Its nucleus is
much larger than the sperm's nucleus and so the
chromosomes are more spread out. In fact, the
number of chromosomes is the same in each.
 Eggs, sperms and sexual development 343

Figure 3 A section of a testis as it appears under the

microscope, highly magnified. The sperms are
hanging into one of the many tubules of which the
testis is composed.

sperm tails

cavity of tubule

Figure 4 A section of an ovary as it appears under

the microscope. The round objects are immature
eggs.

immature egg

protective cells around egg

Puberty is brought on by sex hormones which start being produced by the

ovaries and testes themselves. The male sex hormones are called androgens
(the main one is called testosterone), and the female ones are called
oestrogens. These in turn are activated by gonad-stimulating hormones from
the pituitary gland at the base of the brain.
The sex hormones bring about other changes as well. For example, in boys
the voice breaks and hair starts growing on the legs, chest and face. A boy
who has been through puberty soon finds himself having to shave. Fiowever,
if a male is castrated, i.e. has his testes removed, before he reaches puberty,
these changes do not take place. In medieval times choirboys were sometimes
castrated to prevent their voices breaking. Such a person is called a eunuch. Figure 5 These diagrams show how fertilisation
and in the choir they were known as castrati. occurs in the human.
344 Biology for life

In the female, the breasts start developing, and fat is laid down in the
thighs, giving the curves characteristic of the female body.
The various changes which have just been described constitute the
person's secondary sexual characteristics. At this stage boys and girls both
become more interested in the opposite sex.
Puberty comes on quite suddenly. Boys who don't masturbate may have a
'wet dream': semen gradually builds up in the body and is discharged
spontaneously during sleep. Boys who do masturbate may not have a 'wet
dream'; they simply find that semen is produced when they reach a climax.
The female starts having 'periods' which are characterised by bleeding
from the vagina. This bleeding is caused by the lining of the womb (uterus)
breaking down, and is known as menstruation. Menstrual periods tend to
occur irregularly at first, but eventually they take place at fairly regular
intervals of about 28 days. Generally the bleeding goes on for about five days.
During this time the woman wears an absorptive 'sanitary pad' or inserts a
cotton wool 'tampon' into the vagina (Figure 6). Some women don't feel any
ill effects at these times, but others feel tense and under the weather for
several days beforehand and can experience painful cramps.
The changes that occur at puberty are perfectly normal, but people who are
worried about them should ask for help from their parents or a counsellor at
school. The changes in the hormones sometimes cause depression and
Figure 6 Side view of the female reproductive
emotional swings during adolescence, but they are a normal part of human
system, showing where the tampon would be
inserted. It can be taken out by means of the thread. development.

Growing old and sexual decline

A female will go on producing an egg every month until she reaches the age
of 45 to 50. Her ovaries then stop producing eggs, her menstrual periods
cease and she is no longer able to become pregnant. These changes occur
because she stops producing sex hormones in such large amounts, and she
may feel tired and run-down for some months. It is called the menopause or
'change of life'.
Men do not go through a change of this kind. Normally a man goes on
producing some sperms for the whole of his life. However, the amount of sex
hormones which he produces gradually falls, and he may experience a
gradual decline in his desire for sexual activity.
The various changes which have been discussed in this Topic are
summarised in Table 1.

Table 1 Summary of sexual development of the

human male and female.

Male (cf) Female (9)

AT BIRTH Testes have descended into scrotal sac but they do Ovaries containing immature eggs are present in
not make sperms yet. abdomen but they do not produce eggs yet.

12-14 years
PUBERTY PITUITARY GLAND PITUITARY GLAND
1 1
gonad-stimulating hormones gonad-stimulating hormones
1 1
TESTES OVARIES
1 1
male sex hormones female sex hormones
(androgens) (oestrogens)
1 1
Testes start producing sperms. Ovaries start producing eggs.
Secondary sexual characteristics develop, e.g. growth Secondary sexual characters develop, e.g. growth of
of body hair and breaking of voice. breasts and laying down of fat in thighs.

45-50 MENOPAUSE
('change of life')
Ovaries stop producing eggs
 Eggs, sperms and sexual development 345

r Investigation 1- Investigation 2- Investigation 3-

Looking at sperms Looking inside the testis Looking inside the ovary
Your teacher will do the first three steps 1 Obtain a prepared slide of a mature 1 Obtain a prepared slide of a mature
in this investigation. testis of a mammal (a thin section ovary of a mammal (a thin section
which has been cut, stained and which has been cut, stained and
1 Obtain a male rat which has just
mounted on a slide). mounted on a slide).
been killed for dissection.

2 Cut open the scrotal sac. 2 Examine it under the low power of 2 Examine it under the low power of
the microscope. the microscope.

3 Locate sperms with their long tails. 3 Locate the eggs. You will find them
towards the edge of the ovary.
Which other structures shown in
Figure 3 can you see? Which other structures shown in
Figure 4 can you see?

penis

/
scrotal sac
r-Assignments
1 Write down five ways in which a comes below this line, only a half
human sperm differs from an egg. fare is charged. The bus company
Far more sperms are produced than has had to raise the level of this line
3 Cut into the testis and draw up a little
eggs: why do you think this is? twice during the last 30 years. Why
of the milky fluid into a pipette.
do you think they have had to do
2 Which of the following are
4 Put two drops of the fluid on a slide, this?
associated with the ovary, which
and add one drop of salt solution
with the testis, and which with both 5 The Smith family consists of father,
(0.9 per cent).
the ovary and testis: oestrogen, sex aged 50, mother 45, John 17 and
5 Put on a coverslip. hormones, wet dream, androgen, Wendy 16. During the past three
pituitary gland? years the number of family rows has
6 Observe under the microscope: low
increased by 30 per cent. Suggest
power first, then high power. 3 Briefly explain each of the following: reasons.
Can you see any sperms?
a) puberty 6 Professor J.M. Tanner has
Which structures shown in Figure 1 b) sex hormone, estimated the relative rates of
can you see? c) menstruation, growth of the brain, the body in
d) secondary sexual characteristics, general, and the reproductive
Are the sperms moving?
e) menopause. organs in humans. His findings are
If not, suggest reasons for this. shown in the graph below. Explain
4 In a certain town in Canada there is a
what the graph shows, and then
horizontal line by the door of buses.
Your teacher will give you some bull suggest reasons why the three
semen obtained from an artificial If the top of the passenger’s head curves are different.
insemination centre. 100

7 Put a drop of the semen on a slide

and put on a coverslip.
s
O
8 Observe it under the microscope: i—
03

03
low power first, then high power. O
O
How do the bull sperms differ from CD
03
those of the rat? 05

CD
O
Why are the scrotal sacs situated CD
Q_
outside the body cavity? C/3
03
CD
N
C/>
 -The menstrual-
What happens during the cycle?
cycle The cycle starts with menstruation, for which reason it is known as the
menstrual cycle. During menstruation the lining of the uterus breaks down
Approximately once a and a small amount of blood passes out through the vagina. This is what's
month from puberty to the meant by 'having a period'.
Thousands of immature eggs are present in the ovaries. Immediately after
menopause the human female
menstruation one of these eggs starts developing. As it develops, it becomes
experiences a menstrual period. This enclosed in a protective structure called a Graafian follicle which gradually
is part of a cycle of events gets larger and becomes hollow (Figure 1). About two weeks after the
which occurs inside beginning of menstruation, the follicle moves to the edge of the ovary and the
her body. mature egg pops out of it into the oviduct. This process is called ovulation.
While the follicle has been developing in the ovary, the lining of the uterus
has gradually been healing and building itself up again, so that when
ovulation occurs it is ready to receive a fertilised egg, should one become
available.
When the egg is shed from the ovary, the follicle stays behind and develops
into a solid object called the yellow body (corpus luteum). We shall see what
its job is presently. Meanwhile the lining of the uterus continues to develop:
it thickens and numerous blood vessels grow into it. About two weeks after
ovulation, the yellow body withers away and at the same time the lining of
the uterus breaks down and menstruation occurs. The whole cycle then
begins all over again.
Figure 2 shows how the changes which occur in the ovary and the uterus fit
in with each other.

How is the menstrual cycle controlled?

The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones. The pituitary gland at the
base of the brain produces a hormone which causes the follicle to develop in
the ovary. The ovary in turn produces another hormone (oestrogen) which
causes the lining of the uterus to repair itself after menstruation.
At the time of ovulation the pituitary gland starts producing a second
hormone which causes the follicle to turn into the yellow body in the ovary.
The yellow body in turn produces another hormone called progesterone
which causes the lining of the uterus to become thicker and full of blood
vessels.
We can sum up by saying that oestrogen and progesterone repair the
uterus after menstruation and prepare it for receiving an embryo. If the egg
does not get fertilised, the two hormones stop being produced: as a result the
lining of the uterus breaks down and menstruation occurs.

What happens to the menstrual cycle during pregnancy?

If a woman conceives and becomes pregnant, her menstrual periods stop
until after the baby has been born. In fact the sign that the woman is pregnant
is that she will miss her usual 'period'.
What causes menstruation to stop like this? The presence of an embryo in
the uterus causes the yellow body to stay in the ovary and go on producing
progesterone. As a result, the lining of the uterus remains intact, and con¬
tinues to thicken and build itself up. So progesterone prevents menstruation.
At the same time it stops any further eggs being produced by the ovaries.

Breeding seasons
In the human female the sexual cycle just described goes on all the time and
the female can become pregnant at any time of the year. This is true of many
other animals too, including rats, mice and rabbits. Flowever, some animals
have a special breeding season when they are said to be on heat. Only at
Figure 1 A Graafian follicle in the ovary, as seen in these times do their ovaries produce eggs. For example, in temperate regions
section under the microscope. The egg is about to dogs come on heat in the early spring, cats in the spring and autumn, and
be released. hamsters any time between March and October.
 The menstrual cycle 347

-Assignments-
1 How does the menstrual cycle get its
name?

2 Explain what happens to the lining of the

uterus when:
a) a Graafian follicle develops in the
ovary,
b) the yellow body (corpus luteum)
degenerates,
c) the Graafian follicle changes into a
yellow body,
follicle-stimulating luteinising hormone
d) ovary-stimulating hormones are being
produced by the pituitary gland,
e) ovulation occurs.

3 This question is about the hormones

which control the menstrual cycle.
a) Name the hormones which prepare
the uterus for pregnancy.
b) Where is each hormone produced?
c) How do the hormones get to the
uterus from the organ which
produces them?
d) At what stage in the menstrual cycle
is each hormone most active?
e) At what stage in the cycle are both
hormones least active?

4 Why is it important that a female’s

menstrual periods should stop when she
is pregnant? What causes them to stop?

5 The graph shows the relative amounts

of the hormones oestrogen and
progesterone in the bloodstream of a
human female during the first fourteen
days of the menstrual cycle.
a) Explain the graph as fully as you
can.
b) What do you think happens to the
amount of progesterone after the
fourteenth day, and why?

menstruation

days 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
i-1-1
0 14 28 days

Figure 2 This diagram summarises the main things that occur during the menstrual
cycle of the female.
 and birth
If an egg gets fertilised
it divides into a ball of cells
which sinks into the lining of the
uterus. The woman is then
pregnant.

Figure 1 Photograph of a five-week old human foetus in the mother’s uterus.

What happens in the uterus?

The ball of cells resulting from fertilisation is an embryo. In the next few
weeks the cells multiply and differentiate, and gradually the embryo grows
into a foetus (Figure 1). By the third month, the foetus looks like a miniature
human being (Figure 2).

The private pond of the foetus

Figure 2 Photograph of a ten-week old foetus. All
As the embryo develops it becomes surrounded by a thin membrane called
the organs have been formed by this stage.
the amnion. You can see it in Figure 1. This membrane encloses a cavity
called the amniotic cavity and it's filled with a watery amniotic fluid.
As development goes on, the amniotic cavity expands like a balloon until
eventually it fills the entire uterus. The foetus floats in the middle of it, in a
kind of 'private pond'. The amniotic fluid cushions the foetus, protecting it
from being bumped and damaged as the mother moves (Figure 3).

How is the foetus kept alive?

Attached to the belly of the foetus is a tough strand called the umbilical cord.
This is its lifeline, bringing it all the things it needs such as oxygen and food
placenta

lt\ substances, and taking away carbon dioxide and excretory waste.
The umbilical cord runs to a structure called the placenta, which is attached
umbilical. to the lining of the uterus (Figure 4). The placenta is shaped like a plate, and it
cord
mm ■ has numerous finger-like villi which stick into blood spaces in the wall of the
Ml : uterus. The mother's blood circulates through these spaces, and the villi
«4 m contain blood capillaries which are connected to the foetus by an artery and
amnion vein in the umbilical cord (Figure 5). The barrier separating the foetus's blood
from the mother's blood is very thin. As the foetus's blood flows through the
wall of uterus
amniotic placenta it picks up oxygen and dissolved food substances from the mother's
cavity
blood. At the same time it sheds carbon dioxide and excretory waste (urea)
into the mother's blood.
Figure 3 Diagram of a 14-week old human foetus in It's not just food and oxygen that pass from the mother to the foetus.
the uterus. Antibodies do so too. These help to protect the newborn baby from diseases
 Pregnancy and birth 349

produces the hormones oestrogen and progesterone which stop menstrua¬

tion and prevent any further eggs being produced by the ovaries. These
hormones are also produced by the ovaries themselves (see page 346).

Figure 5 Schematic diagram showing the

Growth of the foetus relationship between the blood of the foetus and
the mother. Although the two bloodstreams come
By the end of the third month the foetus is fully formed right down to the very close to each other, they never mix. If the two
fingers and toes. It now grows until it fills the uterus. Meanwhile the uterus systems were joined, the mother’s blood pressure
might burst the foetus’s blood vessels. Also, if the
expands greatly in order to accommodate the foetus, and its wall becomes
bloods belonged to different blood groups
thicker and more muscular in readiness for birth. As the baby grows it gets agglutination would occur.
more active: it moves its arms and legs and by the end of the fourth month
the mother may feel it moving inside her.

Care during pregnancy

During pregnancy it's important that the woman should eat the right kind of
food and not do anything which might injure her baby. From time to time she
visits an antenatal clinic where she is examined by a doctor to make sure that
everything is progressing normally, and she is given advice on how to
prepare for the birth of her baby.
If the woman feels unwell during her pregnancy, the doctor may give
her some medicine to help. However, doctors are cautious about prescribing
new drugs, however thoroughly they have been tested beforehand. In the
1960s a number of pregnant women in Britain were given a drug called
thalidomide to help them get to sleep: as a result some of them gave birth to
babies with severe deformities, such as no arms or legs.
This was a tragedy which no one wants to see repeated. Even smoking and
alcohol can affect the health of the foetus. The point is that the placenta is
very good at supplying the foetus with the things it needs, but by the same
token it may supply it with things it does not need.
Certain germs may also get across the placenta and harm the baby. Such is
the case with the virus that causes German measles, and this is why girls who
have not had this disease are always immunised against it. Germs that cause
sexually transmitted diseases can also cross the placenta.
350 Biology for life

The circulation of the foetus

Look at the general plan of the foetus's circulation in Figure 6. Notice that the
blood which enters the right atrium has been oxygenated by the placenta;
very little of it goes to the lungs, which are not working at this stage. Most of
the blood goes straight to the body. It bypasses the lungs by going through a
hole in the partition between the two atria, or through a vessel called the
'ductus' which links the pulmonary artery and aorta.
Immediately after birth the placenta stops functioning and the lungs take
over the job of oxygenating the blood. The blood entering the right atrium
now becomes deoxygenated. The hole between the atria closes, as does the
'ductus', and blood flows to the lungs in the usual way.
Occasionally the hole between the atria fails to close at birth. As a result the
baby's tissues suffer from lack of oxygen and the skin goes blue, giving a
'blue baby'. An emergency operation may have to be done - the famous 'hole
in the heart' operation. The heart is cut open and the hole sewn up. Unless
the oxygen lack is very severe, the doctors prefer to delay this kind of
operation until the baby is a little older and can stand up to it.
Sometimes the 'ductus' fails to close at birth. It is easier to put this right,
because the surgeon does not need to cut into the heart. All he has to do is to
open the chest wall and tie off the ductus with a piece of thread.
Figure 6 shows the hole in the heart, but not the 'ductus'. Where should
the 'ductus' be in the diagram?

The gestation period

The time between conception and birth is called the gestation period. It lasts
approximately nine months in the human, but is different in most other
mammals (Table 1). At the end of the gestation period the baby is ready to be
born.
deoxygenated blood H oxygenated blood

mixed blood Birth

Figure 6 The general plan of the foetus's

At the end of the gestation period the uterus begins to undergo occasional
circulation. How does this compare with the adult contractions which become steadily more frequent and powerful. This is
circulation? called labour, and it's the first sign that the baby is about to be born. At about
this time the amnion bursts and the amniotic fluid escapes through the
vagina: this is called the 'breaking of the waters'. Soon afterwards the uterus
starts contracting powerfully and the cervix opens up (dilates). As a result the
foetus is pushed through the vagina. Usually the baby comes out head first
(Figure 7).
Once the baby has come out, it starts to breathe. If it doesn't start breathing
of its own accord, the doctor or nurse may give it a tap on the backside
causing it to take a quick breath in. The umbilical cord, no longer needed, is
tied and cut: you can see it in Figure 8 - the scar becomes the person's navel
or 'belly button'. Meanwhile the placenta comes away from the wall of the
uterus and passes out through the vagina. This is called the afterbirth. The
Animal Gestation period
average mass of a newborn baby is just over 3 kg. The birth, or delivery as it's
called by doctors and nurses, is now complete.
hamster 17 days
Birth is brought about by a change in the amounts of hormones produced
mouse 18 days
rabbit 1 month by the placenta, and also by a hormone which starts being produced by the
cat 2 months pituitary gland. This is called oxytocin and it brings about the contractions of
dog 2 months the uterus.
guinea pig 2 months
A woman will usually have her baby in hospital. Most babies are born
sheep 5 months
chimpanzee
quite easily. Sometimes, however, the baby needs to be helped out with
7 months
cattle 9 months forceps: these are like a large pair of tongs and are used to gently grasp the
human 9 months baby's head as it emerges. In particularly difficult cases the medical staff may
horse 11 months feel it's best to give the mother an anaesthetic and remove the baby by cutting
elephant 20 months
open the wall of the abdomen and uterus. This operation is known as a
Table 1 The gestation periods of a selection of Caesarian section because Julius Caesar is believed to have been born this
mammals. way.
 Pregnancy and birth 351

Figure 8 This baby has just been born. The umbilical cord is about to be tied and cut.

Sometimes birth occurs before the ninth month, and the baby is premature.
If the baby is not too small and weak it will probably survive, though it may
have to be kept warm in an incubator and given a special oxygen supply until
it is mature enough to support itself (Figure 9).
Occasionally things go wrong at an early stage of pregnancy and the foetus
is expelled from the uterus. If it's not already dead, it dies almost immediately
afterwards. This is called a miscarriage. It is, of course, very distressing for a
woman who is looking forward to the birth of her baby. However, it does not
mean that she cannot become pregnant again, and during a subsequent
pregnancy the doctor will give her special help to prevent it happening again.

Figure 7 These diagrams show how birth takes

place.

Figure 9 A premature baby in an incubator. The

temperature and oxygen supply are carefully
controlled.
352 Biology for life

Caring for the newborn baby

During pregnancy the mother's breasts enlarge and the mammary glands
inside them get ready to secrete milk. Soon after birth the baby starts to suck
its mother's nipples. This stimulates the breasts to release the milk and make
more.
Milk is the baby's food for the first few months of life. Of course it doesn't
have to get milk from its mother: it can be fed from a bottle with a teat.
However, there's a lot to be said for breast-feeding, as you will see if you read
the caption under Figure 10. It's not possible for the baby to take in solid food
at this stage, for it has no teeth to chew it with and in any case its digestive
system would be unable to cope with solids.
Mothers wrap their babies up well, particularly in cold weather. This is
necessary because the baby's ability to control its body temperature takes
time to develop. Whereas adults adjust to the cold by shivering and making
more heat, the baby is not yet able to do this efficiently.
These are just a few aspects of looking after one's baby. For several weeks
after the birth, a midwife will visit the mother at home and give her advice on
looking after her baby, and after six weeks the mother will go back to the
clinic for a postnatal examination to make sure that her own health is
satisfactory. In most areas she will keep in touch with the clinic until the child
starts going to school at the age of five.
Figure 10 A mother breast-feeding her baby. The
mother’s milk is a perfect food, containing all the
chemicals that the baby needs at just the right
temperature. It also contains antibodies which may
Twins and multiple births
help to protect the baby from certain diseases and In the human, only one embryo usually develops in the uterus at a time.
allergies. Breast-feeding allows a close contact
However, two may sometimes be present together, each with its own
between the mother and the baby- and it's cheaper
than bottle-feeding!

Figure 11 Twins! The top pair are identical, and

the bottom pair are non-identical.
 Pregnancy and birth 353

placenta and umbilical cord. These are known as twins. ^Assignments-

There are two kinds of twins: non-identical and identical (Figure 11).
Non-identical twins arise if two eggs are shed from the ovaries at the same 1 What functions are performed by
time, and both are fertilised. Although the two babies will be born together, a) the muscle in the wall of the
they don't have the same genes and will be no more alike than brothers or uterus,
sisters. Twins of this sort are known as fraternal twins and they may be of b) the amniotic fluid,
different sexes (Figure 12). c) the umbilical cord, and
Identical twins arise in a quite different way. A single egg is shed from one d) the mammary glands?
of the ovaries and fertilised in the usual way. It then splits into two cells, each
2 Name five jobs which are carried out
of which develops into an embryo. The two cells have exactly the same genes,
by the placenta. What is it about the
and so the two babies will be exactly alike and will be the same sex (Figure
structure of the placenta which
13).
makes it Ideally suited to do these
Sometimes the two cells into which the egg splits do not separate
jobs?
completely. The result is that the two embryos are joined together at some
point, resulting in Siamese twins. If the connection is not too extensive, the 3 Babies are usually born head first.
two babies can be separated by an operation; but if the internal organs are What advantages are there in being
intimately connected, it's very difficult to separate them and it is unlikely that born this way? What changes take
both will survive. place in the baby’s body soon after it
Occasionally three or more eggs are produced by the ovaries at the same is born?
time, resulting in triplets, quadruplets or even quintuplets. Such multiple
4 Some of the daily food requirements
births tend to occur in women who have been given a fertility drug to help
of an adult woman with a body mass
them get pregnant. As the foetuses grow, it becomes more and more difficult
of 55 kg, and of the same woman in
for the mother's uterus to contain them, and so she gives birth early, often
an advanced state of pregnancy are
around the seventh month. Very rarely do all the babies survive.
given in the following table:
Although multiple births are unusual in humans, they are quite usual in
other mammals such as dogs, cats and mice. The offspring constitute a litter.
non-pregnant pregnant

Energy 9200 kJ 10 700 kJ

Protein 29 g 38 g
Vitamin A 750 |xg 750 |xg
Vitamin D 2.5 (xg 10 ixg
Vitamin C 30 mg 30 mg
Calcium 0.5 g 1-2 g
Iron 20 mg 28 mg

a) Suggest one reason why the

woman requires more energy
when she is pregnant.
b) Name two kinds of food from
which she is likely to obtain most
of this energy.
c) Suggest one reason why she
requires extra protein when she
is pregnant.
d) Why do you think she needs
extra vitamin D and calcium
when she is pregnant?
e) What are the percentage
increases in the amount of
energy, protein, vitamin D and
calcium which she needs when
she is pregnant?
f) Which substances in the table do
not need to be increased during
pregnancy?
g) Why do you think those particular
substances do not need to be
increased?
h) Why does she need extra iron?

Figure 13 How identical twins occur.

 Personal aspects
How many children?
of sex One of the most important decisions that faces every married couple is how
many children to have. A sensible couple will want to give each child the
Sex is not support and love it needs, and this means not having too many. There may
therefore be times when the couple wish to prevent pregnancy. This is called
just a bodily function. It
family planning or birth control. In Britain and many other countries there
involves feelings, emotions and are family planning clinics where people can get advice about birth control
personal choices. methods. These methods usually involve some form of contraception.

Contraception
Contraception is any procedure which prevents conception. There are many
different methods, and some of them involve the use of an artificial device
called a contraceptive. The methods fall into three groups: (1) those that stop
sperms reaching the egg, (2) those that stop eggs being produced, and (3)
those that stop the fertilised egg developing in the womb.
Now let's look at each method in turn, and you can decide for yourself
which group each one fits into.

Withdrawal
Some people try to avoid conception by the male withdrawing his penis from
the vagina just before he ejaculates. However, the lubrication fluid which
comes from the penis before ejaculation may contain some sperms, and so
this is an extremely unreliable method of contraception.

The rhythm method

A woman will only become pregnant if there is an egg in her body ready to be
fertilised. Now there is a certain length of time in the menstrual cycle when
no eggs are available: this is round about the time of menstruation. If she has
intercourse at this time, it is unlikely that she will become pregnant. We call
Figure 1 This graph shows the changes in the basal this period of time the safe period.
body temperature of a woman during the course of
The time when intercourse is most likely to lead to pregnancy is round
her menstrual cycle. The basal body temperature is
the body temperature when completely relaxed. The about the time of ovulation. This occurs about half way between one
rise in temperature at A is when ovulation occurs. menstrual period and the next; so one should be able to work out roughly
Notice that the temperature rises by only about half a when the 'danger' period is from the time of the previous menstruation. This
degree. A special thermometer is needed to detect
is called the calendar method. The trouble is that the time between
this small change.
menstruations may vary, particularly in teenagers, and this makes the
calendar method difficult to use.
However there is a more accurate method. It so happens that the body
temperature rises slightly at the time of ovulation (Figure 1). By recording the
body temperature and the times of menstruation over several months, one
can say when ovulation has occurred in the past and when it is likely to occur
in the future. This temperature method is better than the calendar method,
particularly if it is combined with other signs of ovulation, such as a slight
discharge of mucus from the vagina or pains in the abdomen.
Even so it is difficult to be certain about the length of the safe period. It
depends on (amongst other things) when exactly the woman ovulates, which
can vary a lot. In some cases the safe period may last as long as three weeks,
but in other cases it may only last a few days. The rhythm method is therefore
unreliable, unless carried out under the expert guidance of a sympathetic
doctor. On the other hand it has the advantage of being a natural method
which doesn't depend on artificial devices.

The sheath (condom)

This is a type of contraceptive, worn by the male, which stops sperms getting
into the female's vagina. Known as the condom, 'rubber' or 'French letter', it
consists of a rubber sheath, shaped like the finger of a glove, which fits over
the erect penis (Figure 2). A little bag-like extension at the end catches the
Figure 2 The sheath (condom) is here seen being
semen when ejaculation occurs.
slipped onto the erect penis.
The sheath is quite a reliable contraceptive if used properly, and is widely
 Personal aspects of sex 355

available. It is best to use it with a spermicide (see below).

The cap or diaphragm

This type of contraceptive also forms a barrier to sperms, but it is worn by the
female. It consists of a dome-shaped piece of rubber with a metal spring
round the edge. It comes in various sizes, and the correct one is chosen by a
doctor. It fits over the neck of the uterus and the woman is taught how to put
it in herself (Figure 3).
The cap is quite a good contraceptive. However, it may slip out of place if it
hasn't been fitted properly, and sperms may get round it. It must be used
with a spermicide and left in for at least eight hours after intercourse.

Spermicides
Spermicides are substances which kill sperms. They are available from
Chemist shops as sprays, creams or tablets (pessaries). The female should put
the spermicide as far up her vagina as possible, not more than ten minutes
before intercourse (Figure 4). The tablets dissolve in her normal vaginal
secretions, forming a foam.
On their own spermicides are unreliable' because sperms may manage to
get through them. However, they improve the efficiency of the diaphragm
and sheath.

The pill
This is a tablet which is taken by the female. It is known as the oral
contraceptive and it prevents any eggs being produced by the ovaries: in
other words it stops ovulation. One tablet has to be taken daily throughout
the menstrual cycle except for about a week round about the time of
menstruation. Although the tablets prevent ovulation, the woman's men¬
strual periods still take place at the usual times. The tablets have to be
prescribed by a doctor, and must be taken regularly according to instructions.
How does the pill work? During pregnancy the ovaries and placenta
produce the hormones oestrogen and progesterone which prevent any
further eggs being produced by the ovaries. The pill contains chemical
substances identical with these hormones. Figure 3 The cap (diaphragm) being inserted into
The pill is very effective. Since it came onto the market in the mid-1960s it the vagina. Note how it fits over the neck of the
has done more than any other contraceptive to reduce the number of uterus.

unwanted births. If a woman who has been on the pill stops taking it, she will
start producing eggs again, and can then become pregnant in the normal
way.
Recent research has shown that prolonged use of the pill carries certain
health risks. Doctors give advise to individuals on the possible effects on
health and the risks involved.
There is a type of pill which need not be taken until after intercourse. It does
not prevent ovulation, but it stops the embryo becoming implanted in the
uterus. Though convenient, this morning after pill makes some women feel
sick and so it is normally used only as an emergency measure. To be effective
it must be taken within three days after intercourse.

Injectable contraceptives
There is a substance which, when injected into the body, stops ovulation. It is
called Depo-Provera. A single intramuscular injection, carried out by a
doctor, will prevent a woman becoming pregnant for about three months. It
is a very reliable method of contraception and is used a lot in developing
countries. However, because of possible health hazards, Britain has been
reluctant to adopt injectable contraceptives on a large scale.

Intrauterine devices
These devices, called IUDs for short, are made of plastic or metal and are put
Figure 4 A spermicidal cream being put into the
into the uterus by a doctor. They come in all sorts of shapes: one is shown in vagina by means of a syringe (side view).
Figure 5.
356 Biology for life

IUDs prevent the embryo becoming implanted in the lining ot the uterus.
No one knows exactly how they achieve this but they certainly stop the
woman becoming pregnant. They don't normally cause any discomfort, and
are a reliable method of contraception. If a woman with an IUD wants to have
a child, the IUD can be taken out by a doctor.
IUDs are normally fitted before intercourse takes place. However, they are
still effective if inserted after intercourse provided this is done within a few
days.

Sterilisation
In this method the person has an operation which prevents conception
permanently. It can be carried out on either the male or the female. In the
male the surgeon ties and cuts the sperm ducts (Figure 6). This prevents
sperms getting to the urethra from the testes: the man can still ejaculate, but
his semen will not contain any sperms.
Figure 5 The loop is seen here in position inside In the female the surgeon ties and cuts the oviducts (Figure 7). This stops
the uterus, viewed from the front. The strings any sperms getting up the oviducts and so her eggs cannot be fertilised.
enable it to be taken out easily by the doctor. It is Sterilisation is the most complete method of contraception. The operation
one of the most widely used intrauterine devices.
is simple and quick and there are no unpleasant consequences. Men
sometimes fear that sterilisation might reduce their masculinity or change
their personality in some way, but this is not true. The only snag is that once
you have been sterilised, there is usually no chance of having any children in
the future. So it's no use having second thoughts afterwards!

How good are these contraceptive methods ?

All the procedures described above are methods of birth control. Table 1
shows the results of a survey which compares how effective the main ones
are:

Method Number of pregnancies How good is the method?

No method 50 Very unreliable!

Rhythm method 14 Unreliable without expert help
Diaphragm with
Figure 6 In male sterilisation the sperm ducts are spermicide 10 Quite reliable when fitted well
cut and tied, as shown here in side view. This Sheath 7 Quite reliable if used properly
operation is called vasectomy. IUDs 2 Reliable
The pill 0 Very reliable

Table 1 How good are the various methods of contraception? This table shows the
number of pregnancies in 100 women using each method for one year. All the women
were intelligent and keen to succeed with their chosen method and followed the
instructions carefully.

A word of warning
With reliable methods of contraception available you might think that it's
all right to have intercourse as young as you like, as often as you like and with
as many people as you like. But that way you would run health risks, both
physical and mental, and may cause harm and distress to others. It is not
always easy to cope with one's sexual feelings, or to understand those of
other people, but parents, teachers and doctors are usually ready to help.

Abortion
Despite the various contraceptive methods which are available, women may
become pregnant when they don't want to. The only way to avoid giving
birth is to destroy the foetus. This is known as abortion.
Figure 7 In female sterilisation the oviducts are There are various ways of carrying out an abortion, and it should always be
cut and tied, as shown here in side view. This done in a clinic or hospital by a qualified doctor. It is extremely dangerous for
operation is called tubal ligation.
it to be done in any other way.
 Personal aspects of sex 357

In many countries, including Britain, abortion is only allowed if the doctors

consider that by continuing the pregnancy the woman's physical or mental -Assignments-
health is at risk. Some people think that the law should be changed to make
abortion available on demand. Others feel that it should not be allowed at all. 1 What does the word contraception
Having an abortion is a very distressing experience for a woman. Some mean?
people feel that the life of the foetus should also be considered. Many moral The sheath is one of the more reliable
and ethical issues are involved in this difficult question.
contraceptives. What do we mean by the
word ‘reliable’ in this context? Why is the
Infertility
sheath so reliable, and what
Some couples are unable to have children, that is, they are infertile. One of disadvantages do you think it might
the commonest causes is that either the male cannot produce sperms or the have?
female cannot produce eggs. The person is said to be sterile. Sometimes the 2 What are the advantages and possible
male does have sperms in his semen but there simply aren't enough of them disadvantages of the ‘pill’ as a method of
to ensure fertilisation, or he may not be able to come to a climax and ejaculate. contraception?
Another possible cause of sterility is that the female's oviducts are blocked.
A couple who find that they can't produce a baby should discuss their 3 In the rhythm method of contraception it
problem with a doctor. The doctor can arrange for them to see a specialist is important to know when the safe
who may be able to find out what's wrong. period is.
A lot can be done to help childless coifples these days. For example a a) What does ‘safe period’ mean?
woman who isn't producing eggs can be treated with a fertility drug. This is a b) List as many things as you can think
hormone preparation and it stimulates her ovaries to start working. In the of which might affect the time and
past this treatment has sometimes proved more successful than either the duration of the safe period.
patient or the doctor bargained for: the woman has become pregnant and c) There are cases of women becoming
produced quadruplets, quintuplets or even sextuplets! pregnant having had intercourse just
Scientists can now fertilise human eggs outside the body. The egg is taken before, or just after, menstruation.
from the ovary in a small operation and fertilised by sperm in a test tube. The Suggest possible reasons for this.
fertilised egg divides up into a tiny embryo, and this is then put into the 4 A man and his wife find that they are not
uterus where it develops in the usual way. This is quite a new procedure, but managing to produce any children
it has already helped a number of childless couples to have babies. though they are having intercourse
regularly and are not using any method
Masturbation of contraception. Suggest five possible
reasons for their lack of success.
Normally an orgasm is achieved by the stimulation which accompanies the
rhythmical movements of the penis inside the vagina. However, it can also be 5 The graph below shows the number of
achieved by stimulating the penis or the clitoris with, for example, the hand. pregnancies in girls under sixteen in
This is called masturbation. It is not physically harmful and indeed can give England and Wales each year from 1948
relief at times when intercourse is not possible. What can be harmful is the to 1968 inclusive:
feeling of guilt which people sometimes have about it.
Suggest reasons why there was a steady
rise in the number of pregnancies during
Homosexuality this time.
Homosexuality is having sexual feelings towards members of one's own sex,
in contrast to heterosexuality, which is having sexual feelings towards
members of the opposite sex. Homosexual feelings can occur between men or
between women. They are quite common during adolescence, but generally
only last for a short time and are a natural part of growing up.
Homosexual relationships occur quite often in places where people of the
same sex are cooped up together. Such relationships develop mainly because
of frustration and are not usually permanent or harmful. The people involved
are generally able to form relationships with the opposite sex when
circumstances allow. However, some people are only capable of relating
sexually to members of their own sex. They are usually as normal in
appearance and behaviour as anyone else.
1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968
Some individuals are sexually attracted to members of their own sex and
years
members of the opposite sex. They are known as bisexual.
Nobody knows what causes homosexuality. A person can't help having
In what ways can this sort of data be
homosexual feelings, though a great deal of harm is sometimes done by
misleading?
feelings of guilt and isolation which may accompany them. If a person finds
that he or she has homosexual feelings it's better to talk it over with parents, a
counsellor or a trusted friend than to worry about it. Many different types of
help are available to those who want it.
 -Sexually-
Any infectious disease is liable to be passed from one person to another
transmitted during sexual contact. However, certain diseases are particularly likely to be
passed this way. They are called sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
diseases Sexually transmitted diseases can be very serious, in some cases deadly.
The trouble is that in the early stages the symptoms may be very slight, and
the person may not know that there's anything wrong. For this reason they
Sex involves close contact are sometimes called 'hidden diseases'. They occur in all sections of society.
between two people. It is therefore We will start by looking at two diseases which are normally transmitted
an easy way of passing germs only by sexual intercourse. The germs which cause them cannot survive even
from one person to for a short time outside the body, so it's impossible to pick them up from
towels or lavatory seats.
another.
Syphilis
This is caused by a certain kind of bacterium (Figure 1). The first sign of the
disease usually appears about two to four weeks after intercourse, and
consists of a sore on, or near, the genital organs: usually just inside the vagina
in the female, and on the end of the penis (the glans) in the male. The sore
doesn't hurt and it usually lasts for only a week or two at the most, so the
person may not notice it. The germs then move to other parts of the body,
causing a mild fever and spots on the skin (Figure 2). After a few weeks these
symptoms disappear, and the person appears to recover. However, the
germs are still in the bloodstream and eventually they may attack the brain,
making the person go blind and insane. This final stage of the disease may
not occur until many years after the original infection.
If a pregnant woman has syphilis, the germs are likely to pass across the
placenta into the baby's bloodstream. As a result the baby may be born dead
('stillborn'), or it may be born with the disease and become crippled with it
later. Nowadays all pregnant women have their blood tested to make sure
Figure 1 This is the germ that causes syphilis. It is
a spiral-shaped bacterium called a spirochaete. It that it does not contain any syphilis germs.
is magnified here about 3000 times.
Gonorrhoea
This is also caused by a bacterium (Figure 3). The first sign of the disease
usually appears a few days after intercourse, and consists of a burning
sensation when urinating. This happens because the tube down which the
urine passes, the urethra, becomes inflamed. There may also be a yellowish
discharge from the reproductive opening: this is easily seen in the male, but
the female may not notice it because it is mixed with her normal secretions.
Sometimes the germs spread to other parts of the body, and the person may
feel ill and get swollen and painful joints. Gonorrhoea can cause sterility,
making it impossible to have children.
If a pregnant woman gets gonorrhoea, her baby may become infected as it
passes through the vagina during birth. As a result it may develop very sore
eyes which, if untreated, can lead quickly to blindness.

Other sexually transmitted diseases

JS $ *
A number of other diseases can be passed from one person to another by
m-

intercourse or close sexual contact. However, they can be spread in other

ways as well. So they are not always associated with sex.
Urethritis: In this disease the urethra gets inflamed, much as it does in
gonorrhoea, causing pain and irritation when urinating. The kind of
urethritis associated with sex is called non-specific urethritis. It is caused by a
virus, and in rare cases it may lead to another condition called Reiter's disease
which is characterised by aching joints, painful feet and sore eyes.
Genital herpes: This is caused by a virus similar to the kind that causes
chicken pox and cold sores. The symptoms include blisters on the genital
• '■$ jf £ X. ■ % '
organs, usually inside the vagina in the female and on the head of the penis
(the glans) in the male. In some cases the person may get an attack of skin
Figure 2 The spots on this person's back were irritation and muscle pains. Once the virus is in your body it remains there for
caused by syphilis. life and further attacks of the disease may occur from time to time. A preg-
 Sexually transmitted diseases 359

nant women with herpes may pass it on to her baby.

Viral hepatitis: In this disease the liver gets infected by a virus. The patient
has bouts of sickness, fever and abdominal pains, sometimes with jaundice.
It can take years to recover fully from this nasty disease.
Thrush: This is caused by a fungus which may make the mouth cavity and
genital organs sore and inflamed. In the female there is a white or yellowish
discharge from the vagina, and itching round the opening.

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

The disease was discovered amongst male homosexuals, around 1980. Since
then it has spread to heterosexuals, both male and female. The person's
natural immunity to disease breaks down with the result that he or she
succumbs much more readily to diseases like pneumonia and a certain kind
of skin cancer. It is caused by a virus and generally has an incubation period
of two years or more. AIDS is a very serious disease which usually results in
Figure 3 This is the germ that causes gonorrhoea.
death. It is a ball-shaped bacterium called a coccus, and
The AIDS virus spreads by intimate sexual contact and by an infected normally occurs in pairs. It is magnified here about
person's blood getting into someone else's. blood, for example when drug 7000 times.

abusers share the same needle (see also page 113). It is not spread by normal
social contact, kissing or drinking from the same cup as an infected person.
If the AIDS virus gets into your blood, your lymphocytes produce anti¬
bodies against it (see page 205). However the antibodies don't manage to r-Assignments-
destroy the virus, which remains hidden in certain cells. When people are
1 Why is syphilis described as a ‘hidden
tested for AIDS, the doctor finds out if their blood contains antibodies against disease’, and why is it so serious?
the AIDS virus. At present there is no simple test for the virus itself.
How does the AIDS virus act? Certain cells in the blood help our 2 Why is gonorrhoea easier to cure than
lymphocytes to destroy germs. The AIDS virus destroys these helper cells, herpes?
thus making us more vulnerable to disease. We now know that the virus may 3 The graph below shows the number of
also attack the brain.
new cases of gonorrhoea seen in STD
A person can carry the AIDS virus for years without having any symptoms. clinics each year from 1936 to 1970:
However carriers can pass the disease to other people, and a woman carrier
can pass it to her baby in the womb or through her milk.
45 000

How to avoid sexually transmitted diseases 35 ooo

The only sure way of avoiding these diseases is to make certain that one's 25 000
sexual partner is not infected. Obviously this is not easy, but having casual
sexual relations with many different people is asking for trouble. 15 000
The wearing of a contraceptive sheath by the male helps to prevent the
spread of most sexually transmitted diseases, but it doesn't give complete
protection. These diseases are much more common now than they were 30
years ago, and one reason may be that the sheath has been replaced by 'the Suggest reasons why the number of
pill' as the main means of contraception. cases:
a) rose rapidly in the first half of the
Curing sexually transmitted diseases 1940s,
b) fell rapidly in the last half of the 1940s,
Syphilis and gonorrhoea can be cured with antibiotics such as penicillin c) rose steadily from the mid-1950s
provided that a full course of treatment is carried out at an early enough stage. The onwards.
trouble is that often people don't realise they have got the disease, and so d) What do you think the trend has been
they do nothing about it until it's too late. Thrush and trichomoniasis can also
since 1970 and why?
be cured with drugs.
Virus diseases such as urethritis and hepatitis are more difficult to cure, 4 AIDS can be spread by an infected
because they don't respond to antibiotics. This means that the-patient must person’s blood mixing with someone
wait for them to clear up of their own accord though anti-viral drugs may else’s blood. The amount of blood need
help. At the time of writing, there is no cure for AIDS. Scientists are trying to only be very small. Bearing this in mind
develop a vaccine against it. suggest two ways, apart from sexual
Most large hospitals have a special clinic where people can be examined to contact, by which a person might catch
find out if they have got any sexually transmitted diseases. The examination the disease. What sort of precautions
takes only a short time, and includes a urine and blood test. When the results would prevent the disease spreading in
are known treatment can, if necessary, be given. If possible, the person's the ways you have suggested?
sexual contacts should be traced and treated too.
 -How do insects-
Mating and egg-laying
reproduce? All insects reproduce sexually. The male is attracted to the female by her
smell or her bright colours, or by sounds which she makes. After they have
In this Topic we shall met, the male and female go through a short period of courtship. For
see how insects reproduce, grow example, the male locust stalks the female for a short time and may make
chirping noises by rubbing his hind legs against the hardened edge of his
and develop. These three processes
wings. This makes the female receptive to him.
make up the life cycle. Courtship is followed by mating. During this process the male puts his
sperms into the female's body. Different insects do this in different ways. In
the locust the male jumps on the female's back and grips her thorax with his
legs (Figure 1). He curves his abdomen round hers, so the tip can reach her
reproductive opening. Some insects, bees for example, are so agile that they
can copulate while they are flying.
The sperms do not fertilise the female's eggs straight away but are taken up
into sperm sacs in her body. There they wait until the eggs are ready. As the
ripe eggs pass out of her body, each one is fertilised by a sperm. In many
insects the fertilised eggs are enclosed in a horny egg case before they leave
the female's body.
Some insects take great care where they lay their eggs, so that the young
have a supply of food when they hatch. For example, a certain kind of wasp
lays its eggs in the body of a caterpillar. When the eggs hatch, the youngsters
(larvae) feed on the caterpillar's tissues.
Many insects bury their eggs to protect them from the sun and enemies.
For example, the locust lays her eggs in a hole in the sand. She digs the hole
with her long flexible abdomen, the valves at the tip serving as little 'trowels'.
Figure 1 Two locusts mating. The male is on top, The eggs are laid at the bottom. As she pulls her abdomen out, she produces
his abdomen twisted around the female’s. a frothy liquid which hardens and forms a protective case round the eggs.
 How do insects reproduce? 361

moult

3rd instar nymph

moult
fertilisation

2nd instar nymph

zygote

moult

1st instar nymph

Figure 2 Life cycle of the locust. This is an

How do insects develop? example of an insect with gradual development.
After mating the female lays her eggs in the sand.
Insects are divided into two groups according to the way they develop during The eggs hatch after about two weeks. The young
their life cycle. Some develop gradually, while others go through a complete nymphs crawl out of the sand. They moult five
times, growing a little each time. They hang from
change from one kind of animal to another. When an animal changes its
twigs and branches as they moult. As they have no
form, we say it has undergone metamorphosis. This is made up of two Greek wings yet they cannot fly - they can only hop or
words: meta means 'change' and morphe means 'form' or 'shape'. walk. They feed on plants, using their jaws
(mandibles) for biting and chewing. It takes
between four and seven weeks for the adult stage
Insects which develop gradually to be reached. At the final moult the wings expand
by blood being forced into them. Like the nymphs,
This kind of development is shown by cockroaches, locusts, grasshoppers, the adults feed on plants.
dragonflies, bugs, termites and many other insects (Figure 2 and Investiga¬
tion 1).
The egg hatches into a creature which looks like a miniature version of the
adult, except that it has no wings. We call this a nymph. The nymph has a
hard cuticle, which prevents it growing. So after a while it sheds its cuticle:
that is, it moults. It then expands and grows a bit bigger before the cuticle has
had time to harden. This happens at least five times, the nymph getting
bigger each time (see page 327).
In the later stages small wing buds appear on either side of the thorax. At
the final moult into the adult, the wings expand (Figure 3). By this time the
sex organs have developed, so the adult insect can reproduce.
The stages between successive moults are called instars. In the locust each
instar lasts about a week, and there are five or six of them altogether. So it
takes the locust about six weeks to complete its development.
The change from a newly hatched nymph to the adult takes place gradual¬
ly, step by step. For this reason it is sometimes called gradual or incomplete Figure 3 This dragonfly has just undergone its final
metamorphosis. moult.
362 Biology for life

silk thread

pupa
(chrysalis)
'-rJ
fertilisation

I zygote

• larva -
(caterpillar)
J fertilised
egg

jaws (mandibles)_

true legs false legs clasper

Figure 4 Life cycle of the cabbage white butterfly.

This is an example of an insect with complete
development. Cabbage white butterflies can be
seen flying around during the summer. The adults fly Insects which undergo a complete change
from flower to flower, feeding on the nectar. They live
This kind of development is shown by insects such as butterflies, moths,
for about three weeks. After mating, the female lays
her eggs in batches on the leaves of cabbages and ants, bees, beetles and flies (Figure 4 and Investigation 2).
other similar plants. Each egg is shaped like a little The egg hatches into a larva. The caterpillars of butterflies and moths, the
barrel and has a sculptured shell. After a week or grubs of beetles and the maggots of flies, are all larvae (Table 1).
two the eggs hatch into caterpillars. The caterpillars
The larva is quite different from the adult. Its cuticle is thin and flexible,
feed on the cabbage leaves, using their jaws
(mandibles) for cutting off pieces. They moult enabling it to crawl or wriggle around. As it lacks the protective armour of the
several times, and grow. After about a month the adult, and is unable to move quickly, it is liable to be eaten by birds and other
caterpillar crawls to a wall, fence or tree trunk aad predators. So many of them have special ways of protecting themselves. For
turns into a pupa. The pupa is anchored by a silk
example, caterpillars are often covered by hairs which make them unpleasant
thread which runs around its body and by a sticky
pad at the back end. Pupae formed during the to eat, and some are cleverly camouflaged.
summer may give rise to adults after only a few Larvae have no sex organs, so they cannot reproduce. Their job is to feed
weeks. Pupae formed in the autumn survive the and grow. In this way they build up a store of energy which enables them to
winter before the adults emerge the following spring. develop into the adult. For example, the caterpillars of the cabbage white
butterfly feed almost non-stop on leaves (Figure 5).
After a time, the larva settles down and changes into a pupa or chrysalis.
Sometimes the larva spins a cover of fine threads round itself. This forms a
cocoon which surrounds and protects the pupa.
Although the pupa looks lifeless, the inside is the scene of much activity.
The larval tissues break down into a kind of cream. Out of this the adult is
formed. Eventually, when conditions are suitable, the wall of the pupa opens
and the adult clambers out. The wings then expand and it flies away.
The adult possesses sex organs, and its main job is to reproduce. Once it
has done this, it has fulfilled its purpose and can die. Sometimes the adult
lives for only a day or so, just long enough to find a mate and reproduce.
In the kind of insect just described, the life cycle has two distinct types of
animals: the larva and the adult. Not only do they look different, but they
behave differently too. Each feeds on its own kind of food, and each lives in
its own particular habitat. For example, in the cabbage white butterfly the larva
moves like a worm and chews up cabbage leaves, whereas the adult can fly
and sucks up the nectar of flowers.
Figure 5 The larva (caterpillar) of the cabbage Because the larva and adult are so different, the change from one to the
white butterfly on a cabbage leaf.
other is described as complete metamorphosis.
 Hou> do insects reproduce? 363

Name of insect Common name of larva Where larva lives Features of larva

Butterflies, moths caterpillar on plants

Ants, wasps, bees grub in nest

Houseflies, bluebottles maggot in rotting meat

Mosquitoes wriggler in fresh water

7
Beetles, weevils gruS

Table 1 Different kinds of insect larvae. In the pictures the head is to the left.
soil or grain
0^
rInvestigation 1- Investigation 2- -Assignments-
The life cycle of the locust The life cycle of the cabbage white 1 Many insects bury their eggs to
butterfly protect them from the sun.
1 Observe locusts mating in a cage.
1 Obtain preserved specimens of the What harm might the sun do to
Which is the male and which is the
following stages in the life cycle of them?
female? How do they differ?
the cabbage white butterfly: adult,
2 Explain the following words, all of
How does the male put his sperms eggs, caterpillar (larva) and pupa.
which are used in this Topic:
into the female?
2 Examine them carefully. Draw each
moulting
2 Look at live locust nymphs one, using Figure 4 to help you.
mating
('hoppers’) in a cage. You may be metamorphosis
How do they differ from each other?
lucky enough to see them moulting. instar
If you happen to see the final moult How is each adapted to its way of
cocoon
into the adult you may see the wings life?
expanding. 3 What is the difference between a
3 Watch, or see a film of, cabbage
nymph and a larva?
3 Examine preserved nymphs, from white caterpillars moving and
the first to last stages. Draw them, feeding. 4 What happens inside a pupa?

using Figure 2 to help you. 5 Explain how an insect like the

What do they feed on?
How do they differ from each other? locust grows from the time the egg
What sort of mouth parts do they
hatches until it becomes an adult.
How does the largest nymph differ have?
6 How are the larva, pupa and adult of
from the adult?
What are the functions of the legs?
the cabbage white butterfly suited to
4 With a ruler measure the length of their functions?
4 Watch, or see a film of, cabbage
each nymph, and the adult, from the
white butterflies visiting flowers.
7 Before they copulate, the male and
front of the head to the tip of the
How do they feed? female of a certain insect face one
abdomen.
another and the female waves her
5 Draw a bar chart to compare their What sort of mouth parts do they
feelers.
lengths. have?
Someone has suggested that the
The locust is an example of an The butterfly is an example of an
male will only mount the female after
insect with ‘incomplete insect with 'complete
it has seen her waving her feelers.
metamorphosis’. What does this metamorphosis’. What does this
mean? How could you find out if this is true?
mean?
 —How do-
Mating and egg-laying
amphibians Frogs hibernate during winter amongst rocks and vegetation. In the spring

reproduce? they wake up, and the males go in search of a pond.

When he has found water, the male starts croaking. He does this by forcing
air through his voice box in the throat. The croaking of the male attracts a
female who by this time is loaded with eggs. By this stage the male has
Amphibians need water
enlarged thumbs covered with tough black skin, like warts: they are known
in which to reproduce. In this
as nuptial pads.
Topic we shall see why the common The frogs mate in the water. The male climbs onto the female's back; he
frog depends on water for places his front legs round her chest and grips her tightly (Figure 1). The skin
its reproduction. is slippery, but his large thumbs with their swollen nuptial pads help him to
get a firm grip. The pair may remain together like this for two or three days.
Eventually eggs start to pass out of the female's cloacal opening between
her back legs. At the same time the male produces a stream of seminal fluid
containing numerous sperms. The sperms fertilise the eggs.
Each egg is surrounded by a layer of jelly. This is a protein called albumen,
which is the same substance that the 'white' of a hen's egg is made of. Soon
after coming into contact with the water, the jelly swells up: this protects the
eggs from being damaged and from drying out and it makes them clump
together in a mass which sticks to weeds and stones. This is the familiar frog
spawn. Neither the male nor the female takes any further notice of the eggs
once they have been laid.

Development
After about a week the egg hatches into a small fish-like creature called a
tadpole (Figure 2). You sometimes see tadpoles swimming about in ponds
Figure 1 Frogs mating. during the spring, and they can easily be kept in the laboratory (Investiga¬
tion). The tadpole is an animal in its own right: it occurs in the development
Figure 2 The main stages in the development of the of all amphibians. It is an example of a larva.
the frog. Start at the extreme left and work your way The tadpole swims by flapping its tail from side to side. Its mouth is closed
round in an anti-clockwise direction.

The young frog 16 weeks after hatching

After several years feeds on insects The tadpole has now
the frog becomes mature and grows. changed into a young
and breeds. frog which has left
the water and moved
onto dry land.

12 weeks after hatching

eggs The front legs have grown out.
(frog spawn)
The internal gills have been
laid in
replaced by lungs and the
water
tadpole comes to the surface
to breathe air. The tail begins
to shorten.
embryo
inside
jelly coat

The newly hatched 10 weeks after hatching

tadpole fixes The hind legs have
itself to a weed 3 days after hatching 4 weeks after hatching grown out. By this
by a sticky mucous The tadpole The external gills stage the tadpole
gland on its ‘chin’. swims, using have withered away is eating small plants
Its mouth is not its tail. Its and the tadpole now _* such as duckweed.
yet open, so it mouth is now _ breathes by means
cannot feed. It open and it feeds of internal gills
has external gills on small plants which are covered
for breathing. which it rasps off by a flap of skin.
stones and shells.
 How do amphibians reproduce? 365

at first, but as soon as it opens it feeds on small plants. To begin with it

breathes by means of feathery external gills which stick out from the side of
the head. Later these are replaced by internal gills which are covered by a
flap of skin as in bony fishes. Meanwhile it grows.
After about eight weeks the tadpole starts changing into a frog. Legs grow
out and the tail shortens. Lungs develop for breathing air: they eventually
take over from the gills. You often see tadpoles coming up to the surface to
gulp air into their newly formed lungs.
It takes about a month for the tadpole to change completely into a
miniature frog. It then leaves the water and begins its life on dry land where it
feeds on small insects.
It takes about three years for the frog to become sexually mature. It then
returns to the pond to breed.
The tadpole and the adult frog look very different and lead quite different
lives. The change from one to the other is an example of metamorphosis.
In amphibians, metamorphosis is controlled by a hormone called
thyroxine. This is produced by the thyroid gland in the neck region. For
thyroxine to be made there must be iodine in the water. If the water is lacking
in iodine, the tadpole cannot change into the adult. On the other hand, if you
put extra iodine in the water or inject thyroxine into a tadpole, it will change
into the adult more quickly.

How do other amphibians reproduce?

It's characteristic of amphibians that they reproduce in water. However, they
don't all need a pond. For example, some tropical tree frogs lay their eggs in a
water-filled 'nest' made out of leaves (Figure 3). Nor do all amphibians ignore
Figure 3 These African tree frogs are making a
their eggs as our common frog does. In some tropical toads the male carries
‘foam nest’ on a leaf. The female secretes a liquid
the eggs around on his back or wrapped around his hind legs, and one from her cloaca and the frogs beat it into a foam with
species of frog incubates the eggs in its mouth. their hind legs. The tadpoles complete their early
development in the foam nest, and then they drop off
into a pond underneath.

r Investigation- ^Assignments-
Watching tadpoles develop 1 What part does each of the following
play in the reproduction of the
1 Obtain some tadpoles from a pond the time the tadpoles are
common frog?
and bring them into the laboratory. developing.
a) the voice box, c) albumen,
2 Fill an aquarium tank with pond 7 Into the other tank put a few crystals b) the nuptial pads, d) thyroxine.
water, and put in some stones and of iodine once a week.
2 Give two reasons why the common
weeds.
Do either of these treatments affect the frog must breed in water.
3 Put your tadpoles into the tank. rate at which the tadpoles develop?
3 Why is it an advantage to a tree frog
4 Watch them at intervals over the next Explain any observations which you to lay its eggs in a water-filled ‘nest’
few weeks. are able to make. in a tree rather than in a lake or
pond?
How do they change in size and
shape? 4 The frog mentioned in the text which
takes the eggs into its mouth is
How does their behaviour change? called Rhinoderma and comes from

Do your observations agree with Note As an alternative to the common South America. The eggs develop

Figure 2? frog, the African clawed toad, Xenopus right through to baby frogs in a
laevis, can be used for this investigation specially large voice box.
5 At the same time as you set up your a) Suggest four possible
The toads can be kept in the laboratory
aquarium tank, set up two further advantages to the young in
throughout the year, and can be made
tanks exactly like the first one. developing in this position.
to mate by being injected with sex
6 Into one of the tanks put a tablet of hormone. This must only be carried out b) Why is the voice box a better

thyroxine once a week throughout by a teacher. place for them than the mouth
cavity itself?
 -Hozv do birds-
What happens when birds reproduce?
reproduce? Birds normally breed in the spring or early summer. They usually perform a
particular series of actions one after the other.
Birds take
great care of their eggs 1 The male claims a territory.
This might be a small area of a wood, or perhaps someone's back garden. The
and look after their young male defends his territory by singing and displaying his feathers. For
until they can fend for example, the robin sticks out his red breast. If necessary, birds will fight to
themselves. defend their territory.

2 The male's song attracts a female.

When the female approaches, the male displays his feathers to her. One of
the most famous displays is put on by the peacock, which has a large,
beautiful tail that opens like a fan (Figure 1).
Sometimes the male and female go through various actions together. For
example in the great crested grebe, which lives on lakes and estuaries all over
Britain, the males and females shake their heads, chase over the water, and
occasionally dive down and fetch up weeds (Figure 2).
These displays are called courtship. They keep the male and female
together and put them in the right mood for mating.

3 The birds build a nest.

Often both birds do this, but sometimes the male is lazy and leaves the whole
job to the female.
Various materials are used for nest-building, depending on the type of
Figure 1 The peacock uses his fan-like tail for
displaying to the female. bird: sticks, grass and moss are favourites, and mud is sometimes used.
Many birds build their nests in trees or under the eaves of a house. Others
make their nests on the ground.
It is remarkable how quickly some birds build their nests. David Lack, an
expert on the robin, used to tell this story: a gardener in Basingstoke hung up
his coat in a tool shed at nine o'clock in the morning; at one o'clock he took it
down to go to lunch and found a robin's nest in one of the pockets.

4 The two birds mate.

The male does not have a penis, just an opening. He mounts the female and
presses his reproductive opening against hers. His sperms enter her body
and fertilise the eggs. Each egg then passes down the female's oviduct and is
coated with albumen and a shell.

5 The female lays her eggs in the nest.

Usually she lays five or six eggs (Figure 3). They make up a clutch.
Figure 2 These two great crested grebes are
courting. They have just dived into the water and The shell is made of chalky calcium carbonate: it protects the egg and helps
have fetched some weeds. to stop water evaporating from it.
Figure 4 shows the structure of a hen's egg. Inside, a tiny embryo rests on
top of a bag of yolk, the yolk sac. The embryo will eventually develop into a
chick: the yolk nourishes it while it develops (Investigation).
The embryo and yolk sac are surrounded by a watery fluid containing the
protein albumen. This is the 'white' of the egg: its main job is to supply the
embryo with water during its development.
One end of the egg is 'blunter' than the other. At the blunt end, just under
the shell, there is an air space. The shell has tiny holes running through it,
which allow oxygen to diffuse into the air space. The oxygen is then carried
via blood vessels to the embryo. Carbon dioxide passes out in the reverse
direction and in this way the embryo breathes.

6 The female incubates the eggs.

She does this by sitting on them: this keeps the eggs warm and is called
brooding. Provided it is kept warm the embryo gradually develops into a
Figure 3 The blackbird lays a clutch of about five chick. Figure 5 shows what the inside of the egg looks like after several days.
eggs in a nest made out of pieces of grass woven
Notice the excretory sac in which the developing embryo deposits its
together.
nitrogenous waste.
 How do birds reproduce? 367

Figure 4 The inside of a fertile hen’s egg Figure 5 The inside of a fertile hen’s egg
just after it has been laid. about three days after it has been laid.

7 The eggs hatch.

Hatching usually takes place a few weeks after the eggs have been laid. Using
Figure 6 A chick hatching out of the shell
its beak, the chick breaks through the membranes surrounding it, and cracks
open the shell (Figure 6). Then, wet and bedraggled, it clambers out.

8 The parents look after the chicks

The newly-hatched chicks of most birds have no feathers and are helpless.
They stay in the nest, and the mother spends some of her time sitting on
them to keep them warm. The parents feed them on worms and other kinds
of foods which they collect and bring back to the nest: the chicks open their
mouths and the parent bird pushes the food down their throats (Figure 7).
Some birds feed their chicks with half-digested food which they bring up
from the stomach.
The chicks soon acquire a covering of downy feathers: they then leave the
nest and sit on a nearby branch. Meanwhile, the parents go on feeding them
and gradually the young birds grow and develop their flight feathers. Soon
they start flying for short distances and eventually they fly away for good.
How long does all this take? It varies from one type of bird to another. In
the robin it takes about two months from the time the parents start building
the nest to the time when the young fly away. On the other hand ducklings,
and the young of many other birds which make their nests on the ground,
hatch out with a covering of feathers and can run or swim straight away. Figure 7 A female blackbird feeding her young

rInvestigation- rAssignments-
Looking at a chick embryo 3 Let it stand for a few minutes. 1 Why do you think it is an advantage
to a pair of breeding birds to have
1 Your teacher will give you a fertilised 4 With scissors cut away the shell,
their own piece of territory?
hen’s egg which has been kept in an piece by piece, from the upper side
incubator for three to five days since of the egg. 2 Make a list of the advantages and
it was laid. disadvantages of building a nest in
5 Observe the embryo lying on top of
each of these places: (a) on the
2 With plasticine make a ‘cradle’ for the yolk.
ground, (b) in a tree, and (c) under
holding the egg.
6 Suck away the albumen with a the eaves of a house.
pipette.
3 What part do feathers play in helping
7 Examine the embryo under a birds to produce their offspring
magnifying glass. successfully?

If you look carefully, you may see the 4 Before boiling an egg many people
heart beating. prick the shell at the blunt end with a
pin.
Suggest a function for each
structure you can see. Why do you think this is a good idea?
 -Sexual-
The structure of flowers
reproduction in The basic structure of a flower can be seen in plants like cherry, plum and

flowering plants hawthorn (Investigation 1). This kind of flower is illustrated in Figure 2.
The flower is made up of a series of rings of structures. The outermost ring
consists of several small green leaf-like sepals; then come the petals which are
often brightly coloured; next come the stamens which look rather like pins;
Sexual reproduction
and finally in the centre there is a club-shaped carpel. All these structures are
occurs in plants as well as situated at the end of a stalk which is slightly swollen to form the receptacle.
animals. In higher plants the part At the base of each petal you will see an area which is slightly thicker than
of the plant responsible for the rest: this is called the nectary and it produces a sugary liquid called nectar.
this is the flower. The stamens constitute the male part of the flower. Each one has a knob at

Figure 1 The flower contains the plant’s

reproductive organs.

the top: this is called the anther, and it contains four pollen sacs in which
pollen grains are formed. The pollen grains are equivalent to an animal's
sperms. The rest of the stamen is known as the filament.
The carpel constitutes the female part of the flower. It consists of three
parts: a slightly swollen stigma at the top, then a slender stalk called the
style, and a swollen ovary at the bottom. Inside the ovary there is a small
body called an ovule which is attached to the wall of the ovary by a short
stalk. The ovule contains a little bag called the embryosac and inside this is an
egg cell. There is a small hole in the wall of the ovule called the micropyle.
You need a microscope to see the embryosac and egg cell.

Variations on the theme

You have only to look at a few flowers to realise that they aren't all exactly like
the one just described although they all follow the same basic plan (Investiga¬
tion 2).
Figure 3 Side views of the buttercup and sweet pea
flowers to show the kind of variety that one finds in Figure 3 shows two flowers to illustrate the kind of variation that one finds.
flower structure. In both cases, the flower has been Notice that the buttercup has numerous carpels each containing one ovule; in
sliced down the middle so as to show the internal contrast, the sweet pea has one carpel containing a row of ovules.
structure. In reality there are far more stamens than
You will also notice that these two flowers differ in shape. In the buttercup
shown here.
 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants 369

radial symmetry bilateral symmetry

\ i /
l
i

i
You can cut this flower in any of these planes You can cut this flower only in this plane to get
to get two halves which are mirror images two halves which are mirror images
of each other. of each other.
Examples: buttercup, cherry, hawthorn Examples: sweet pea, snapdragon, orchid

Figure 4 There are two ways of describing the shapes of flowers.

the petals are all identical as you go round the flower. Such a flower is
described as radially symmetrical. However, in the sweet pea the petals at
the top and bottom are different from those on either side. This kind of flower
is described as bilaterally symmetrical (Figure 4).
Flowers vary in many other ways too. For example, the petals may be
joined together to form a kind of 'trumpet' in the foxglove, and in tulips the
sepals are missing.

How are flowers arranged on the stem?

There is a great deal of variety in the way flowers are arranged on the main
stem of the plant, and in how many flowers there are altogether (Investiga¬ Figure 5 These are some of the ways the flowers
tion 3). Some common arrangements are shown in Figure 5. The collection of may be arranged on the stem of a plant. Notice that
the dandelion ‘flower' is not just one flower but a
flowers on the shoot is known as the inflorescence. whole mass of very small flowers or florets sitting on
top of the swollen end of the stem.

Pollen and pollination

Pollen grains are very small bodies like specks of dust. Their job is the same
as an animal's sperms: to fertilise the eggs.
The pollen grains develop inside the anthers. When the anther is mature, it
splits open and the pollen grains are released. They are then conveyed to
another flower of the same species, and if one of them gets onto a stigma, it
sticks to it. The process by which the pollen grains are conveyed from the
anthers to the stigma is called pollination (Figure 6).

Fertilisation
Once a pollen grain has landed on a stigma, it sends out a snake-like
outgrowth called a pollen tube (Investigation 4). This grows into the stigma
and down the style. It is attracted by sugar in the stigma and nourished by
substances in the tissues of the style. Towards the tip of the pollen tube there
is a male nucleus which is equivalent to the nucleus in the head of an
animal's sperm.
Having reached the ovary, the pollen tube pushes its way into the ovule,
usually through the micropyle. The tip of the pollen tube now grows towards
the egg cell in the centre of the ovule. Then the male nucleus fuses with the
egg cell. This is fertilisation, and is equivalent to the fertilisation of an egg by
a sperm in an animal.
The fertilised egg now divides up into a ball of cells which becomes an
embryo. This remains in the centre of the ovule, and becomes surrounded by
a special tissue called the endosperm which supplies it with food.
Meanwhile the ovule itself becomes the seed and the wall around it
hardens to form the tough seed coat. While this is happening the ovary
develops into a fruit. So the seed becomes surrounded by a fruit: cut open
any fruit and you will normally find seeds inside it.
Finally water is drawn out of the seeds so they become very dry. They then
Figure 6 In pollination pollen grains are transferred
become dormant, and in this state they can survive bad conditions such as
from an anther to a stigma. A pollen tube then grows
drought or cold. down the style to the ovary where fertilisation occurs.
370 Biology for life

The flower has now done its job, so the sepals shrivel up and the petals fall
off, leaving the fruit with the seeds inside.

Different methods of pollination

Pollination is usually carrried out either by wind or by insects (Investigation
5). It can also be carried out artificially by humans, and in the tropics some
flowers are pollinated by humming birds and bats.
Wind-pollinated plants include grasses, hazel and willow. The familiar
hazel catkins and pussy willows are clumps of very small male flowers whose
pollen is blown about by the wind. The pendulous way they hang down and
are shaken by even a slight gust of wind ensures that the pollen is scattered
over a wide area (Figure 7).
Insect-pollinated plants include buttercups, roses, wallflowers and many
others. Insects such as bees visit the flowers to feed on the nectar. As the
insect pokes its head into the flower, its hairy body gets covered with pollen
(Figure 8). When the insect visits other flowers, some of the pollen gets onto
the stigmas, thereby pollinating them.
Experiments have shown that insects such as bees are attracted to flowers
by their colour, shape and smell. Some flowers have gone to great lengths to
entice the insect and make sure that it gets covered with pollen. For example,
in orchids some of the petals form a kind of platform which the insect can
land on. Marks on the petal guide the insect to the nectar, like the landing
lights on an airport runway.
Figure 7 Pollen being scattered from hazel Some flowers are constructed in such a way that when the insect lands on it
catkins. and pushes its head in, the stamens are jerked so that the insect's body gets
well and truly covered with pollen.
One of the most interesting cases is an orchid whose flower looks like a
female wasp. When a male wasp sees the flower, it tries to copulate with it
and gets covered with pollen. It then tries the same thing with another
flower, pollinating it in the process.
Wind and insect pollination are quite different and require different
adaptations on the part of the flowers. You can often tell whether a particular
flower is pollinated by wind or insects just by looking at it. Table 1 sums up
the main differences between them.

Cross-pollination and self-pollination

By now you must be wondering why flowers go to such lengths to spread
their pollen. Why not let the pollen fall onto a stigma in the same flower?
Actually this does sometimes happen, and we call it self-pollination. But it
isn't good for the species. Cross-pollination, in which the pollen is
transferred to another flower, creates variety and is really much better.
So the various mechanisms which we have been discussing are really ways
of making certain that cross-pollination takes place. There are other devices
too. For example, in some flowers the stamens ripen before the carpels, so the
pollen grains will have been dispersed by the time the carpels are ready. In
other flowers the carpels ripen before the stamens. And some flowers are
Figure 8 A bee collecting nectar from a flower. exclusively male or female and these may be found on separate plants. This is
true of holly, for example.

Wind-pollinated flowers Insect-pollinated flowers

1 Generally small Generally larger

2 Petals green or dull coloured Petals often brightly coloured
3 Do not produce nectar Petals have nectaries which produce nectar
4 Flower hangs down for easy shaking Flower faces upwards
5 Stamens and stigma hang out of the ring of petals Stamens and stigma inside the ring of petals
6 Large number of pollen grains produced Smaller number of pollen grains produced
7 Pollen grains very light with smooth surface Pollen grains heavier with spikes for sticking to insect
8 Stigma has feathery branches for catching pollen Stigma is like pinhead and lacks branches

Table 1 Summary of the main differences between typical wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers.
 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants 371

-Investigation 1- rlnvestigation 4- ^Assignments-

Looking at the structure of a basic To find out what makes pollen grains 1 Each of the words in the left-hand
flower send out a tube column is related to one of the words
in the right-hand column. Write them
1 Obtain a flower from e.g. a cherry or 1 With a pipette put a drop of sugar
a hawthorn tree. down in the correct pairs.
solution (15% sucrose) onto a slide.
sepal colour
2 Identify its parts, using Figure 2 to 2 Obtain a flower, e.g. of nasturtium,
help you. petal egg cell
that has ripe pollen.
pollen sugar
3 Make an accurate drawing of the 3 With a paintbrush pick up a few nectary sperm
flower and label its parts. pollen grains from the anther and ovule leaflet
place them in the sugar solution.
4 Pull off a sepal, petal, stamen and 2 Explain the difference between
Put on a coverslip.
carpel, and lay them on a piece of pollination and fertilisation.
paper. 4 Set up a second slide, but put the
Why do plants generally produce
pollen grains into a drop of water
5 Examine each one under a hand very large numbers of pollen grains?
instead of sugar solution.
lens. Draw them in outline.
3 The flower shown diagrammatically
5 Place your two slides in a warm, dark
6 Cut open the carpel. below is pollinated by wind:
place for about 30 minutes.
Can you see ovules inside it?
6 After about 30 minutes look at the
7 Cut open an anther. slides under the microscope (low
power).
Can you see pollen grains inside?
How does the appearance of the pollen
grain differ in the two slides?
rInvestigation 2- What effect has the sugar had?
What does this suggest about the
Looking at other flowers stigmas in a flower?
How could your suggestion be tested?
1 Obtain up to six different kinds of
flowers.
How might this arrangement of
2 Examine each one carefully and rInvestigation 5- flower parts favour cross-
write down how it differs from the pollination?
flower which you looked at in Exploring the differences between
Investigation 1. wind- and insect-pollinated flowers 4 The flowers of primroses are of two
kinds. Some flowers have their
Suggest reasons why each kind of 1 Your teacher will give you one
anthers high up and their stigmas
flower has its own characteristic shape wind-pollinated and one
low down, whilst others have their
and form. insect-pollinated flower.
stigmas high up and their anthers
Which do you think is which? low down, as shown in the illustration

^Investigation 3-
How do you know? below. They are pollinated by bees.

2 Look carefully at each flower.

Looking at how flowers are arranged
on the stem Which features listed in Table 1 does
it possess? Does it have any other
1 Obtain up to four different kinds of
adaptations for pollination besides
flowering plant.
the ones listed in the Table?
2 Make a simple sketch of each plant,
3 Examine the insect-pollinated flower
showing how the flowers are
in more detail.
arranged on the stem.
What sort of insect do you suppose
3 In each case compare the
pollinates it? How might this arrangement of
arrangement of the flowers with the
Give reasons for your suggestion. flower parts favour cross¬
diagrams in Figure 5.
pollination?
4 If possible look at flowers being
Which diagram does it resemble
visited by insects. In each case 5 Suppose you want to grow a holly
most closely? observe what the insect does, and tree in your garden. What must you
Suggest why each arrangement should note any special adaptations which do to make sure that it bears
be useful to the plant. the flower has for being pollinated. berries?
 —Seeds and—
The structure of a broad bean seed
germination If you split a bean pod open you will see the seeds (beans) inside (Inves¬
tigation 1). Each seed is attached to the pod by a short seed stalk, and it is
Flowering plants produce surrounded by a tough seed coat (Figure 1). A black scar marks the position of
the seed stalk. Just above this is a tiny hole, the micropyle.
seeds. The seeds survive summer
Inside the seed coat is the embryo. This consists of a baby shoot (the
drought and winter cold, and in the plumule), a baby root (the radicle) and a pair of thick wing-like structures
right conditions they give rise called the seed leaves or cotyledons.
to new plants.
What happens when a seed produces a new plant?
If you put some seeds in a moist place, you can see what happens when they
produce new plants (Investigation 2). The process is called germination.
Stages in the germination of the broad bean are shown in Figure 2. First the
seed takes up water, mainly through the micropyle. This makes it swell
(Investigation 3). As a result, the seed coat bursts open, and the young root
and shoot grow out. The root grows downwards, and the shoot upwards.
The shoot is bent like a hook: this protects its delicate tip as it pushes its way
up through the soil (Investigation 4).
The tip of the root is protected by a slimy mass of loosely packed cells called
the root cap. This prevents it being damaged as it grows down into the soil.
The root gives off side-branches which help to anchor the young plant and
absorb water and minerals from the soil. Slender root hairs increase the
surface area for absorption.
The shoot eventually breaks through the surface of the soil. It then
straightens, and the first green leaves open out. We now call the young plant
a seedling.
For the embryo to grow like this, food is needed. Where does it come from?
In the broad bean it comes from the cotyledons which remain inside the seed
coat beneath the soil. Starch in the cotyledons is turned into soluble sugar:
this is then transported to the tips of the shoot and root where growth takes
place.
Once the seedling has formed its first green leaves, it can make its own
food by photosynthesis. It is then self-supporting: the cotyledons are no
longer needed, and so they wither away.

Different kinds of seeds

The broad bean is an example of a dicotyledon. The seed has two cotyledons.
Other examples are peas, sunflower and castor oil plants.

The root starts growing out The root grows down The shoot grows out. The root continues to The shoot breaks through
into the soil It is hook-shaped to grow down and the shoot the surface of the soil
prevent damage to grows upwards. and straightens. The
the tip. first leaves open out.
Side branches grow out
from the main root.
The seedling looks like this
about 12-14 days after
soaking the seed.

Figure 2 Germination of a broad bean seed

 Seeds and germination 373

Monocotyledons have only one cotyledon in their seeds (Figure 3).

Examples are grasses and cereal crops such as wheat and maize.
Seeds contain a food tissue called endosperm (see page 369). In most seeds
this is used up before the seeds are ready to germinate. But in some cases, for
example castor oil, the endosperm remains as a source of food during
germination.

Different kinds of germination

Look again at Figure 2. Notice that when the broad bean germinates the
cotyledons stay below the ground. We call this hypogeal germination ('hypo'
means below, and 'geal' means earth).
seed of a
Figure 4 shows how a sunflower seed germinates. It is quite different from
the broad bean. Notice that the cotyledons do not stay beneath the soil.
Instead they are lifted out of the soil with the growing shoot. We call this
epigeal germination ('epi' means above). When the cotyledons reach the
light, they turn green and start feeding the seedling by photosynthesis. Until
this happens the embryo is fed by food stores in the seed.
Wheat germinates like the broad bean but the shoot, instead of being
hooked, points straight up. Its delicate tip is protected by a sheath which we
call the coleoptile. When the first leaves open out, they break through the
seed of a
coleoptile, which then falls off. Wheat is a type of grass, and all grasses have a
coleoptile.

How long can seeds survive?

In 1933 a Japanese botanist found some lotus seeds in a dried-out lake bed in
Manchuria. He sent them to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. Scientists at
Kew put the seeds on moist blotting paper, and they sprouted into new
plants. These seeds were later found to be over a thousand years old.
More recently some viable lupin seeds were found buried in frozen soil in
Canada. These were estimated to be over ten thousand years old.
Figure 3 Dicotyledons have two cotyledons inside
Not all seeds can survive for as long as this. Many survive for up to a
their seeds, whereas monocotyledons have only
hundred years, others for about ten, and some last for only a few days. one.
Many seeds can withstand very bad weather. The seeds of desert plants
can stand up to long periods of drought, sprouting into new plants as soon as
it rains. And the seeds of Arctic plants can survive extremely cold winters.
How do seeds do this? No one knows for certain. In its dried-out state, and
protected within the seed coat, the embryo goes to sleep - it becomes
dormant. In this state it appears to be dead, but when conditions become
suitable it bursts into life.
374 Biology for life

What conditions are needed for germination? r Investigation 1-

How annoying it is when you plant seeds in the garden and they don't grow.
This is because the seed must have the right conditions in order to germinate. Looking at seeds
We can find out what these conditions are by trying to germinate seeds in 1 Split open a bean pod and notice the
different conditions (Investigation 5). From these experiments we can draw
row of beans inside. The beans are
the following conclusions: the seeds, and the pod is the fruit.
1 Water is essential for germination: without it seeds cannot swell up and
2 Look at the outside of a broad bean
burst open, and the embryo cannot grow. seed. Notice the structures shown in
2 A supply of oxygen is needed. This enables seeds to respire so they have Figure 1 A.
plenty of energy for germination.
3 Take a broad bean seed which has
3 A suitable temperature is required. This varies with different plants. been soaked in water and carefully
Usually seeds won't germinate when the temperature is below 0-5 °C or remove the coat. Can you see the
above 45-50 °C. structures shown in Figure 1B?

4 The effect of light is variable. Most seeds don't mind if it is light or dark. 4 Pipette a drop of iodine onto one of
However, some germinate only in the dark. Others require light: the amount the cotyledons inside the seed. What
needed may be very small - one quick flash is enough in some cases. Once colour does the cotyledon turn?
the young shoot begins to grow above the soil, light is needed for the leaves What does this tell you?
to make chlorophyll and start photosynthesising.
5’ Examine the seeds of other plants.
How do they differ from the broad
Our use of seeds bean?

Seeds contain a store of food for feeding the new plants as they develop. This
makes them a good source of food for man. In peas and beans the food is in
the cotyledons. In many other seeds it is in the endosperm. Such is the case
r Investigation 2-
with cereals like wheat and barley.
How do seeds germinate?
The seeds of cereal crops are known as the grains. The structure of a wheat
grain is shown in Figure 5. It is surrounded by a coat known as the bran. 1 Lay sheets of blotting paper in the
Inside is the embryo and a mass of endosperm tissue. bottom of a series of dishes.
Wheat is used for manufacturing flour from which, of course, bread is
2 Moisten the blotting paper with
made. Usually the bran and embryo are removed from the grain, leaving only
water.
the endosperm. This consists almost entirely of starch. When it is ground up
(milled) it gives us white flour. 3 In each dish sprinkle some seeds of
Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, is ground up. This gives us different plants, e.g. mustard, cress,
brown flour from which wholemeal bread is made. The brown colour is due wheat, radish etc.
to a pigment in the bran. Wholemeal bread is good for you. This is because
4 Observe the way the seeds
the whole wheat grain contains not only starch but other useful substances as
germinate.
well. These include vitamin Bi and cellulose. The cellulose makes wholemeal
bread coarser than white and provides roughage in the diet. White flour has
some of the missing nutrients (but not usually cellulose) added to it after
milling. So white bread is good for you too, though normally it lacks fibre.
-Investigation 3-
Wheat grain, and hence flour, contains a protein called gluten which
The effect of water on a seed
makes dough sticky. When dough is warmed its stickiness causes it to
hold gas, so it rises. Gluten is therefore important in baking bread. 1 Obtain a dry broad bean seed.

2 Weigh the dry seed and write down

its mass.

3 Put the seed in water and leave it

for 24-48 hours.

4 Take the soaked seed out of the

water and blot it.

5 Weigh the soaked seed and write

down its mass.

Work out the percentage increase in

mass of the soaked seed.

Figure 5 A wheat seed sliced down the middle so as to show its internal structure.
 Seeds and germination 375

Investigation 4- rInvestigation 5-
Watching broad bean seeds To find out the conditions needed for
germinating germination
1 Put some water in the bottom of a jar. 1 Push some cotton wool into the 5 Observe the test tubes at intervals
bottom of five large test tubes. during the next few days.
2 Roll up a piece of blotting paper,
and put it in the jar as shown in the 2 Pour a little water into four of the test In which tubes does germination take
illustration. Tilt the jar so the blotting tubes, so as to moisten the cotton place, and noftake place?
paper is thoroughly wetted: this will wool. Leave the other one dry.
What conclusions do you draw as
make it stick to the side of the jar.
3 Sprinkle some cress seeds onto the regards the conditions needed for
cotton wool in each test tube. germination?

4 Set up the test tubes as shown in the What is the purpose of the tube marked
illustration. ‘control’?
roll of damp blotting paper
cotton wool soaked seal round
in pyrogallol stopper cover with
to absorb oxygen with vaseline cardboard box put in fridge

W
control dry cotton wool no oxygen no light cold
no water

rAssignments-
1 Peas were placed on moist cotton 2 Seeds which are planted too deep in
wool in a retort flask and set up as the soil won’t germinate. Suggest
shown in the diagram below. The two possible reasons for this.
flask was then left for two days: Describe an experiment which you
would carry out to test one of your
air. suggestions.

3 The graph below shows how the dry

peas. mass of a germinating seed (and
cotton wool
seedling) changes from the moment
3 Push several broad bean seeds germination starts. (The dry mass is
between the blotting paper and the estimated by getting rid of all traces
side of the jar. Be careful they don’t of water from the plant and then
fall into the water at the bottom. weighing it.)
potassium
4 Observe the broad beans at hydroxide
solution_
intervals over the next ten days or
so, and watch stages in germination.
a) What would you expect to have
Do your observations agree with the
happened to the level of the
diagrams in Figure 2?
potassium hydroxide solution
Why is the shoot hook-shaped to begin after two days?
with? b) What would have happened to
the composition of the air in the
Where does the seedling get its food
flask?
from? c) What conclusion would you draw
What do you think makes the shoot from the result of this
grow upwards and the root experiment? a) How do you think this experiment
downwards? d) By means of diagrams show was actually carried out?
what controls are needed in this b) Explain what is happening at
experiment. points A and B on the graph.
 —Fruits and —

dispersal
We usually think of a
fruit as something soft, juicy
and good to eat. In this Topic we will
look at different kinds of fruit, and
see why they are important
to plants.

Figure 1 Seeds being dispersed from a poppy fruit.

What are fruits?

The fruit is the part of the plant which surrounds the seed or seeds. Its job is
to help disperse the seeds, ensuring that they are spread over as wide an area
as possible (Figure 1).
Fruits are formed from the ovaries of the flower. After fertilisation, the
ovary swells up into the fruit and the ovules inside become the seeds (Figure
2). The way a particular fruit helps dispersal depends on what kind of fruit it
is. Looking at fruits as a whole, there are two main kinds, fleshy and dry.

Fleshy fruits
A fleshy fruit is one in which the main part of the fruit, formed from the
ovary, is soft and juicy. The seeds, which are usually hard, are located
somewhere inside (Investigation 1). Examples are plums and tomatoes
(Figure 3A and B).
Fleshy fruits usually taste good and are a useful food. They are therefore
eaten by animals, particularly birds. If the seed is large it is left behind or
thrown away as the flesh is eaten. If the whole fruit is eaten the soft part is
digested but the seeds, protected by their hard coat, resist the action of the
animal's digestive juices and pass out with its faeces. They may be deposited
a long way from the parent plant, and in this way the seeds get widely
dispersed. Fleshy fruits are often highly coloured so as to attract animals -
think of bright red cherries, for example.
There are other fleshy fruits in which the soft juicy part is formed from a
part of the flower other than the ovary. These are called false fleshy fruits.
Examples are strawberry and apple, in which the fruit is a swollen receptacle
(Figure 3C and D).
Man cultivates fruits on a large scale. However, the food substances
inside them tend to be very dilute because so much water is present. For
example, strawberries consist of over 90 per cent water, and their main food
value lies in the fact that they happen to contain quite a lot of iron.

Dry fruits
Figure 2 After fertilisation the petals of this
A dry fruit is one in which the fruit is relatively hard and dry. There are many
foxglove fall off and the ovaries enlarge to form the
fruits. The top photograph shows flowers and different kinds, but one of the best known is the pod, characteristic of the pea
young fruits towards the top of the shoot. The and bean family (Investigation 2). The 'peas' and 'beans' themselves are the
bottom photograph shows older fruits lower down. seeds (Figure 3E).
 Fruits and dispersal 377

A Plum. This is a fleshy fruit containing a single

seed.

B Tomato. This is a fleshy fruit containing several

rows of seeds.

C Strawberry. This is a false fleshy fruit where the

true fruits (the pips) are on the surface of the swollen
receptacle.

D Apple. This is a false fleshy fruit where the true

fruit (the core) is surrounded by the swollen
receptacle.

E Pea. The pod is a dry fruit which contains a row of

seeds.
pea withered base of style sepal

;<^6 6 6 6 6
ovary
leathery wall of fruit (pod)

seed

The pod splits open and the seeds are thrown out.

Figure 3 A selection of fruits, showing how they are formed.

378 Biology for life

Figure 4 The fruits of burdock have hooks which

cling to the fur of animals.

Figure 6 The fruits of the sycamore tree have 'wings' which enable them to whirl through
the air.

Figure 5 Goosegrass has fruits which are covered Figure 7 Dandelion fruits are like little parachutes.
with little hooks.
 Fruits and dispersal 379

Pods have a leathery skin. When the skin dries out the pod splits open with
such force that the seeds are scattered over a fairly wide area. Fruits which
release their seeds by splitting open are known as dehiscent fruits.
The poppy fruit in Figure 1 is another example of a dehiscent fruit. It is like
a pepper pot and the seeds are scattered when the plant is shaken by the
wind.
Other dry fruits do not release their seeds by splitting open. We call them
indehiscent fruits. They have various methods of dispersal, some of which
are shown in Figures 4 to 7. For example, the fruits of goosegrass and
burdock have hooks which cling to the fur of animals and to people's clothes.
Some fruits are light and have 'parachutes' or 'wings' which enable them to
be carried by the wind, and fruits like the coconut contain air spaces which
enable them to float in water. Floating seeds can obviously be larger than
air-borne seeds, and the coconut in Figure 8 is in fact the largest seed known.
Nuts such as acorns and beechnuts are dispersed by untidy animals such as
squirrels which collect them and accidentally drop them.
Dispersal is important because it helps plants to colonise new areas. It also
Figure 8 Fruit of the coco-de-mer palm from the
prevents the seedlings being so overcrowded that they compete with each Seychelles. It contains a single seed and may weigh
other. »■ over 20 kg.

Investigation 1- pInvestigation 2- -Assignments-

Looking at fleshy fruits Looking at dry fruits 1 What is the difference between a
fruit and a seed?..
1 Obtain two tomatoes. These are the 1 Obtain a pea or bean pod.
fruits of the tomato plant. 2 Give an example of a fruit which is
The pod is the fruit of the pea or
dispersed by
What are the small leaf-like bean plant. It is also found in other
a) wind,
structures at the end? plants belonging to the same family,
b) an animal,
e.g. gorse, broom, laburnum and
2 Cut one tomato transversely, and the c) water.
lupins.
other longitudinally. Why is it important that fruits should
2 Open the pod by splitting it down the be dispersed as widely as possible?
How are the pips (seeds) arranged
side. 3 Give one example of each of the
inside the fruit?
How are the seeds arranged inside following:
Which structures in Figure 3B can a) a fleshy fruit formed from the
the pod9
you see? ovary of the flower,
Which structures in Figure 3E can b) a false fleshy fruit formed from
3 Look at fruits growing on a tomato
you see? the receptacle,
plant.
3 Look at pods that are still attached to c) a dry fruit whose seeds (but not
What were they formed from the fruit itself) are eaten by man,
the whole plant.
originally? d) a dry fruit whose seeds andfruit
What were they formed from are eaten by man.
How are the seeds dispersed?
originally?
How is the fruit adapted for this kind 4 Look at the fruits in Figures 4-7. In
How are the seeds dispersed? each case say how the fruit is
of dispersal?
How is the pod adapted for this kind dispersed.
4 Examine other examples of fleshy
of dispersal? Which do you think is carried (a) the
fruits.
4 Examine other examples of dry longest distance, and (b) the
Find out where the seeds are, and shortest distance? Give reasons for
fruits.
how they are arranged. your answer.
In each case locate the seeds and
5 Examine an apple. 5 The seeds found inside fleshy fruits
try to explain how they are
Where are the seeds in this fruit? dispersed. generally have a hard seed coat.
Suggest two functions of the seed
Which structures in Figure 3D can 5 In the case of dehiscent fruits, if you
coat.
you see? put the fruit under a hot lamp it may
split open. 6 In a fleshy fruit, food substances
Which part of the original flower is such as carbohydrate are highly
the fleshy part of the apple formed Try this with the fruits of, e.g., concentrated inside the seeds, but
from? geranium and rosebay willowherb. very dilute in the fleshy part of the
fruit. Explain the difference.
 -Vegetative-
Perennating organs
reproduction You may have noticed that many garden plants die down in the autumn, but
the following spring they grow up again in the same place. This is because
Some plants survive from they formed special storage organs during the summer which they filled up
with food such as starch. The organ remains dormant in the soil after the rest
one year to the next by means
of the plant has died, and the next year a new plant grows out of it (Figure 1).
other than seeds, and this gives
them an alternative method
Summer Autumn Winter Spring
of reproduction. Leaves make food Underground parts Leaves and stem New shoot grows up
which is sent to are swollen with food die but storage from storage organ
underground parts organ remains and food moves into
dormant in the soil it

Figure 1 These diagrams show how a storage organ

enables a plant to survive the winter and come up
again in spring.

Such organs enable plants to carry on from one year to the next, and so
they are called perennating organs. (The word perennating means 'through
the year'.) There are many examples of perennating organs, and they can be
Figure 2 Different kinds of perennating organs formed from different parts of the plant (Figure 2).

Bulb Corm Taproot

Swollen leaves on a flat stem Swollen vertical stem Swollen main root (taproot)

new shoot
bud which will give rise
swollen leaves to new shoot
containing food for
corm will be
new shoot swollen taproot
formed here
containing food for
swollen stem new shoot
bud which will give rise
to new shoot containing food for
new shoot
buds which will give rise side roots
to new bulbs which will give rise
to a new corm
roots
Drevious years’ corms

Example: onion Example: crocus Example: carrot

Rhizome Stem tuber Root tuber

Swollen horizontal stem Swollen tip of a horizontal underground stem Swollen fibrous (adventitious) root

new shoot
new shoot
bases of swollen stem
previous containing bud which new shoot
years’ food for will fibrous
shoots new give rise roots root containing
to new food for a new
rhizome swollen stem shoot
containing food for
new shoot
dormant bud (‘eye’)

roots

Example: iris Example: potato Example .dahlia

 Vegetative reproduction 381

Vegetative reproduction
Consider a potato plant. This forms stem tubers (the potatoes) which are
swollen underground stems (Investigation 2). Now a single plant produces
not just one tuber, but many, perhaps six or so altogether (Figure 3). These
tubers rest in the soil during the winter, and in the following summer each
one can give rise to a new plant. This is therefore a method of reproduction as
well as a way of getting through the winter. It is known as vegetative
reproduction (Figure 4).
Other plants, too, can reproduce by means of their perennating organs. A
bulb, for example, may sprout a new bulb from the side during the growing
season. When gardeners dig up daffodil bulbs after the plants have died
down, they will break off any such new bulbs and plant them separately the
following year.

Other methods of vegetative reproduction

Vegetative reproduction does not necessarily involve the formation of
perennating organs. Many plants reproduce vegetatively by other means.
This generally involves the plant sending out a side branch from which roots Figure 3 A single potato plant, showing the tubers.

Figure 4 These diagrams show how a potato plant

grow down into the soil. For example, some plants form runners. A runner is
reproduces vegetatively.
a branch of the main stem which lengthens and creeps along the surface of
the ground. Roots grow down from it at intervals as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 How plants produce runners. The
Eventually the parts of the runner in between the roots wither away, so a row photograph shows a young strawberry plant
of new plants is produced. Strawberry plants spread in this way. growing from a runner.
382 Biology for life

cut off branch stick it in roots grow

the soil down from
cut end of
the stem

Figure 6 Layering. Figure 7 A spider plant with stolons. Figure 8 Taking 3 cutting.

Gardeners sometimes produce new shrubs by a process called layering

(Figure 6). A young branch of a shrub is bent down and pressed into the soil.
If necessary a brick can be used to hold it down. Hopefully, roots will grow
out from the covered part of the branch. Once the roots are established, the
branch can be cut so a new plant is produced. Some plants do this naturally,
sending out a drooping branch which touches the ground and then roots
itself. An example is shown in Figure 7. Rooting side branches of this kind are
called stolons.
People often reproduce their favourite plants by taking cuttings (Investiga¬
tion 3). To do this you cut off a healthy young branch, preferably just below a
node, and remove most of its leaves. You then stick the cut end into some
good soil. With luck, roots will grow out, and the cutting becomes established
as a new plant (Figure 8).

Grafting and budding

Grafting is a special method of reproducing trees and is used a lot by
gardeners. It involves placing the cut stems of two plants in contact with each
other so that the tissues join together and become continuous. Figure 9 shows
Figure 9 Grafting one plant on to another. This one way of doing this.
particular kind of graft is called a crown graft. A twig (the scion) is cut off the tree you want to reproduce, and it's grafted
onto the cut stem (the stock) of another type of tree. Once the two cut
surfaces have been brought together, the two plants should be bound with
tape or raffia and the joint covered with wax to prevent evaporation and stop
microbes getting into it (Figure 10).
Another way of reproducing trees is by budding. In this case you cut a
T-shaped slit in the bark of the stock and you cut out a bud from another
plant. You then insert the bud into the slit. As with grafting, the two are then
tied together and protected with wax (Figure 11).
Budding enables a large number of new plants to be grown on a single
stock plant. Each bud grows into an individual plant and they will all be the
same genetically, like identical twins. So if a gardener wants to produce a
large number of, say, rose bushes of a particular kind, this is a good way of
doing it.
In grafting and budding the stock is chosen for its good roots and its
resistance to disease. The scion is chosen for its good flowers or fruits. The
new plant combines the best qualities of both the stock and the scion.
Figure 10 This gardener has grafted several How do grafting and budding work? Near the surface of a woody stem is a
scions onto a stock. layer of dividing cells called the cambium (see page 328). When the scion is
 Vegetative reproduction 383

attached to the stock their cambium layers are brought together. The
make slit in
cambium cells then form new vascular tissues which link the stock and the bark of stock
scion with one another. and turn back flaps

The pros and cons of vegetative reproduction

The main advantage of vegetative reproduction is that it's a very sure way of
producing new plants. It does not depend on pollination and seed dispersal,
there is no need for a dormant period, and there are large reserves for the new
plants to feed on when they start developing. What's more, a gardener can be
sure that his new plants will be exactly like the parent plants.
The main disadvantage is that the quality of the plants cannot be improved.
This is because the offspring show no genetic variation. Lack of variation also
put bud into slit and close flaps
means that any weaknesses will show up in the offspring after several
generations, and diseases will automatically be passed to the offspring. Also, Figure 11 Budding one plant onto another. The
the plants may be overcrowded because they have not been dispersed by scion forms the shoot and fruits, while the stock
seeds. forms the base of the tree and the roots.

-Investigation 1- Investigation 2- Investigation 3-

Looking at bulbs Looking at potatoes Taking cuttings
1 With a knife slice an onion bulb down 1 Examine a potato tuber. 1 Fill a test tube with water.
the middle.
The ‘eyes’ are small lateral buds. 2 Cut off a side-branch from a busy
lizzie plant. Make the cut just
2 Look at a potato tuber which has
below a node.
been left for some weeks in a warm
place and is ‘sprouting’. 3 Remove some of the leaves. This is
to prevent it losing too much water.
What structures are the new shoots
growing from? 4 Stick the cut end of the branch in the
test tube of water.
How does the tuber differ in
appearance from the previous one? 5 Place the test tube in a warm, well-lit
place, and observe your cutting at
Where are the new shoots getting
Which structures in Figure 2 can you intervals during the next few weeks.
their food from?
see? Why are the inner leaves thick?
Do any roots grow out of it?
3 Look at a complete potato plant
2 Look at another bulb which is
which has been carefully dug up. Suggest an experiment which could
beginning to sprout into a new plant.
be done to find out what conditions
Can you see the old tuber from
What is the new shoot growing from? are needed in order for roots to grow
which it grew?
Where is the shoot getting its food out.
from? How many new tubers has it formed?
What will happen to the bulb when
the new plant is full-grown?

Assignments
1 Why are perennating organs also 3 Potato tubers which are suitable for a) not to take a shoot which has a
described as storage organs? planting are called ‘seed potatoes’. flower on it,
When gardeners plant seed b) to cut off some of the leaves
2 What, if anything, is wrong with each
potatoes they usually rub off all but before you plant it.
of these remarks?
about two of the ‘eyes’. Why do you
a) Potato tubers are formed at the Give a possible reason for each of
think they do this?
ends of the roots. the above.
b) Grafting is better than budding 4 What are the advantages to a
What else can you do to help the
because it produces more new gardener of propagating a plant by
cutting to take?
plants. vegetative means?
c) Daffodils reproduce asexually by
5 When taking a cutting it is advisable:
means of bulbs.
 Chromosomes,
What are chromosomes?
genes and cell If you stain cells with certain dyes, the chromosomes show up under the

division microscope. However, if you look at an ordinary resting cell, you can't see the
chromosomes very well. This is because they are very thin, like fine pieces of
thread. To see them clearly you must look at the cell when it's about to divide:
at this stage they get shorter and fatter and this makes them show up
The nuclei of all living cells
distinctly (Figure 1).
contain chromosomes. In this Topic Careful observation shows that each chromosome has another one exactly
voe shall see what chromosomes like it. Scientists have found that in virtually all cells, both animal and plant,
are and what they do. the chromosomes are in pairs like this. The two chromosomes belonging to a
pair look exactly alike, and we call them homologous chromosomes:
homologous comes from Greek and means 'agreeing'.
The total number of chromosomes in the cell varies from one type of
organism to another. The cell in Figure 1 has only ten (five pairs). However,
humans have-46 (23 pairs). You can see them in Figure 2.

What are genes?

Chromosomes contain genes which determine the individual's characteris¬
tics, such as eye colour and nose shape. The genes are arranged along the
length of each chromosome like a string of beads (Figure 3). Each gene
controls a specific characteristic, though sometimes a characteristic may be
controlled by several genes acting together.
Figure 1 Chromosomes as they appear at different
When a cell divides, it's very important that the genes should be shared out
stages in the life of a cell.
evenly between the two daughter cells, and this means that the chromosomes
must behave in an orderly way.

What happens when cells divide?

Cells divide in two different ways, by mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is the kind
of cell division that occurs during growth and asexual reproduction. Meiosis,
on the other hand, takes place during the formation of eggs and sperms. The
chromosomes behave differently in these two types of cell division.

Mitosis
Figure 4 shows what happens to the chromosomes during mitosis. The
parent cell has four chromosomes: two long ones and two short ones. Notice
that the two daughter cells have exactly the same number and kinds of
chromosomes as the parent cell: two long and two short.
If you study Figure 4, you will see how this is achieved. Before the cell
starts to divide, each chromosome produces an exact copy or replica of itself.
The original chromosome and its replica are called chromatids, and they are
held together by a structure called the centromere. The chromatids now line
up across the middle of the cell. Then they part company and move to
opposite ends of the cell. Finally the cell splits across the middle, and the
chromatids become chromosomes of the daughter cells.
Figure 2 The full set of chromosomes of a human
male as seen under the microscope just before the Do you agree that the chromosomes behave in such a way that the
cell divides. At this stage each chromosome can daughter cells are bound to have the same number and kinds of chromo¬
be seen to consist of two strands joined together somes as the original cell? This means that as an organism grows, all the new
about halfway along. cells will have the same chromosome make-up. And it ensures that when an
organism reproduces asexually its offspring are identical to the parent as far
as their chromosomes and genes are concerned.
A good place to observe mitosis is in the tip of a developing shoot or root
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
where rapid growth is taking place (Investigation).

Meiosis
Figure 5 shows what happens during meiosis. The parent cell has four
chromosomes as before. However, in this case each daughter cell contains
Figure 3 In this chromosome the genes are shown
only two chromosomes: one long one and one short one. In other words the
as white discs. The genes at particular positions (1,
2, 3, etc.) generally control specific characteristics. daughter cells contain half the original number of chromosomes.
 Chromosomes, genes and cell division 385

parent cell B parent cell first division

meiosis
the chromosomes shorten and
fatten and become visible
the chromosomes become visible.

each chromosome produces a

replica of itself

homologous chromosomes come

together and arrange themselves
across the middle of the cell

homologous chromosomes part

company and move to opposite ends
of the cell which starts to split into two

the chromosomes line up across the

middle of the cell

Ay
< >
<< >
>
the chromatids separate and move
to opposite ends of the cell and the
cell starts to split into two

the chromatids become the

chromosomes of the two
daughter cells; the cell has
finished splitting, and we
now have two cells each of
which contains the same
number of ;chromosomes
as the parent cell
the cells have finished splitting so we finish up with a total of four cells
daughter cells each of which contains half the original number of chromosomes

Figure 4 What the chromosomes do during mitosis. Figure 5 What the chromosomes do during meiosis.

If you study Figure 5, you will see how this comes about. The
chromosomes form chromatids as in mitosis. However, they line up across
the middle of the cell in a different way. In this case homologous
chromosomes come together, and then move away from each Qther to opposite
ends of the cell which then splits in two. There now follows a second cell
division in which the chromatids part company. So in meiosis there are two
cell divisions, one after the other, and the chromosomes behave in such a
way that the daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes present in
the original parent cell.
386 Biology for life

Figure 6 The human life cycle. The figures refer to A cell which has only half the full number of chromosomes is described as
the number of chromosomes in the cells. Meiosis haploid; a cell with the full number of chromosomes is described as a diploid.
takes place in the ovary and testis, and it results in
the egg and the sperm having half the full number of
Cells formed by meiosis are always haploid.
chromosomes. When fertilisation takes place the full Meiosis takes place in the ovary and testis where the eggs and sperms are
number is restored. All the cells of the adult have the formed. Why is it necessary for eggs and sperms to be formed by this kind of
full number of chromosomes because they are cell division? You can see why if you study Figure 6. This shows the human
formed by repeated mitotic divisions of the original
life cycle. Meiosis ensures that the number of chromosomes in the adult
fertilised egg.
human is always 46. If meiosis did not occur in the life cycle, the number of
chromosomes would double in every generation. Can you see why?

A boy or a girl?
What determines whether the fertilised egg develops into a boy or a girl?
Well, it depends on what kind of chromosomes the egg contains.
The cells of an adult human contain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). One pair
are called sex chromosomes because they determine the individual's sex.
There are two types of sex chromosome: a long one known as the X
chromosome, and a short one known as the Y chromosome. Males contain an
X and a Y chromosome, whereas females contain two X chromosomes.
Now the sperms which a male produces in his testes contain only one of
these two chromosomes, either an X or a Y. This is because they are formed
by meiosis. In fact, of all the sperms formed, half will be X and half Y. On the
other hand, all the eggs which the female produces in her ovaries will contain
an X chromosome. This is shown in the top part of Figure 7.
Now when fertilisation occurs, the egg may be fertilised by either an X
sperm or a«Y sperm. In fact if fertilisation is random, as it's believed to be,
there is an equal chance of either happening. If an X sperm fertilises the egg,
the zygote will contain two X chromosomes and this will develop into a
female. On the other hand if a Y sperm fertilises the egg, the zygote will
contain an X and a Y chromosome and will develop into a male. This is shown
in the bottom part of Figure 7

Chromosome abnormalities
Occasionally a baby is born with too few, or too many, chromosomes. In
some cases this does not matter, but in other cases it does. For example, in
the condition known as mongolism or Down's syndrome, there is one
extra chromosome. This gives rise to various mental and physical defects.
Down's syndrome is caused by an abnormal type of meiosis occurring in
the formation of the egg within the mother's ovary. This happens mainly in
older women.
Nowadays doctors can find out if a baby has any abnormal chromosomes
before it is born. A few detached cells are obtained from the amniotic cavity
while the baby is in the uterus. The cells are stained to show up the
chromosomes and examined under the microscope. If any abnormal cells are
Figure 7 A boy or girl? It all depends on the sex detected the mother is told and the possibility of an abortion may be
chromosomes. considered.
 Chromosomes, genes and cell division 387

Investigation PAssignments-
Looking at chromosomes in dividing 1 What is the difference between a
cells chromosome and a gene?
Obtain a prepared longitudinal section 2 Explain the meaning of each of the
of a root tip. Alternatively make your following:
own slide like this: a) homologous chromosomes,
b) chromatids,
1 Cut off the end of a young root about
5 mm back from the tip. c) gene.

3 Look at the cell shown below and

2 Place the root tip in a watch-glass of
then answer the questions beneath
acidified acetic orcein stain.
it.
3 Put the watch-glass on a warm
hotplate for five minutes. Don’t
overheat it!

4 Place the root tip on a slide with a

drop of the acetic orcein stain.

5 Break the root tip up with a needle so

as to spread the cells out as much
as possible. B Chromosomes line up across middle
of cell.
6 Put on a coverslip, cover it with
blotting paper and press gently.

7 Look at your slide under the

microscope: low power first, then a) How many chromosomes are
high power. there altogether?
b) How many pairs of homologous
Find cells which are undergoing
chromosomes are there?
mitosis.
c) If this cell divided by mitosis, how
Look at the chromosomes and C Chromatids begin to separate. many chromosomes would there
decide what stage of mitosis each be in each daughter cell?
cell has reached. Use the d) If the cell divided by meiosis,
photomicrographs to help you. how many chromosomes would
each daughter cell contain?
e) If the cell divided by meiosis how
many daughter cells would be
formed?

4 The human cell whose

D Chromatids continue to separate.
chromosomes are shown in Figure 2
was just about to divide by mitosis.
Which stage in Figure 4 does this
cell correspond to? Explain your
answer.

5 In a human being how many

chromosomes are present in:
a) a brain cell,
E Chromatids reach opposite ends of b) a sperm cell in the testis,
cell. c) an egg which has just been
produced in the ovary,

»
d) a skin cell,
e) a fertilised egg?

6 Mr and Mrs Cross have three

%
F Two new cells are formed.
children, all boys. They are sure that
their next child will be a girl. Do you
agree? Give the reason for your
answer.
 — Heredity —

Crossing plants
Why do children look like Suppose we have a bed of plants some of which have red flowers, and others
their parents? It's because of white. We take some pollen from a red flower and place it on the stigmas of a
white flower: in this way we cross the two plants. When the seeds develop,
the way genes are transmitted.
we sow them in the soil.
This is the science of heredity In time new plants grow up from the seeds, and they all have red flowers:
or genetics.
Parents: red X white
I
Offspring: all red

How can we explain this? Look at Figure 1. Each parent plant possesses in all
its cells a pair of genes which control flower colour. The red-flowered parent
contains two genes which make the flowers red: we can call them RR. The
white-flowered plant contains two genes which make the flowers white: we
can call them rr.
Now the pollen grains and egg cells (i.e. the gametes) contain only one of
these genes. Each pollen grain or egg cell produced by the red-flowered
parent contains one R gene; and each pollen grain or egg cell formed by the
white-flowered plant contains one r gene.
When fertilisation takes place, the R and r genes are brought together; so
each of the offspring contains one R gene and one r gene. We can call it Rr.
Now the offspring all have red flowers even though they contain an r gene.
We can explain this by saying that the R gene somehow suppresses the r
gene, so it can't exert its effect; in other words, the R gene is dominant over
the r gene. That's why we have written it with a capital letter. The r gene on
the other hand is recessive, and so it is represented by a small letter.
The genes controlling flower colour are located on a pair of homologous
Figure 1 The result of crossing two plants with red
chromosomes, one gene on each chromosome (see page 384). The pollen
and white flowers. The genes are indicated by
letters: R, red; r, white. The sausage-shaped grains and egg cells are formed by meiosis, in which the homologous
objects around the genes represent the chromosomes get separated from each other. This is why the pollen grains
chromosomes. and egg cells contain only one of these genes instead of the normal two.

Another plant cross

red flower parents red flower
The red-flowered offspring in the previous experiment belong to the first
filial generation (FI). Now suppose we take two of these plants and cross
them with each other. Or alternatively we might self-pollinate one of them.
The resulting seeds are then planted, and the new plants grow up and bear
flowers. They belong to the second filial generation (F2).
This time we get a mixture of red-flowered and white-flowered plants. On
counting each, we find that roughly three-quarters of them are red, and the
remaining quarter white. In other words they are in a ratio of 3 to 1:

Parents: red x red

I
Offspring: % red Va white

How can we explain this? Look at Figure 2. Each parent plant contains an R
and an r gene (Rr) as we have already seen. Now the pollen grains and egg
cells produced by these plants contain either an R gene or an r gene. In fact
there should be equal numbers of each type of gamete (R and r).
Fertilisation is completely random, and it's sheer chance as to which kind
of pollen grain fertilises which kind of egg cell. There are three possible ways
the genes might come together: two R genes might combine, giving RR; an R
gene might combine with an r gene, giving Rr. Both these combinations will,
of course, produce red flowers because, as we saw earlier, the R gene is
% red 'A white dominant to the r gene. Alternatively two r genes might combine, giving rr
which will produce white flowers.
Figure 2 shows how these combinations are brought about. If you look at
Figure 2 The result of crossing two red-flowered the checkerboard at the bottom of the diagram, you will see that three-
plants from the offspring in Figure 1, or self- quarters of the offspring contain at least one R gene and will therefore have
pollinating one of them. red flowers. The remaining quarter are all rr with white flowers. These are the
 Heredity 389

proportions which we would expect, and they are confirmed when the actual
cross is carried out.
white flower parents red flower

Doing a back cross

Plainly there are two kinds of red-flowered plants: those that have two R
genes (RR), and those that have an R and an r gene (Rr). Both look exactly
alike, so you can't tell which is which just by looking, at them. How, then,
could you tell if a given plant is RR or Rr?
One way would be to cross it with one of the original white-flowered
plants. This is called a back cross. If the red-flowered plant is RR, the
offspring will all be red-flowered (as in Figure 1). On the other hand if it's Rr,
we would expect to get a mixture of red-flowered and white-flowered plants
in roughly equal proportions (Figure 3).

Producing plants with the same flower colour

Suppose you are a market gardener and you find that your customers want
mainly white-flowered plants. How could you produce nothing but white-
flowered plants?
The answer would be to cross two white-flowered plants with each other,
or to self-pollinate one of them. You know that these plants must be rr, so the
offspring are bound to be rr too, that is white just like the parents. And if you
cross two of these offspring with each other, or self-pollinate one of them,
their offspring will also be white rr, and so on down the generations. This is
called breeding true, and it gives us a pure line. In a pure line all the red flower white flower

individuals have the same genes with respect to a particular characteristic.

Suppose your customers wanted only red-flowered plants. In that case you Figure 3 The result of a back-cross between a
red-flowered and white-flowered plant. Symbols as
would have to cross two red RR plants with each other, or self-pollinate one
in Figure 1.
of them. You'd need to make sure that these plants were RR and not Rr,
because if both of them were Rr you would get some white plants amongst
the offspring.
When you cross two pure lines which are genetically different, such as RR
and rr, you get plants which are called hybrids. Hybrids do not breed true.

The rules of genetics

From the crosses described above we can make four general statements:

1 An organism's characteristics are passed down from one generation to the

next by definite objects called genes.
2 The genes normally exist in pairs, one of which may be dominant.
3 In a gamete only one of the two genes is present.
4 If the dominant and recessive genes are present together in an individual, it
is the dominant one which produces an effect.

These are the basic rules of genetics. They were first discovered by an
Austrian monk called Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) (Figure 4). He did experi¬
ments with pea plants, studying the inheritance of such characteristics as the
colour of the flowers, height of the plant, texture of the seeds, and so on.
Investigations 1 and 2 will help you to understand the rules of genetics.
Since Mendel's day the same rules have been found to apply to other plants
and also to animals. For example, an American scientist called T.H. Morgan
studied inheritance in the fruit-fly Drosophila. This little insect has a number
of clear-cut characteristics such as the colour of its eyes and the size of its
wings, and it breeds quickly. It is therefore ideal for studying heredity
(Investigation 3). In more recent years scientists have found that certain
human characteristics are inherited in the same kind of way.

Some technical terms

Looking back over the crosses which we have just considered, there are two Figure 4 Gregor Mendel, the Austrian monk who
ways of describing a plant. We can describe it in terms of its outward discovered the rules of genetics.
390 Biology for life

appearance, e.g. red-flowered or white-flowered. This is known as its

phenotype. Alternatively we can describe it in terms of the genes that it
contains, e.g. RR, Rr or rr. This is known as its genotype. When the genotype
for a particular characteristic consists of two identical genes, for example RR
or rr, we say that the organism is homozygous. If the two genes are both
dominant, the organism is homozygous dominant; if they are both recessive,
it is homozygous recessive.
When the genotype consists of two contrasting genes, for example Rr, we
say that the organism is heterozygous. For example, the red-flowered
offspring in Figure 1 would be described as heterozygous for flower colour.
Genes such as R and r which control the same characteristic but produce
different effects are known as alleles. Alleles occur at the same positions on a
pair of homologous chromosomes (see page 384). The term allele is
commonly used by geneticists, but in this book we will keep to the word
gene.

Human genetics
Try rolling your tongue longways into a U-shape (Figure 5). Some people can
do this, others can't. Tongue-rolling is caused by a dominant gene which we
can call T. People who can roll their tongue are either homozygous dominant
(TT) or heterozygous (Tt). People who can't roll their tongue are
homozygous recessive (tt).
What happens if a non-roller mates with a heterozygous roller? The answer
is given in Figure 6. Half the children should be rollers, and half non-rollers.
Of course human beings don't produce large numbers of offspring like plants
Figure 5 Diane can roll her tongue. and fruit-flies, so it doesn't mean much to put it that way. It is more useful to
say that there is an equal chance of any given child which they produce turning
out to be a roller or non-roller.
What happens if two heterozygous rollers mate? If you look at Figure 7 you
 Heredity 391

will see the answer: there is a three to one chance that any given child which Figure 8 Family pedigree showing the inheritance
of night-blindness, a condition in which it’s difficult
they produce will be a roller.
to see in dim light. The condition is controlled by a
What will be the outcome of matings bety/een (1) two homozygous rollers, single pair of genes, the gene for night-blindness
(2) two non-rollers, (3) a homozygous roller and a non-roller? being dominant.
We have seen that a heterozygous individual can roll his tongue - indeed
he can roll it just as well as a homozygous dominant individual. However, he
possesses the 'non-rolling' recessive gene (t) which he may pass on to his
children. He is therefore described as a carrier of the recessive gene.

Pedigrees
A pedigree is an individual's ancestral line of descent with respect to a
particular characteristic or trait. It involves tracing back his or her history
through the parents, grandparents and so on. A pedigree can be established
for any kind of organism whose ancestors are known.
A human pedigree for a particular trait is shown in Figure 8. Males are
represented by squares, females by circles. Individuals showing the trait are
represented by a filled-in square or circle; those not showing it are repre¬
sented by an open square or circle.
Having built up a chart like this, it's possible to work out the genotypes, or
possible genotypes, of the various individuals. From this it may be possible to
work out the chance of the trait appearing in the next generation.
It's amazing how some features persist in a family. A famous example of
this is the drooping lower lip of the Habsburg family (Figure 9). By looking at
family portraits, this feature can be traced back through several centuries. It's
thought to have been caused by a single dominant gene.

Do genes always show their dominance?

Look at Figure 10. Don't turn over yet: interpret the diagram first!

Figure 9 Two members of the Hapsburg family,

showing the famous ‘Hapsburg lip1. Above: Philip
Figure 10 Can you interpret the result of this cross? IV of Spain 1605 -1665. Below: Ferdinand I of
Austria 1793- 1875.
392 Biology for life

In Figure 10 a red-flowered plant is crossed with a white-flowered plant as

in the first experiment described in this Topic (Figure 1). However, instead of
getting red-flowered plants in the next generation, the offspring are pink!
In this case the R gene doesn't completely suppress the r gene: we say that
it is only partially dominant over it. We call this incomplete dominance. So
when the flowers develop, the r gene is able to produce a slight effect,
resulting in a pink colour.
This kind of thing occurs in both plants and animals. In plants, the petal
colours are inherited in this way in snapdragons. An animal example is found
in American shorthorn cattle: if a red-haired bull mates with a white-haired
cow, the calves may have a mixture of red and white hairs.

The inheritance of blood groups

You may remember that everyone's blood belongs to a particular group
known as A, B, AB or O. Now the particular group that a person belongs to
depends on whether he possesses certain genes. There are three genes
altogether, but a given individual can only have two of them.
To belong to group A, you must have either two A genes (AA) or an A gene
with an O gene (AO). To belong to group B, you must have either two B
genes (BB) or a B gene with an O getre (BO). To belong to group AB, you
must have the A and B genes together. And finally, to belong to group O, you
must have two O genes (OO). Neither the A nor the B genes are dominant
over each other. However, both are dominant to the O gene.
Suppose a man belonging to group A marries a woman belonging to group
O, and they have a child. What blood group will the child belong to? The
answer depends on whether the husband's genotype is AA or AO. If it's AA,
then the child must belong to group A. On the other hand, if the husband's
genotype is AO, there's an equal chance of the child belonging to group A or
group O. If you are uncertain about this have a look at Figure 11.
Blood groups are sometimes used in court cases. For example, Mrs Green
claims that Mr White is the father of her child. Their bloods are tested, and it
turns out that Mrs Green belongs to group B, the child to group AB and Mr
White to group O. This shows that Mr White could not possibly be the father
of the child. Not all cases are as clear-cut as this!

Inherited diseases
Some genes produce harmful effects. Such genes may be either dominant or
recessive. For example, there is a very serious defect of the pancreas called
cystic fibrosis: this is caused by a recessive gene which is passed on just like
the gene for non-rolling in Figure 6.
If a couple give birth to a child with an inherited disease, or if there is a
history of a particular disease in either of their families, their doctor can
arrange for them to see a genetic counsellor. The genetic counsellor will try to
work out the chance of their next child being born with the disease. To do this
he will need to know the parents' pedigrees.
In the case of a recessive disease, a heterozygous person will be healthy
Figure 11 These diagrams show the way the ABO
blood groups are inherited in humans. because the 'normal' gene is dominant to the gene for the disease. However,
he or she is a carrier of the recessive gene and may hand it on to the children.

Sex linkage
Some genes are carried on the sex chromosomes (page 386). An example is
the gene for colour blindness. In this condition a person is unable to see red
and green: they appear as different shades of grey. The gene for normal sight
(N) is dominant, and that for colour blindness (n) is recessive.
As you know, the X chromosome is longer than the Y chromosome. The
Figure 12 Various possibilities for a sex-linked gene for colour blindness is carried only on the X chromosome, and does not
disease such as colour blindness. The long
occur at all on the Y chromosome. This gives us three possible genotypes for
chromosomes are X chromosomes, and the short
ones are Y chromosomes. females and two for males (Figure 12).
 Heredity 393

Colour blindness is more common in men because the recessive gene on

the male's X chromosome can show its effect. In a woman both X chromo¬
somes have to carry the recessive gene for her to be colour-blind. If she has
one recessive and one dominant gene she can see normally but is a carrier.
Figure 13 shows the cross between a carrier mother and a normal father.
What will each of the offspring be like? Work out the offspring that might be
produced by (a) a normal mother and a colour-blind father, and (b) a carrier
mother and a colour-blind father.
Colour blindness is not dangerous. The worst problems are in matching
one's clothes and coping with traffic lights!
A much more serious sex-linked disease is haemophilia. This is caused by a
gene carried on the X chromosome, just like the colour blindness gene. A
man suffering from the disease is not able to clot his blood properly (page
208). If he's cut he might bleed to death. It is inherited in just the same way as
colour blindness. In the last century a haemophilia gene arose in Queen
Victoria and spread through the royal families of Europe.

Sickle cell disease Figure 13 Possible offspring from a mother who is

a carrier for colour blindness, and a normal father.
This is an inherited disease of the blood. A'person with the disease produces Use Figure 12 to help you describe each of the
an abnormal kind of haemoglobin in his or her red blood cells. As a result, the offspring.
red cells become sickle-shaped and very fragile (Figure 14). The person
suffers from severe anaemia. The disease is not sex-linked.
Most people have genes which enable them to produce normal haemoglo¬
bin and are homozygous (AA). Those with sickle cell disease have genes
which make them produce the different kind of haemoglobin called sickle
haemoglobin, and are homozygous (SS). The rest of the population have one
gene for normal haemoglobin (A) and one for sickle haemoglobin (S): they are
heterozygous (AS). They are carriers of the sickle cell gene and are said to
show the sickle cell trait (Figure 15).
People with sickle cell trait (AS) are usually healthy and may not know that
they have it. Trouble may develop if the blood oxygen level is low, as may
occur during the use of anaesthetics or in air at high altitudes. However, no
special treatment is necessary.
If two people with the trait have a child there is a one in four chance that it
will have the sickle cell disease (SS) (Figure 16). It is important that people
should know if they carry the trait.
The sickle cell trait has become common in many malarious areas of the
world. This is because people with the trait have a slight immunity to malaria
and therefore a greater chance of reaching adulthood and passing on their
sickle cell genes to their children. Figure 15 Combinations of genes for normal
haemoglobin and sickle-cell haemoglobin. A is the
gene for normal haemoglobin; S is the gene for
sickle-cell haemoglobin.

Figure 14 Left: normal blood cells as seen under the microscope. Right: blood cells of a
person with sickle cell disease; notice the sickle-shaped red blood cells. whom are carriers, i.e. have the sickle-cell trait.
Use Figure 15 to help you describe each of the
offspring.
394 Biology for life

^-Investigation 1
How are genes sorted out in 4 Have two empty beakers in front of 6 When you have used up all the
heredity? you, side by side. beads, count the number of pairs of
A simple situation beads in each beaker.
5 Close your eyes and take a bead
1 Obtain two beakers. from each beaker. Then look at How many pairs of black beads are
them. If they are both black, put there?
2 In one beaker place 50 black beads.
them in the left-hand beaker, If one is
How many pairs of black and white
3 In the other beaker place 25 black black and the other white, put them
beads are there?
beads and 25 white ones, and stir in the right-hand beaker.
them up thoroughly. What are the proportions of each
combination?

In this exercise, what do the beads

represent?

r *>
What do the beakers represent?
*

nn ••
left-hand
. >o
right-hand
Why did you have to close your eyes
when taking beads?
This exercise resembles the kind of
thing that happens in one of the
beaker beaker crosses illustrated in Figures 1 -3.
Which one?
In what way does the exercise differ
from what really happens?

■Investigation 2
How are genes sorted out in 3 Have three empty beakers in front of 5 When you have used up all the
heredity? you, side by side. beads, count the number of pairs of
beads in each beaker.
A more complex situation 4 Close your eyes and take a bead
from each beaker. Then look at How many pairs of black beads are
1 Obtain two beakers.
them. If they are both black put them there?
2 In each beaker place a mixture of in the left-hand beaker; if they are
How many pairs of white beads are
black and white beads, 25 of each both white, put them in the
there?
colour. Stir the beads up thoroughly right-hand beaker; if one is black
in each beaker. and the other white, put them in'the How many pairs of black and white
middle beaker. beads are there?
What are the proportions of each?

In this exercise what do the beads

represent?

What do the beakers represent?

Why did you have to close your eyes
Rjj in ru
-Metf mfTmm
!•« when taking the beads?
LrVftiitW 5 A 1M1 _«_»_, ._to_, ._ClQ_,

left-hand middle right-hand Which of the crosses illustrated in

beaker beaker beaker Figures 1 -3 does this exercise
resemble?

In what way does the exercise differ

from what really happens?
 Heredity 395

Investigation 3- Assignments-
Inheritance in the fruit fly 1 A black mouse mates with a brown
mouse, and all the offspring are black.
1 Your teacher will give you a bottle Can you see any pupae yet?
containing male flies with short Why are no brown offspring
8 Now anaesthetise the parent flies
wings and another bottle produced? Explain your answer.
and then kill them.
containing female flies with long
2 If two of the black offspring from
wings. Why do you think this is necessary?
question 1 mate with each other,
The bottles contain food which the 9 After a further week look at the what kind of offspring would you
fruit flies like, and a piece of rolled- bottle again. expect and in what proportions?
up filter paper for them to cling to. Draw a diagram to illustrate what
Are there any adult flies present?
happens.
2 Anaesthetise about fifteen males Don’t proceed any further until all
and ten females (see illustration). Be the adults have emerged from the 3 In human beings the gene for brown
sure to keep them apart. pupae. eyes is dominant to the gene for blue
eyes. A brown-eyed man marries a
3 Put the anaesthetised flies in 10 Anaesthetise the adult flies and put
blue-eyed woman and they have five
separate groups on a white tile. them on a white tile.
/
children. Three of the children have
4 With a paintbrush carefully place Do they have long or short wings? brown eyes and two have blue eyes.
the flies one by one in a new bottle What are the genotypes of (a) the
Which condition is dominant and
containing food. mother, (b) the father, and (c) the
which recessive?
children? Explain how you arrive at
5 Place the bottle on its side so the Explain your result by writing out
your answer.
flies don’t fall into the food. a genetic chart like the one in
Figure 1. 4 An albino is a person who has no
6 When the flies have recovered,
pigment in the skin and so is very
stand the bottle in an incubator at 11 Carry out other crosses as
pale. This condition is caused by a
25 °C instructed by your teacher.
recessive gene. An albino man
7 One week later, look at the bottle. Explain your results and summarise marries a normal woman one of
each cross with a genetic chart. whose parents was an albino. Flow
Are there any larvae present?
likely is it that their first child will be
The larvae should form pupae. an albino? Give your reasons in full.
Certain individuals in this family are
'carriers’. Which ones are carriers
remove cotton wool and invert culture bottle
over etherizer
and what does this word mean?

5 Look at the pedigree in Figure 8 and

then answer these questions about
it:
a) Using B as the symbol for the
night-blindness gene (dominant)
and b for the normal gene
(recessive), write down the
possible genotypes of all the
people in the chart.
b) Explain in words how you know
the genotype of person 1.
c) Flow are persons 13 and 15
related to each other?
d) How do you know the genotypes
of 13 and 15?
e) If 13 and 15 should marry, what is
the chance that any of their
children will be night-blind?
Explain your answer.
f) If 14 and 15 marry, what is the
chance of any of their children
having night-blindness? Explain
your answer.
 —More about —

The genetic code

genes Genes consist of a chemical substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA
for short. In the early 1950s two scientists at Cambridge, James Watson and
What do genes Francis Crick, discovered the structure of the DNA molecule: they did this by
working out the positions of the various atoms in the molecule.
consist of and how
Watson and Crick found the DNA molecule to be like a twisted ladder or,
do they work? Modern research has
more technically, a double helix (Figure 1). The rungs of the ladder, they
given us the answer. discovered, are made up of pairs of organic bases. There are four such bases,
and they are known by their initial letters A, C, T and G. The bases fit
together as shown in Figure 1: A always pairs with T, and C with G.
So we have a series of pairs of bases along the length of the DNA molecule.
Now the order in which the bases are arranged is variable, and this is how the
genes exert their effects in the organism. For example, the order of base-pairs
for producing, say, brown eyes, will be different from the order that produces
green eyes, and so on. We can sum it up like this: DNA contains a set of
coded instructions which tell the organism how to develop. These
instructions form the genetic code.

DNA controls protein synthesis

\

How does a gene cause a particular characteristic to develop? Here is a very

simple example to illustrate what is thought to happen. Suppose that brown
eyes are caused by the presence of a certain pigment in the iris: the body
makes this pigment because one of the genes tells it to. The gene exerts its
action by making the cells produce a specific enzyme, and this in turn causes
the production of the pigment.
Now the DNA is the nuclei of the cells, but the enzymes and other proteins
are made in the cytoplasm. So the message in the DNA code has to be sent to
the protein-making machinery in the cytoplasm. The message is carried by
another chemical very similar to DNA called ribonucleic acid or RNA for
short (Figure 2).
The RNA is really a copy of a small part of the DNA, and it has the same
order of bases. It passes out of the nucleus through one of the pores in the
nuclear membrane. In the cytoplasm it links up with a group of ribosomes.
Here amino acids are joined together in the right order to form the protein
enzyme. The order of amino acids in the protein is determined by the order of
bases in the RNA and DNA.

-'■Aj > T

c ( G

G ) C

pairs of bases form the rungs of the ladder

Figure 1 The DNA molecule is like a twisted Figure 2 This diagram shows very simply how DNA controls protein synthesis inside a
ladder. It contains the genetic code. The code is cell. RNA is similar to DNA but it has only one strand instead of two. It carries the same
contained in the sequence of the pairs of bases. sequence of bases as one of the two strands of the DNA.
 More about genes 397

1 4
~\

Normal human The red part of the DNA is removed from Bacterium now
cell produces human cell by treatment with enzymes produces human
growth hormone and taken up into DNA of bacterium growth hormone
as instructed by the
red part of
its DNA

DNA can replicate Figure 4 The principle behind genetic engineering.

Part of the DNA for making growth hormone is
You will recall that before a cell divides the chromosomes produce replicas of transferred from a human cell to a bacterium. It is
typical of bacteria that the DNA is in the form of a
themselves. Now in reality each chromosome consists of a very long strand of
ring.
DNA, and it is this that replicates. The two halves of the double helix
separate, starting at one end. Meanwhile, molecules containing the bases
come along and take up positions in such a way that two new double helices
are formed.
The specific pairing of the bases, A with T and C with G, means that the
two new DNA strands must have exactly the same order of bases as the
original DNA. So, when a cell divides by mitosis, the daughter cells must
have exactly the same genetic code as the parent cell.

Genetic engineering
On page 331 a disease is described called dwarfism. It is caused by too little
growth hormone being produced during childhood. The disease can
sometimes be cured by giving the child injections of the hormone. The
trouble is that for the treatment to work only human growth hormone will do, Figure 5 Human growth hormone being made by
and it's impossible to get enough human growth hormone to go round. bacteria in a genetic engineering plant in Arizona,
USA.
What makes the human body produce growth hormone? It's produced
because our cells contain a gene which tells it to do so. Now suppose we
could take this gene out of a human cell and put it into a bacterium. Might the
bacterium then make human growth hormone for us? Bacteria reproduce
PAssignments-
very quickly, and so we might be able to produce large amounts of the
1 Explain the meaning of the term
hormone this way.
genetic code.
Not long ago this kind of thing was just science fiction, but it has now been
done. Scientists have taken part of the DNA out of human cells and 2 Why is it necessary for DNA to be
transferred it to bacteria (Figure 4). We call this genetic engineering. The able to replicate accurately?
bacteria reproduce rapidly, the human DNA replicating along with the
3 Before genetic engineering came to
bacteria's own DNA. In this way a continual supply of growth hormone can
the rescue it was impossible to obtain
be produced.
enough human growth hormone to go
Another useful protein which is now being made by genetic engineering is
round.
insulin, the hormone which prevents diabetes. Insulin for human use can be
a) What made it impossible?
extracted from the pancreas of domestic animals such as cows, and so it has
b) Why did genetic engineering
never been as difficult to get hold of as growth hormone. However, more
make it easier?
people suffer from shortage of insulin than of growth hormone, and so we
need much more of it. Genetic engineering has provided a new and plentiful 4 Genetic engineering has certain
source. dangers. What do you think these are,
Genetic engineering is part of a whole new branch of science called and how can we avoid them?
biotechnology, the application of biology to manufacturing industry. It is
possible that in the future we shall be able to get bacteria to make all sorts of
things including antibiotics, medical drugs and even cheap fuels.
 Variation
Smooth differences
If you look at a group If you measure the heights of a whole lot of people of the same age, you will
of people such as those in find that there is a smooth gradation from very short to very tall (Investiga¬
tion). The same applies to body mass, hair colour, intelligence, and many
Figure 1, you will notice that
other features. This kind of variation, where there is a gradual transition
they are all different: they vary in
between the two extremes, is called continuous variation.
height, the colour of their Continuous variation can be shown as a bar chart (Investigation). Whatever
hair, shape of the face, feature is taken, the bar chart always looks like Figure 2, though it may not be
and so on. quite so symmetrical. If we join the tops of the bars, we get a bell-shaped
curve. This is called a normal distribution curve.
The main reason why we vary in the way just described is that each
individual possesses a different combination of genes.
The reason for this lies partly in the way our parents' chromosomes
behaved during meiosis, when the egg and sperms (gametes) were formed
(see page 384). The genes are carried on the chromosomes, and during
meiosis half the chromosomes go into one gamete and half into the other.
Now it is sheer chance as to which chromosome of each homologous pair gets
into which gamete. We call this free assortment: it's rather like dealing out a
pack of cards. Each chromosome contains its own set of genes, and so a lot of
variation can be brought about this way.
However, there's more to it than that. Do you remember how the
chromosomes come together in meiosis? When this happens homologous
chromosomes get wrapped around each other, and bits of them may break off
and change places. In this way genes get shifted from one chromosome to the
other. This is called crossing-over, and it brings about further variation in the
offspring.
The two processes mentioned above will make all the gametes different
Figure 1 No two people are exactly alike.
with respect to the genes they contain. Now it's just chance as to which
particular sperm fertilises an egg: in other words fertilisation is completely
random. This provides yet another source of variation.
As a result of the mechanisms just described, every individual has a unique
set of genes. This kind of variation is made possible by sexual reproduction.
In an organism which reproduces sexually, the offspring all have different
genes, and so there is always variation in the offspring, except in the case of
identical twins. This explains why brothers or sisters differ from one another,
and why children differ from their parents.

Sharp differences
Do you remember tongue-rolling? This is the ability to roll your tongue into a
U-shape (see page 390). Now a person can either roll his/her tongue, or not;
there are no 'in -betweens'.
This is called discontinuous variation. Another example in humans is the
ABO blood group system. An individual belongs to group A, B, AB or O.
There is no smooth gradation between them. Examples in other organisms
include the different coloured flowers and different kinds of fruit-flies
mentioned in the Topic on heredity.
This kind of variation arises as a result of a process called mutation.
Mutation is a sudden change in the genetic make-up of an organism. It
sometimes leads to people being born with a defect such as a missing arm or
an extra toe (Figure 3). In Britain about two per cent of babies are born with a
defect of some kind. Sometimes the defect results in the child being
physically or mentally handicapped.
Mutation occurs during meiosis when the eggs and sperms are being
formed. There are two main kinds: chromosome mutation and gene
mutation. In a chromosome mutation a major change occurs in one or more
Figure 2 Bar chart showing how a feature such as
height varies in a population of individuals. In the of the chromosomes. For example the individual may lack a particular
case of height, each bar represents the number of chromosome, or have an extra one. Mongolism or Down's syndrome, for
individuals falling into a particular group of heights instance, is caused by an extra chromosome. Sometimes part of a
e.g. 120-125 cm etc.
chromosome gets snapped off and lost, or it may turn round the wrong way.
 Variation 399

A gene mutation is caused by a chemical change occurring inside an

individual gene. Scientists have shown that when a gene mutation occurs
there is a change in the order of bases in the DNA molecule. The change may
be very small indeed, but it may have a severe effect on the organism.
Examples are sickle cell disease and cystic fibrosis (pages 392 - 3).
What causes mutation? The answer is that nothing actually causes it. It just
happens by chance from time to time. It can be greatly speeded up if the
organism is exposed to radioactivity or certain chemical substances. This is
why these things are considered dangerous. Many of the people who
survived the two atom bombs which were dropped on Japan at the end of the
Second World War received massive doses of atomic radiation. As a result
they showed a high incidence of mutation, and many of their children were
born with defects, far more than in a normal population.
Mutations aren't always harmful. The man in Figure 3 does not suffer
because he has an extra finger and toe. Indeed, on rare occasions a mutation
may even be helpful. We shall return to this in the next Topic.
Figure 3 What is unusual about this man? This is
an example of a mutation.
Differences caused by the environment
Many people grow hydrangea plants in their gardens. This plant has large
clumps of flowers which are generally white, pink or blue. Now blue flowers
develop only if the plant is grown in an acid soil. If the soil is chalky, pink or
white flowers develop (Figure 4).
This is an example of variation being caused by the environment. Can you
think of any other examples from plants or animals? Many of the differences
between people, particularly in their behaviour, can be explained by the fact
that they have been brought up in different environments. We still don't
know for certain how important the environment is, compared with the
genes, in making us different from one another. This particularly applies to
features like intelligence and artistic ability. In seeking an answer to this
difficult question, studies on identical twins can be useful. They are
genetically identical, so any differences between them must be due to the
environment.
Studies on twins suggest that our environment certainly helps to determine
mental features like intelligence and motivation. Environment here means all
aspects of our surroundings including home, school and friends. Figure 4 Pink and blue-flowered hydrangeas.

■Investigation- PAssignments-
Looking at an example of variation 1 Explain carefully why (a) two
brothers do not look alike, and
1 Measure the height of each person Which group contains a) the largest
(b) why identical twins do look alike.
in your class. number of people?, and b) the
fewest people? 2 Explain the difference between
What is the height range (that is, the
continuous and discontinuous
difference in height between the What is the average height in your
variation.
shortest and tallest pupils)? class?
3 What is meant by a mutation?
2 Divide the heights into 5 cm groups, Does it correspond to the tallest
Whereabouts do mutations occur,
starting with 120 cm and finishing up bar?
and what are their consequences?
with 180 cm (i.e. 120-125,
5 Join the tops of the bars in your bar
125-130, 130-135, etc.) and write 4 Which of your own features do you
chart with a smooth curve.
down the groups in a list. think you inherited, and which ones
What does the shape of the curve tell do you think were acquired from
3 Work out how many people in your
us about the way height varies? your environment? What does
class fall into each group. Write the ‘environment’ mean in this context?
numbers alongside the groups in Suggest reasons why the members of
your list. your class should vary in height. 5 If you were a scientist what sort of
studies would you carry out on
4 Construct a bar chart (like the one in What other variable features in humans,
identical twins to find out if
Figure 2) showing how height varies or in animals or plants, could you
intelligence is inherited or acquired?
in your class. measure and present in this way?
 -How do new-
kinds of
organisms
arise?
Species do not remain the
same for ever but can change
into new species

Figure 1 Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882).

The theory of evolution

Most scientists believe that the various organisms present in the world today
are descended from simpler forms which inhabited our planet in an earlier
age.
This theory was first put forward by the 19th-century naturalist Charles
Darwin (Figure 1). In the 1830s Darwin sailed round the world in a ship called
the Beagle (Figure 2). Fie visited many countries and islands and he studied
the animals and plants there. He gradually became convinced that the
various species which he observed had come into being by a process of slow
and gradual evolution. In 1859 he published his famous book The Origin of
Species in which he put forward evidence to support this idea. He also put
forward a theory to explain hoiv evolution may have taken place.
Independently of Darwin, another naturalist called Alfred Wallace came to
the same conclusions, but with less evidence. Darwin and Wallace wrote a
short paper together a year before The Origin of Species was published.

Creation or evolution?
Darwin put forward his theory at a time when most people believed that all
living things were created by God, and they found it hard to accept the
theory. Today many people feel that the theory of evolution can fit in with
creation if you interpret the meaning of creation flexibly. For example, it is
possible that God's way of creating living things may have been through a
process of evolution. Obviously this is a very difficult question to which we
can never know the answer.

Evidence for evolution

Evolution is supported by a lot of evidence, some more convincing than
others. Here we will concentrate on three particular lines of evidence.

Figure 2 HMS Beagle, the ship that was to take 1 Distribution

Darwin round the world, lying in the Catwater at For years scientists and naturalists the world over have looked for mammals,
Plymouth. The ship set sail on 27 December 1831.
and we now know where they occur. We find them distributed on all the
 How do new kinds of organisms arise? 401

great continents, except Antarctica. Now if we compare the mammals found Figure 3 The three mammals in South America are
similar to the three in Africa. The llama is related to
on different continents, some interesting facts emerge. Take Africa and South the camel, the tapir to the rhinoceros, and the
America for example. Many of the mammals found in Africa have a close jaguar to the lion. Did each of these pairs of
equivalent in South America. Three examples are shown in Figure 3. mammals evolve from a common ancestor?
However, they are not exactly the same. They are different enough to be
regarded at least as separate species, but they are sufficiently alike to make us
feel that they are related. Their similarities support the idea that they arose
from a common ancestor many millions of years ago, and have evolved along
their own lines in their separate continents.

2 Homologous and vestigial structures

If you look at the limbs of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, you find
that they are all based on the same design, namely that of the pentadactyl
limb (see page 65). This suggests that they may have all developed from a
common ancestor which lived long ago.
Structures which are found in different animals but have the same basic
design are described as homologous. Most biologists believe that the exist¬
ence of homologous structures provides strong evidence for evolution.
Here's another interesting observation. Certain snakes, notably pythons
and their relatives, have a pair of small claw-like structures about two-thirds
of the way down the body, one on either side (Figure 4). They have no
obvious function, and it has been suggested that they are the remains of a
pair of legs which existed in an ancestor of the snakes millions of years ago.
Structures which have no function today, but are thought to have been
important in the past, are called vestigial structures, and their existence
would seem to support evolution.

3 Fossils
Normally when an animal dies, its body decays. However, in the past dead
animals sometimes became buried in mud which later hardened to form
sedimentary rock. Meanwhile tiny particles worked their way into the
animal's bones. As a result, the bones gradually got turned into rock. These
are known as fossils. Figure 4 It is possible that the ‘claws’ of this
anaconda are the relics of a pair of hind legs which
Over the years, thousands of fossils have been discovered. They range
were possessed by the ancestors of snakes.
from a few isolated bones or fragments to almost complete skeletons. By
402 Biology for life

Figure 5 The history of life on this planet is shown

by the fossils found in the rocks. Diplodocus was carefully piecing the bones together, scientists have been able to work out the
about 30 m long and the main part of its body was structure of the animals which used to live on our planet. The main
the size of a two-storey house. It ate plants. In conclusion is that these ancient animals were basically similar to those living
contrast, Tyrannosaurus was a carnivore. The
today, but different in detail.
fossils come from different layers of sedimentary
rock and their approximate ages have been To illustrate this let's go back about 150 million years. At this time the
worked out by special chemical dating methods. world was dominated by dinosaurs such as the ones shown in Figure 5. Many
of them were much larger than, and looked very different from, any land
animal living today. However, careful studies of the bones of these dinosaurs
suggest that they are related to present-day reptiles like crocodiles and
lizards.
Certain fossil reptiles have been found whose skeletons were very similar
to those of mammals, and this has led to the idea that these particular reptiles
may have given rise to the first mammals. When sedimentary rock is formed
it is laid down in layers, one above the other. The oldest layers are towards
the bottom, and the most recent layers towards the top. In the sequence of
fossils showing the change from reptiles to mammals, the most reptile-like
fossils are found in lower layers than the mammal-like ones. This suggests
that the reptiles came before the mammals and that there may have been a
progression from one to the other.
This is just one change which may have taken place. Other fossils have
been discovered which enable us to put the various animals and plants that
used to inhabit the earth into a sequence like the one in Figure 5. All these
Figure 6 This simple diagram shows how natural organisms died out eventually:iand became extinct. However, most biologists
selection ensures the survival of the fittest. The believe that the animals and plants which populate the world today are their
graph shows the numbers of different-sized storks descendants
in the population. The fittest individuals are those
However we cannot prove that this is happening. There are all sorts of
that are best adapted to the particular
environment. puzzling prc)blems and it is still only a theory.
 How do new kinds of organisms arise? 403

How has evolution taken place?

Darwin put forward an explanation of how evolution may have taken place
which most biologists still believe to be correct. The explanation goes like this:
In any population of animals or plants there is usually fierce competition
for food and an ever-present threat of being attacked by enemies. This creates
a struggle for existence in which every individual is fighting desperately for
survival. Darwin saw the seeds of this idea in an essay oh populations written
by an English clergyman, Thomas Malthus, in 1798. Malthus argued that the
human population always grows faster than the food supply resulting in
'famine, pestilence and war'.
Now within a species there is considerable variation between individuals,
and some individuals are better adapted to the environment than others. For
example, some may be particularly strong, or good at running. These
individuals will be more likely to survive than the others: this is sometimes
called the survival of the fittest. These individuals are most likely to
reproduce, and hand on their good qualities to their offspring.
This process is called natural selection. Nature, as it were, selects the fittest
individuals and rejects the weaker ones (Figure 6).
The kind of variation which is important in natural selection is genetic
variation, particularly the sort that results from mutation (see page 398).
Mutations are usually harmful, but occasionally a mutation may occur which
makes an individual better adapted to its environment. This particular
individual will win in the struggle for existence, and its useful adaptation will
be passed to the offspring and will gradually spread through the population.
In this way new improved kinds of organisms arise.
An example of natural selection in action is provided by the way new kinds
of germs arise. For example, new types of bacteria have been formed as a
result of a mutation which makes them resistant to penicillin. In the same
way new types of mosquito have arisen which are resistant to DDT, and rats
now exist which are resistant to the rat-poison warfarin. Obviously these new
forms are at a great advantage, and so they spread quickly.
One of the most studied examples of natural selection is the peppered
Figure 7 Three breeds of dogs: Pekinese (top).
moth, found all over Britain. There are two forms of this moth, white and
Alsatian (centre) and Dalmatian (bottom).
black. The black form arose by a mutation in the last century. Its numbers
increased in industrial areas where it was well camouflaged against the soot-
covered tree trunks. However, the white form was badly camouflaged in
industrial areas: its numbers decreased. Here we can see natural selection
P Assignments -

taking place in front of our very eyes, nature selecting the well adapted moths
and rejecting the poorly adapted ones (page 66). 1 In what way do vestigial structures
support the idea of evolution?

2 What are homologous structures? In

Artificial selection what way do homologous structures
provide evidence for evolution?
We have seen that in bringing about evolution nature selects the fittest
individuals and rejects the unfit. Now the same thing can be done by man. 3 Rats are normally killed by a poison
With a population of animals or plants at his disposal, a person can select called warfarin. However, certain
those with good qualities and allow them to breed, whereas those with poor individuals are not affected by this
qualities can be prevented from breeding. By careful cross-breeding we can poison, and they appear to be on the
bring together the good features of two different varieties and combine them increase. How would you explain
in the offspring. This is called artificial selection and it has been carried out this?
by animal and plant breeders for centuries.
4 In what respect is the breeding of
All our familiar breeds of farm animals, and domestic animals such as cats
plant crops similar to, and different
and dogs, have been produced in this way (Figure 7). So have various
from, the process of evolution as put
varieties of garden plants, such as roses. By the same process, plant breeders
forward by Darwin?
have produced new varieties of crop plants which are better than the older
ones. For example, we now have varieties of wheat and rice which grow more 5 Suppose the animals in Figure 6 are
quickly, give a higher yield of grain and are more resistant to disease. antelopes in an African Game Park.
In breeding programmes it's best not to cross close relatives with each Suggest reasons why it is a
other. This is called in-breeding . Harmful genes tend to get handed on, and disadvantage for them to be (a) very
if this is continued over many generations the animals start showing all sorts short, and (b) very tall.
of defects. This has happened with certain pedigree dogs.
 Index
How to use the index
antennae, 32 birds, 18, 38-9, 69; excretion, 265;
The terms are listed in alphabetical order. anterior end, 140 feathers, 38-9; flight, 317-8;
when a term occurs on two or more pages, anther, 368 reproduction, 366-7
antibiotics, 107,116, 359 birth, 350-1; multiple, 352-3
the page on which it is defined is given in
antibodies, 115, 205, 208 birth control, 91-2, 354-6
bold print. anti-coagulants, 209 birth rate, 90, 92
antigens, 115, 205 bisexuality, 357
First look up the term you want. If you antiseptics, 115 bladder, 260
can't find it, try a close equivalent. For antitoxins, 205 blind spot, 288, 289
example, if you can't find 'hearing aids' try ants, 17, 76-7, 363 blood, 204-11; circulation, 212-17; clotting,
'deafness'. anus, 40, 170,173 208-9, 210; functions, 206; of insects, 199,
When a term consists of more than one aphids, 76-7, 130 265
word, it may not be given in the way you apical bud (terminal bud), 42 blood donors, 210
expect. For example, if you can't find 'crop appendicitis, 174 blood fluke, 124-5
rotation' try 'rotation of crops'; and if you appendix, 170,173, 174 blood groups, 209-11; inheritance of, 392
can't find 'fresh-water pond' try 'pond, apple, 377 blood pressure, 214-5
fresh-water'. aquarium, 49 blood system (see also blood, circulation), 7
If you want to find out as much as you can aquatic habitats, 59-62, 70-71 blood transfusion, 209
about a particular topic, look up as many arachnids, 17 blood vessels, 212, 213
different terms related to the topic as you can arteries, 212-4; hardening of, 215 blowfly larvae, reaction to light, 63
think of. For example, if you want to find out arthritis, 313 blubber, 255
about farming, try looking up cattle, cereals, arthropods, 17, 315, 319 boil, 205
fertilisers, etc. artificial meat, 107, 151 bones, 302-5; as levers, 308; broken, 310-1
artificial respiration, 194 bottling fruit, 110
artificial selection, 403 brain, 270, 274-7; effect of drugs on, 278;
asbestosis, 195 illnesses of, 279
A. ascorbic acid (vitamin C), 154; test for, 156
asexual reproduction (see also vegetative
bran, 374
bread, 201, 374
abortion, 356-7
acclimatisation, 192, 205 reproduction), 8, 29, 30, 118, 322-3 breasts, 40, 344, 352
accommodation (eye), 291 assimilation, 6 breast feeding, 352
acid rain, 94 asthma, 197 breathing (see also gas exchange), 7, 188-99; of
acidity, see pH astigmatism, 291 Ameoba, 198; of amphibians, 198; of
acquired immune deficiency syndrome athlete's foot, 113,127 earthworm, 198; of fishes, 198; of Hydra,
(AIDS), 113, 116, 359 atmosphere, see air 198; of insects, 199
active site (of enzyme), 149 ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 167 breeding (see also heredity), 403
active transport, 144, 247 atrium (auricle), 212 breeding seasons, 346
adaptation, 12, 64-7 auditory nerve, 294 breeding true, 389
addiction, 278 auricle (atrium), 212 brewing, 107, 201
adenoids, 219 autoclave (see also pressure cooker), 114 bronchi, 190
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 167 autotrophs, 7 bronchioles, 190
adolescence, 342 autumn tints, 73 bronchitis, 195
adrenal glands, 281 auxin, 334 buccal cavity, 40
adrenal stress, 93 axillary bud, 42 budding, 322, 382
adrenaline, 280-1 axon, 272 bugs, 17
aerofoil, 317 bulbs, 380, 383
aestivation, 59 butter, 106
afterbirth, 350 B buttercup, 368
butterflies, 17, 186, 362-3
agar, 24 back cross, 389
agglutination, 209 bacteria, 14, 24-5, 117; culturing, 24; decay
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), and, 106, 88; disease and, 112-17; feeding,
113, 116, 359 184; food from, 107; in nitrogen cycle, 52-3;
air: composition, 188; effect of animals and in soil, 85; photosynthesis in, 184;
C
plants on, 54-5; effect of humans on, 100 reproduction, 322; respiration, 202 caecum, 173
air pores, see stoma baking, 107, 201 Caesarian section, 350
albumen, 147, 206, 364, 366 balance, 298-301 calciferol (vitamin D), 154
alcohol (ethanol), 200-1, 203 balanced diet, see diet calcium, 152; in bones, 303, 305; in plants,
alcoholism, 278 bar charts, 3 220
algae, 15 barium meal, 174 cambium, 328, 382
alimentary canal, 170-4, 180 bark, 72, 247 camouflage, 64, 66, 255
alkalinity, see pH barley, 104, 200 cancer, 332
alleles, 390 basal metabolic rate, 163 canine teeth, 176, 181
allergy, 155,197 beak, 38, 39 canning, food, 110
alveoli, 190-91 bean, 376-7 capillaries, 214
amino acids, 146; in diet, 151; in digestion, bees, 17, 61, 74-6, 77, 130, 363, 370 carbohydrate, 146, in diet, 150-1; tests for,
172-3 beetles, 17, 69, 363 156; digestion of, 171-2, 173
ammonia, 8 belt transect, 56 carbon cycle, 51
amnion, 348 Benedict's solution, 156 carbon dioxide, 51, 166, 167, 168, 169; from
amniotic cavity, 348 beri-beri, 154 breakdown of food, 166-7, 168; in
amniotic fluid, 348-9 biceps, 307 atmosphere, 54-5,100; in blood, 204; in
Amoeba, 14, 22, 23; breathing, 198; excretion, biennials, 43 photosynthesis, 54, 226, 227, 228, 230,
264; feeding, 184; movement, 314; reaction bile duct, 258 238-9; in respiration, 54; in smoke, 94
to touch, 66; reproduction, 322; bile salts, 172 carbon monoxide, 95, 204
amphibians, 18, 36; breathing, 198; bilharzia ('snail fever'), 124 carcinoma, see cancer
movement, 316-7, 319; reproduction, 364-5 binary fission, 322 carnassial teeth, 181
amylase (ptyalin), 171 binomial system of naming, 10 carnivores (see also consumers), 7,108-1
biodegradable substances, 96 carnivorous plants, 64, 336
anaemia, 152, 205; sickle cell, 393
anaerobic respiration, 200, 201-2 biogas, 106 carrier: genetic, 391-3, 394-5; infectious, 112,
biological control of pests, 98 339
androgens, 343
biological washing powders, 149 cartilage, 303
Annelids, (see also earthworm), 16
anorexia nervosa, 164 biomass pyramid, 47 cataract, 291
biotechnology, 397 cattle, 105
antagonistic muscles, 307
antenatal clinic, 349 biped, bipedal, 40, 304 cell differentiation, 326
cell division (see also meiosis, mitosis), 136, cork cambium, 328
326, 327, 384-7 dominant genes, 388, 389-93
corm, 380
cell membrane, 8, 25, 134 dormancy, 59; of bacteria, 25; of trees in
cornea, 286
winter, 72
cells, 8, 134-7; bacterial, 25; division of coronary blood vessels, 212, 215
dorsal side, 140
labour, 30,136; in leaves, 241 corpus futeum, 346
cell sap, 135, 144 double helix, 396
correlation (graph), 61
cellulose, 146; in cell wall, 135; in diet, 150-1; Down's syndrome (Mongolism), 386, 398
cotyledon, 15, 372-3
strands, 250-1 dragonfly nymph, 70
courtship, 366
cell wall, 25, 29,135 drawings, 4
crabs, 17
drones, 74, 76
central nervous system, 270-3 cramp, 313
drugs, 272, 278; anti-malarial, 120; for
centre of gravity, 298 cranium, 274
worms, 125
centromere, 384 creation, 400
Dutch Elm disease, 127
cereals (see also barley, rice, wheat), 104, 374 cretinism, 281
dysentry amoeba, 120
cerebellum, 274-5 cross-breeding, 403
cerebral hemispheres, 276 cross-fertilisation, 324
cerebro-spinal fluid, 274
cerebrum, 274-6
crossing (heredity), 388-9, 403
crossing-over, genetic, 398 E
cervical smear, 332 cross-pollination, 370 ear, 40, 294-7; in balance, 298-301
chaetae, 31 crustaceans, 17 earthworm, 16, 31; breathing, 198; casts, 84;
chalk, 80-81 curare, 307 effect on soil, 84 87; escape response, 66;
cheek teeth, 176 cuticle, of arthropods, 17; of insects, 32, 265, movement, 315, 319; reproduction, 325
cheese, 106 315, 327, 362; of plants, 58, 241, 244 ecdysis, see moulting in insects
chemical control of pests, 97-8 cuttings, 382, 383 echinoderms, 16
chemosynthesis, 7, 184 cyst, 324 ecological niche, 48
chick embryo, 367 cytoplasm, 8, 22,134-6 ecosystem, 48
chlorophyll, 7, 42, 135, 228, 234-7, 239; in ectoparasites, 61
bacteria, 184; in starch production by
plants, 226 D edaphic factors, see soil
EEG (electroencephalograph), 279
effectors, 270
chloroplasts, 8, 22, 29,135, 235, 237, 242 dance (bees), 76
chlorosis, 220 dark adaptation, 292 egestion, 7, 173
choice chamber, 63 Darwin, Charles, 400 eggs: 8; amphibians, 364; birds, 38, 158,
cholesterol, 151, 215 DDT, 114 129; pollution, 96 366-7; earthworms, 325; fish, 323; human,
choroid, 288 deafness, 296-7 339, 340, 341, 342; Hydra, 324; insects, 360;
chromatids, 384 deamination, 258 reptiles, 37
chromotography, 234, 237 death rate, 90, 92 ejaculation, 340
chromosomes, 134, 384-7; mutation, 398-99 decay, 48/88-9, 108 electroencephalograph (EEG), 279
chromatin granules, 134 deciduous plants, 43, 68, 72 electron microscope, 4,136
chronic disease, 196 decomposers, 48 embryo, 8, 324, 348, 366; plants, 369, 372
chrysalis, 362 defaecation, 173 emphysema, 196
ciliary body, 287 deficiency diseases: animals, 152-4: plants, enamel, 176
circulatory system, see blood 220 endoparasites, 61
circumcision, 338 dehydration of food, 109-10 endoplasmic reticulum, 136
cirrhosis, 259 denitrifying bacteria, 52, 53 endoskeleton, 306, 316
classification: of organisms, 14-21; process, dental floss, 178-9 endosperm, 369, 373
10 dental formula, 179 energy: 7, conversion efficiency, 104-5; daily
clay, 78, 81 dentine, 176 requirements, 163; functions of, 167; in
climatic changes, annual, 58-9, 72-3 dentrites, 272 food, 162-5; release of, 166-69
climax community, 62 deoxyribonucleic acid, see DNA environment, 12, 58-62
climbing plants, 68, 252 Depo-Provera (injectable contraceptive), 355 enzymes, 147,148-9, 159; digestive, 170-1,
clitoris, 339 depression (mental), 279 173, 184-5
cloaca, 36, 37, 38 dermis, 254 ephemerals, 43
CNS, see central nervous system detoxification, 258 epidemic, 112
cochlea, 294, 296 diabetes, 259 epidermis, 138, 240, 241, 244; of mammal,
cocoon,362 diagrams, 3 254
coelenterates, 16 diaphragm, 188 epididymis, 338
cold-blooded animals, 34-7, 257 diarrhoea, 174 epiglottis, 190
coleoptile, 373 diastema, 183 epilepsy, 279
collecting organisms, 12-13, 21 dicotyledons, 15, 42; seeds, 373 epiphytes, 62, 68, 252
colonisation, 62, 379 diet, 150-3, 163; tooth decay and, 178 epithelial cells, 138; of Hydra, 30, 314
colour blindness, 292; inheritance of, 392 dietary fibre, see roughage epithelium, 138, 141
colours, seeing, 292, 293 dieting, 163 erection, 340
combine harvester, 104 diffusion, 7,142-3; breathing by, 198-9; erosion, 85, 98
combustion, 51, 54, 100 speed of, 142-3 erythrocytes, see red blood cells
competition, 91, 379, 403 digestion (see also feeding), 7, 170-3, 180, escape response, 66
compost heap, 89 184-5 ethanol see alcohol
compound eye, 32, 33 digestive enzymes, 148, 170-3, 184-5 etoilation, 330
condensation reaction, 146 digits, 40 Euglena, 22, 23; feeding, 185; rejection to
conditioned reflex, conditioning, 276 diphtheria, 112,116 fight, 60, 63
conifers, coniferous trees, 15, 68 diploid cells, 386 Eustachian tube, 295
conjugation, 324 disaccharides, 146 eutrophication, 96
conjunctiva, 286 discontinuous variation, 398 evergreens, 43
conjunctivitis, 286 disease, 112-17; microbes and, 112-17; due to evolution, 66, 400-3
conservation, 99 parasitic worms, 122-5; fungal, 126-7; excretion (see also waste removal), 8, 260-3
constipation, 174 immunity to, 115, 208; infectious, 113-5; exercise, 192, 202, 215; preparing for, 281
consumers, 46 inherited, 392; sexually transmitted, 116, exhalation, 193
contagious diseases, 113 358-9 exoskeleton, 315
.continuous variation, 398 disinfectants, 114 experiments, 2
contraception, 354-6; effectiveness of dislocated hip, 312 exponential increase, 392
dispersal, 59, 376-9 eye, 40, 286-93; compound, 32, 33; in
methods, 356
dissection, 40, 41, 341 balance, 299, 301; structure of, 286-9;
contractile vacuole, 22, 264
controlled experiments, 2 distribution of organisms, 56-7, 58-62 working of, 290-93
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 396-7 eyelid, third, 38, 287
copulation, of earthworm, 325
 hibernation, 58-9
F gametes, 8, 342
gas exchange (see also breathing, respiration), histogram, 3
homeostasis,-257, 259, 260, 266
faeces, 173 7, 54-5
fallopian tube, 339 gastric glands, 172 homiothermy, 257
fallow (fields), 98, 221 gastric juice, 172 homologous structures, 65, 67, 401
family planning, 354-6 Geiger counter, 238 homosexuality, 357
farming, 98; nitrogen cycle and, 53 genes, 384, 388-9 homozygous organisms, 390
fat, 146; in diet, 151; test for, 156; digestion genetic code, 396 honey bee (see also bees), 74-6
of, 172, 173 genetic counsellor, 392 hookworms, 125
fatty acids, 146; in diet, 151; in digestion, 172, genetic engineering, 107, 397 hormones, 259, 266, 267, 280-1, 331, 350;
173 genetics, see heredity plant, 330-31, 334-5, 336; sex, 343, 346-7
feathers, 38-9 genotype, 390 horse chestnut, 72, 73
feedback systems, 266-7 genus, 10 housefly, see flies-
feeding (see also alimentary canal; diet; geotropism, 335 humidity as environmental variable, 59;
digestion; nutrition), 7, 180-7; Amoeba, germination (of seeds), 168, 371, 372-5; heat measuring, 60-61
184-5; bacteria, 88, 184; birds, 38-9, 367; production during, 168 humus, 68, 80, 83
earthworm, 31, 84; Euglena, 185; fishes, germs, see microbes hybrids, 389
187; fungi, 28, 88, 184; Hydra, 185, 187; gestation period, 350 hydatid cysts, 123
insects, 186; plants, 224-5; ruminants, gill rakers, 34, 187 Hydra, 30; breathing, 198; feeding, 185, 187;
180,182-3 gills, 34-5,198,199, 364 movement, 314; reproduction, 322, 324
Fehling's solution, 156 gizzard, 38 hydrolysis, 146
fermentation, 200-1, 203 glands, 171, 172, 173, 198, 280-1 hypertension, see blood pressure
ferns, 15, 323 glans, 338 hyphae, 28,126
fertilisation, 8, 323-5, 341, 342, 357; plants, globulin, 206 hypothalamus, 275
369-70 glomerulus, 261, 262 hypothermia, 257
fertilisers, 221-2; causing pollution, 96 glottis, 190 hypothesis, 2
fertility drugs, 357 glucose, 146, 158-60, 167; control in hysterectomy, 332
fibres (wood), 251 bloodstream, 266; in digestion, 172, 173;
fibrinogen, 208 in plants, 228: test for, 156
fins, 34, 316
fish, 18, 34-5; as food, 105; breathing, 198;
glue sniffing, 278
gluten, 374
I
immunisation, 115
control of water content, 264; excretion, glycerol, 146; in digestion, 172, 173 immunity, 115, 208
264; feeding, 187; movement, 316, 319; glycogen, 146, 159-60, 258 implantation, 341
reproduction, 323 goitre, 152, 281 inbreeding, 403
fission, 322; multiple, 118 gonads, 342 incisor teeth, 176, 181-3
flagellum, 22, 23 gonorrhoea, 116, 358 incomplete dominance, 392
flatworms, 16 Graafian folicle, 346-7 incubation^of eggs), 366
Fleming, Sir Alexander, 116 grafting, 382 incubation period (of disease), 112, 114, 359
flies (see also tsetse fly), 17,108,186; disease grains, see seeds indigestion, 174
and, 113,130, 363 graphs, 3 infant mortality, 91
flight, 317-8 grasshoppers, 17 infertility, 357
flocculation, 81 gravity, plants' response to, 335, 337 inflammation, 205
flour, 374 inflorescence, 369
flowering, cause of, 336 growth, 6-7, 326-9; control of, 330-3; influenza, 112, 126
flowering plants, 15, 42-3, 336; internal measurement, 326, 328; secondary, 328, inheritance, see heredity
structure, 240-8; sexual reproduction, 329 inherited diseases, 392
368-71 growth hormone, 280, 331; manufacture of, inoculation (for immunisation), 115
flowers, 42; structure, 368, 371 397 inorganic substances, 146
fluoride, fluorine, 153, 178 growth substances, 331 insecticides (see also DDT), 97, 98, 130
foetus, 348-9, 350 gum disease, 178 insectivorous plants, see carnivorous plants
food: 150-5; composition of various types gut, see alimentary canal insects, 17, 32-33; breathing, 199;
of, 155; energy obtained from, 162-5; from development, 361-2; harmful, 128-9;
animals, 105; from plants, 104, 374; helpful, 130; movement, 315; pollination
spoilage and preservation, 108-11; tests,
156
food additives, 155
H by, 370-1; reproduction, 360-3; social,
74-7; structure, 32
habitats, 12, 56-7, 58, 68-71
food chain, 46, 48, 105 instar, 361
haemoglobin, 198, 204
food poisoning, 108 instinct, 277
haemophilia, 393
food vacuole, 22, 184 insulin, 259, 266, 250; manufacture of, 107,
haemorrhage, 209
food web, 47, 48, 49 397
haemorrhoids, 215
fossils, 401-2 intelligence, 276, 399
hair, 40, 254
fovea (yellow spot), 288, 292 intercostal muscles, 188
hallucinogens, 278
fractures, 310-11 intercourse (see also conjugation; copulation;
hand lens, 4
free assortment (genetics), 398 mating; reproduction), 340-1
haploid cells, 386
freezer, 108-9 intestine, 170, 172-3
hatching, 367
fresh water, 50 hay, 89 invertebrates, 16-17
frog spawn, 364 hay fever, 197 involuntary responses, 271-2
frogs (see also amphibians), 36; breathing, iodine, 152
head louse, 114, 130
198; movement, 316-7, 319; reproduction iris, 286
heart, 212-7; hole in, 350; rate, 216
and development, 364-5 heart attack, 215 iron, 152, 220
fruit fly, 395 heart failure, 215 isotopes, radio-active, 166, 238, 247
fruits, 42, 369, types and dispersal, 376-9; heartwood, 251
fucoxanthin, 234 hepatic portal vein, 258
fuels, fossil, 51
fungi (see also yeast), 14, 28; feeding, 184;
food from, 107; parasitic, 126-7;
hepatitis, 113, 359
herbicides (see also weed-killers), 97, 98
herbivores (see also consumers), 7,180,182-3
/
jaundice, 259, 339
reproduction, 322 herbs, 42 joints, 307-8, 309; artificial, 313; dislocated
heredity, 388-95 312
hermaphrodites, 325
G
galactose, 146
herpes, genital, 359
heterosexuality, 357
juvenile hormone, 331

gall bladder, 258

gall stones, 259
heterotrophs, 7
heterozygous organisms, 390
K
key, identification, 11
kidney machine (artificial kidney), 262, 263 menstrual cycle, 346-7 neurosis, 279
kingdoms, 10,14-19, 20 menstruation, 344, 346 niche, ecological, 48
klinostat, 335 mental illness, 279 nicotine, 196
knee cap, 308 meristem, 327 nicotinic acid (niacin), 153
knee jerk reflex, 270 mesogloea, 30 night blindness, 292
kwasniorkor, 151 mesophyll, 241, 242 nipples, 40
metabolism, 147 nitrifying bacteria, 52, 53
metamorphosis, 17, 361; of amphibians, 365; nitrogen cycle, 52
L of insects, 361-2 nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 52, 53, 221
labelling, radio-active, see isotopes, microbes (see also bacteria; viruses), 106-7; nodes, 42
radioactive decay and, 88; disease and, 112-17, noise pollution, 97
labelling diagrams, 3 pathogenic, 112 non-biodegradable substances, 96
lactic acid, 201-2, 203 microhabitat, 12 nose (see also nasal cavity), 189
lactose, 146 micrometre, 4 nuclear explosions, 97
larva, 8, 362, 364 micro-organisms, see microbes nucleus, of cell, 8, 22, 134-6, 384, 396
laryngitis, 195 micropyle, 368, 372 nuptial pads, 364
larynx, 190 microscope, 4, 5 nutrition (see also diet; dieting; food; feeding;
lateral line, 34 microtome, 134 photosynthesis;), 7, 150; plant, 220-2
layering, 382 microvilli, 173 nymph, 361
leaching, 79 migration, 58
leaf litter, 78 mildew, 126
learning, 276
leaves, (see also photosynthesis), 42, 240-3,
milk, 352; pasteurisation of, 110
milk teeth, 177
O
obesity, 163
244; in autumn, 73 millimetre, 4 oestrogens, 343, 346, 355
legumes, 52, 221 pnimicry, 64 ommatidia, 33
lens (eye), 287 minerals (salts), 146, 149; required by omnivores, 7, 180
lens (magnifying glass), 4 humans, 152-3; required by plants, 220-1; operculum (of fish), 34
lenticels, 247 in soil, 80; uptake by plants, 247 optic nerve, 286
leucocytes, (see white blood cells) miscarriage, 351 organic substances, 146
levers, 308 mitochondria, 134, 136 organs, 139, 141
lichens, 14, 62 mitosis, 384 orgasm, 340
life cycle, 8; amphibians, 364-5; birds, 366-7; molar teeth, 176 osmo-regulation, 260
blood 118-9; plant, 43; mole, 84-5 osmosis, 143-4, 145; in Amoeba and fish, 264;
tapeworm, 123-4 molluscs, 16 in red blood cells, 207
life expectancy, 91 Mongolism (Down's syndrome), 386, 399 osteo-arthritis, 313
light; as environmental variable, 58, 60; monocotyledons, 15, 42; seeds, 373 ovaries, 339, 342-5; of Hydra, 324; of plant,
Euglena and, 63; in photosynthesis, 226, monoculture, 98, 104 368, 376
229-30, 233; measuring intensity of, 61; monohybrid inheritance, see heridity oviduct, 339
plants response to, 334-5, 337 monosaccharides, 146 ovipositor, 32
lignin, 251 mosquito, 70, 118-20, 129, 131; feeding, 186, ovulation, 346
lime, 80, 82 363 ovules, 368
line transect, 56 mosses, 15, 322 oxygen, haemoglobin and , 198, 204; in
linen, 107 moths, 17, 64, 66, 363 atmosphere, 54, 188; carriage by blood,
Lister, Joseph, 115 mould, see pin mould, fungi 204; in decay, 88; in photosynthesis, 54,
litters, 353 moulting hormone, 331 227-8, 229, 239; in respiration, 167; in
liver, 258-9; cirrhosis of, 259 moulting in insects (ecdysis), 327, 331, 361 water, 60; respiration without, 200-2
liver fluke, 124-5 mouth parts, 32, 186, 187 oxygen debt, 202
liverworts, 15 movement, 6, (locomotion), 306-9; Amoeba, oxynaemoglobin, 204
lizards, 37 314; amphibians, 317; birds, 317-18; oxytocin, 350
lockjaw (tetanus), 115-16 earthworms, 315; fish, 315; Hydra, 314;
locomotion, see movement insects, 315; plants, 6, 334-6
locust, 128, 131, 186, 361, 363
long sight, 291
Mucor, see pin mould
mucus (see also slime), 31, 171
P
pacemaker (of heart), 212
louse, 130 mulching, 81 packing cells (of Hydra), 30
lumbago, 313 multicellular organisms, 140 packing tissues (of plants), 244
lungs, 188-92,198; diseases, 195-6 multiple sclerosis, 272 pain-killers, 278
lymph, 218; glands, (nodes), 219 mummification, 88 palps (of insect), 186
lymph cells (lymphocytes), 205, 208 muscles, 306-7, 309, 315-19 pancreas, 171,172,173
lysozyme, 28/ mushroom, 325 andemic, 112
mutation, 97, 398-99, 403 aramecium, 23
mutualism (symbiosis), 52, 62, 180 parasites, 7, 61, 118-27, 184
M mycelium, 28
myelin sheath, 272
Pasteur, Louis, 108,110
pasteurisation, 110
magnesium, 220
malaria, 118-20, 121, 129 myriapods, 17 pathogenic microbes, 112
malarial parasite, life cycle, 118-19 pea, 3/6-7
peacock, 366
maltose, 146, 148; in digestion, 171-3
mammals, 19, 40-9; classification, 19 N peat, 80-81, 88
peaty soil, 81
mammary glands, 40, 352 names, biological, 10-11
mandibles, 186 nanometre, 4 pellagra, 154
manure, 221-2 nasal cavity, 189, 283 pellicle, 22
marasmus, 150, 164 National Parks, 99 penicillin, 107,116, 359
marriage flight (bees), 76 natural selection, 403 penis, 40, 338, 340, 341
marrow (bone), 304 nectar, 74, 368 pentadactyl limb, 65, 401
mass spectrometer, 239 nectary, 368 peppered moth, 64, 66, 403
masturbation, 357 nematodes (roundworms), 16, 125 pepsin, 172, 173, 175
mating (see also conjugation; copulation; nephron, 261 peptide link, 146
intercourse; reproduction): amphibians, nerve cells, 30,136, 272, 274 percentage cover, 56, 57
364; birds, 366; insects, 360 nerve impulses, 270 perennating organs, 380
medulla (brain), 274, 275 nerve-muscle junction, 272, 307 perennials, 43
meiosis, 384-5 nerve tissue, 138-9 peristalsis, 171
memory, 277 nervous breakdown, 279 pesticides (see also insecticides; herbicides),
Mendel, Gregor, 389 nervous system, 270-3 97
nesting (in birds), 366 pests, (see also parasites); control of, 97-8
menopause, 344
petals, 368, 370; after fertilisation, 376
pH:80; of soil, 81, 83; of water, 60 Q S
safe period, 354
phagocytes, 205 quadrat, 56
salinity, 60
phantom pain, 282 quadrupeds, 40, 304
saliva, 171,174,175
pharyngitis, 195 quarantine, 114
salivary glands, 170, 172
pharynx, 170-71, 190 salting food (preservation), 110
phenotype, 390 salts, see minerals
phloem, 241, 244-7; secondary 328-9
phobia, 279 R sampling, 56
sand, 78, 81
phosphorus, 152, 220 rabies, 114 saprophytes, see saprotrophs
photoperiodism, 336 radicle, 372 saprotrophs (see also decomposers), 7, 24, 28,
photosynthesis, 7, 54,135, 224-9; chlorophyll radioactivity, 166, 238, 247; pollution by, 97; 184
in, 234-7; chemistry of, 238-9; in bacteria, in medical treatment, 281, 332 sapwood, 251
184; in Euglena, 185; rate of, 230-3 radiographer, 310 scales, 34, 37
phototropism, 334 rainfall, 58-9; measuring, 61 schistosomiasis, see bilharzia
phyla, 10 rat, dissection of, 41, 341 schizophrenia, 279
physiotherapy, 313 reaction time, 273 scientific method, 2
pickling, 110 receptacle (flowers), 368; swollen in fruit, 376 sclera, 286
pie charts, 3 receptors (see also ear; eye; pressure scrotal sac (scrotum), 40, 338
pigments, 234-5, 237 receptor), 6, 270, 282 scurvy, 154
piles see haemorrhoids, 215 recessive genes, 388, 389-93 sea anenome, 185
pink-eye see conjunctivitis red blood cells, 204-5, 207, 209, 258 seasonal changes, 72-3
pin mould, 28, 322, 324 referred pain, 282 sea urchin, 16
pinna, 40, 294 reflex action, 270, 273 sea water, 50
pituitary gland, 266-7, 280, 281 reflex arc, 270-71 seaweed, 234
placenta, 348-9; as 'afterbirth', 350 refraction, 290 secondary growth (thickening), 328, 329
plague, 113 refrigerator, 108-9 secondary sexual characteristics, 343-4
plankton, 48 renal artery, 260 sedatives, 278
plants: as food, 104, 374; cells, 135; renal vein, 260 sedimentary rock, 401
classification, 15; effect on soil, 89 reproduction (see also conjugation; seedlings, 372; overcrowded, 379
plaque (teeth), 178-9 copulation; intercourse; mating), 8, 322-25; seeds, 104, 369, 372-5; germination, see
plasma, 204, 206 Amoeba, 22, 322; amphibians, 36, 364-5; germination; respiration, 202; survival
plasmolysis, 144 bacteria, 25, 322; birds, 38, 366-7; of, 373-4; uses of, 374
plastids, 135 earthworms, 325; Euglena, 22; fish, 34-5, selection, natural and artificial, 403
platelets, 206, 208 325; flowering plant, 368-71, 380-3; fungi, selectively permeable membrane (see also
pleural membranes, 188 28, 323; human, 338-353; Hydra, 30, 322, osmosis), 143
pleurisy, 195 324; insects, 360-3; reptiles, 37; Spirogyra, semen, 339, 340
Pleurococcus, 68-9 29, 324; vegetative, 323, 380-3; viruses, 27 semicircular canals, 299-300
plum, 377 reptiles, 18, 37; excretion, 265 semi-permeable membrane, see selectively
plumule, 372 respiration (see also breathing; gas exchange), permeable membrane
pneumoconiosis, 195 7, 54; aerobic, 166-9; anaerobic, 200-3 sensitive plant (Mimosa purdica), 6, 9, 336
pneumonia, 195 respiratory diseases, 195 sensory adaptation, 282, 284, 295
pods, 376, 377, 379 respiratory system (see also breathing), 188; sensory cells, see receptors
poikilothermic, 257 blockage in, 194 sepals, 368; after fertilization, 377
pollen grains, 368-70 respirometer, 167, 169 sewage, 106; causing pollution, 96
pollination, 130, 369-70 response, 6, 270; involuntary, 271-2; in
sex chromosomes, 386, 392-3
pollution, 94-8 plants, 334-7; voluntary, 271 sex determination, 386
polypeptides, 146; in digestion, 172-3 retina, 287, 288, 292 sex hormones, 343, 346
polysaccharides 146, retinol (vitamin A), 153 sex linkage, 392-3
pond, fresh-water, 70-71 retting (of flax), 107 sexual development, 342-5
population growth, 90-2; pyramids, 82 Rhesus factor, 209-10
sexually transmitted diseases, 113,116, 358-9
posterior end, 140 rheumatism, 313 sexual reproduction, 8, 323-5; malarial
potato, 158-61, 381, 383 rheumatoid arthritis, 313 parasite, 120; plants, 368-71
potato blight, 126 rhizome, 380 shifting cultivation, 221
potometer, 247 rhythm method, 354
shoot, 42; growth of, 327, 330-1; responses
predators, see carnivores riboflavin (vitamin B2), 154
of, 334-5
preening, 39 ribonucleic acid (RNA), 396 short sight, 291
pregnancy, 341, 346 ribosomes, 136, 396
shrubs, 42; in succession, 62; in winter, 72-3;
premolar teeth, 176 ribs, 188
in woodland, 68
preserving food, 108-11 rice, 154, 160, 222
Siamese twins, 353
pressure cooker, 109-10 rickets, 152,154
sickle cell disease, 395
pressure receptors, 299, 301 ringed worms, see annelids
sieve tubes, 241-2, 244-5, 247
primates, 19 ringing of plants, 247
silage, 89, 107
producers, 46 ringworm, 127
silkworm, 130
progesterone, 346 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 396
sinuses (nasal), 189
proprioceptors, see stretch receptors rock, 78; sedimentary, 401
skeleton (see also endoskeleton; exoskeleton),
prostate gland, 338 rocky shore, 69
302-5; muscles and, 306-9
protein, 146-7; digestion of, 172,173; in diet, rodents, 19
skin, 254-7
151; test for, 156 root cap, 42, 372
sleeping sickness, 120, 121
protists, 14, 22-3; harmful, 118-21 root hairs, 42, 244-6, 372
slime (see also mucus), 29, 31
protozoans, see protists root of tooth, 176
slipped disc, 311
pseudopod,314 root pressure, 247
small intestine, 170, 172-3
psychosis, 279 roots, 42, 244-6, 327, 329, 372; responses of,
smallpox, 112
ptyalin (amylase), 171 335, 336
smell receptors, 283
puberty, 342, 343-4 root tuber, 380
smog, 95
pulse (circulation), 214 rotation of crops, 98, 221-2
smoked food, 110
pupa, 362 roughage (dietary fibre), 150, 174, 374
smoking, 195-97
pupil (eye), 286, 288, 289 roundworms, 16, 125
smooth muscle, 138
pus, 205 royal jelly, 74
snail fever (bilharzia; schistosomiasis), 124
pyorrhoea, 178 rumen, 180
snails, 69
pyramid of biomass, 47, of numbers, 47 ruminants, 180
sodium, 152
pyramid of energy, 47, 104-5 runners, 381
soil, 78-83; erosion, 85, 98; life in, 84-7;
pyrenoids, 29 rust disease, 127
waterlogged, 53, 79, 247
species, 10, 11 sense, 282, 285 variegated leaves, 226
sperm duct, 338 temperature inversion, 95 vasectomy, 356
sperms, 8, 323-5; human, 342-5 tendons, 306, 313 vascular tissue (see also phloem and xylem),
sperm tubules, 338 tendrils, 336 244
spinal cord, 270-71 tennis elbow, 312 VD (venereal disease), see sexually
spinal nerves, 270-71 terminal bud, see apical bud transmitted diseases
spiracles, 32, 199 termites, 17, 77 vector, 118
Spirogyra, 29; reproduction of, 324 territory, 366 vegans, 155
spirometer, 192 testes, 40, 325, 338, 342-5; of Hydra, 324 vegetarians, 155
spores, 322, of bacteria, 25, 88,114; of mosses testosterone, 343 vegetative reproduction, 323, 381-3
and ferns, 322; of mushrooms, 323, 325; of tetanus (lockjaw), 115-16 veins, 214; in leaves, 42, 240-3
pin mould, 28, 88, 322, 324 textured vegetable protein, 151 venereal disease (VD), see sexually
sprains, 312 thalidomide, 349 transmitted diseases
stability, see balance thermal pollution, 96 ventral side, 140
stamens, 368 thiamine (vitamin B,), 154 ventricle, 302-3
starch, 146, 158, 160-61; digestion of, 171, thorax, 32,188 vertebrates, 18-19
172, 173; in diet, 150; in photosynthesis, threadworms, 125 vestigal structures, 401
224-9; in seeds, 372, 374; test for, 156, 225 throat, 171-72,190 villi, 173
starch grains, 135, 150, 159; in Spirogyra, 29 thrush infection, 359 vinegar, 107, 200
starch print, 227 thyroid gland, 152, 267, 280-81; in frog, 365 viruses, 14, 26-7, 130 (see also disease)
starvation, 164 thyroxine, 152, 267, 280-81; in frog, 365 vision, see eye
stem, 42, 244-6, 248, 250, 328; measuring timber, 252 visual purple, 292
strength of, 253; thickening of, 238 tissue culture, 27 vital capacity, 192
stem tuber, 380-81 tissue fluid, 218 vitamins, 149,153-6
sterilisation, 114; of food, 109-10 tissues, 138-9, 141 vivaparous, 324
sterilisation (sexual), 356 toads (see also amphibians), 36, 317, 319 vocal cords, 190
sterility, 357 tomato, 377 voice box (larynx), 190, 364
stickleback, reproductive behaviour, 323 tongue, 170-1, 283 voluntary responses, 271
stigma, 368 tonsils, 219
stimulants, 278 top carnivore, 46
stimuli, 6, 270, 282-5; plants, 334-7 topsoil, 78 W
sting cells, 30,185 touch, 6, 282, 284; plants' response to, 336; warm-blooded animals, 257
stitcn, 313 receptors, 282 wasps, 17, 75-6, 363
stolons, 382 trace elements, 152, 220 waste removal, see excretion
stomach, 170,172; ruminant, 180 trachea, 190 water, 50, 146; in diet, 151; in
stoma (air pore), 240-2, 244-5, 249 tracheal system (of insects), 199 photosynthesis, 231; loss from plants, 58-9;
storage of food substances, 158-61 tracheotomy, 194 uptake and movement through plants,
strawberry, 376-7, 381 transect, 56 244-8; physical environment in, 60
stretch receptors, 299, 301 translocation, 247 water animals and plants, 70-1
stroke, 215 transpiration, 50, 244 water balance, 260-5
stye, 287 transplant operations, 208 water culture, 223
style, 368 transport tissues, 244-7 water cycle, 50
subsoil, 78 trees, 43; structure, 246-7, 251; trunk, 251 waterlogged soil, 53, 79, 247
succession, 62 triceps, 307 water on the knee, 312
succulents, 59 tropical rain forest, 231 water table, 50, 78
suckling, 40 tropics, 58 weed-killers (see also herbicides), 104
sucrose, 146; in diet, 150; digestion of, 173 tropisms, 334-7 wet seasons, 59
sugar, 146; in blood, 259; in diet, 150; in trypanosomes, 120, 121 wheat, 104, 160, 374
digestion, 171; in plants, 224-5, 242; trypsin, 172, 173, 174 whiskers, 40
tests for, 156 tsetse fly, 120 white blood cells, 204, 205-6, 208
sugar beet, 160 tubal litigation, 356 wildlife conservation, 99
sugar cane, 160, 231 tuberculosis, 195 wilting, 250
sulphur dioxide, 94-5 tubers, 380 wind as environmental variable, 59;
survival of fittest, 403 Tullgren funnel, 86 measuring speed of, 61
swarm (bees), 76 tumours, 332 windpipe, 190
sweat glands, 254 turbinates, 189 wings, of birds, 38, 317; of insects, 32, 315
swimming, 316-17, 319 turgidity, 144, 250 wisdom teeth, 177
sycamore fruits, 378 twins, 352-3 wood (habitat), 68-9, 230, 232
symbiosis, see mutualism typhoid, 113, 117 wood (plant tissue), 251
symmetry, 140, 369 wood (timber), 251, 252
synapses, 271, 272
synovial fluid, 307
U woodland animals, 71
woodlice, 68; reaction to humidity, 63
syphilis, 116, 358 ulcer, 174
umbilical cord, 348-50
systems, of body, 139-40
ungulates, 19
urea, 258, 260, 262
X
xerophthalmia, 153
T ureter, 260
urethra, 260, 338
xerophytes, 59
xylem, 241, 244-8, 32; secondary, 328-9
tabulating results, 2
urethritis, 358
tadpoles, 364-5
tail, 40
tapeworm, 122-4
taproot, 380
uric acid, 265
urination, 260
urine, 8, 260, 263
y
yeast, 107, 200, 203; budding of, 322, 325
uterus, 40, 339 yellow body (corpus luteum), 346
tarsus, 32
taste, 285; receptors, 283 yellow spot (fovea), 288, 292
taxis (taxic response), 58, 60, 63
tear gland, 287
1/ yoghurt, 106
yolk, 366
vaccination, vaccine, 115, 359
teats, 40
vacuole (see also contractile vacuole; food
teeth, 40; human, 176-9; other mammals,
181-3; decay, 177-9
vacuole), 28, 29,135, 144
vagina, 40, 339
Z
temperate regions, 58 zygospore, 324
temperature: as environmental variable, 58, variables, 3 zygote, 342; of pin mould and Spirogyra, 324
variation, 398-9
60-61; control of, 255-7, 266; in
varicose veins, 215
photosynthesis, 231; receptors, 282;
Advice on how to use the index is given on page 404
_Acknowledgemen ts_
The author and publishers are grateful to the Dr R J Pack, St Georges Medical School: 114.7; Page 351, Fig. 7 C. Wood, Sex and Fertility,
following for permission to use their Picturepoint: 352.10; Popperfoto: 116.10; DrK Thames and Hudson
photographs: (The numbers citied refer to page R Porter, Harvard University: 136.6; Press Page 369, Fig. 5 L.J. Brimble, Intermediate
and figure numbers respectively.) Association: 129.2; Chris Ridgers Botany, Macmillan
Photography: 176.2 (upper); M.B. V. Roberts: Page401, Fig. 5 F.G. W. Knowles, Diagrams of
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122.1,125.7; London Scientific Films: 40.2; Page 287, Fig. 5 Based on material from K.
London Scientific Fotos: 200.1, 348.2; The Mellanby
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National Coal Board: 98.11, 311.6; Thomas Human Anatomy, Canfield Press
Nelson & Sons: 6.2, 7.5,107.4,107.5,114.6, Page 314, Fig. 3 R. McN. Alexander, The
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centre), 74.1, 76.6,110.7,130.7, 180.2,187.11, Page 326, Fig. 3 B.S. Beckett, Biology: a Modern
224.2, 231.4, 234.1, 234.2, 250.1, 255.4 (left), Introduction, Oxford University Press
314.1, 323.4, 328.8, 336.9, 360.1, 365.3, 370.8, Page348, Fig. 3 R.J. Demarest and J.J. Sciarra,
401.3 (centre right, far right); Conception, Birth and Contraception, Hodder and
Stoughton
 IOLOGY FOR LIFE provides a text that
is straightforward, easy to read and
relevant to everyday life. The second
edition meets the requirements of the
National Criteria for Biology and gives a
comprehensive coverage of all topics
required by the GCSE Biology syllabuses.

if
Nelson