UNIT-3

ENERGY RESOURCES,ELECTRICITY BILL & SAFETY MEASURES

CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY SOURCES

To meet the increasing demand of electrical energy, we must make use of all sources of energy in nature.
The sources can be broadly classified into two types.
(i) Conventional sources (ii) Non-conventional sources
1. Conventional Sources: Conventional Sources can be defined as sources which provide a net supply of
energy. These are most dependable and are commonly used for generation of electrical energy. The
following are the Conventional Sources
(a) Solid fuels (Lignite, Coal etc,)
(b) Liquid fuels (Heavy oil, Diesel oil, Petrol etc.)
(c) Gaseous fuels (Natural gas, Petroleum gas etc,)
(d) Water (Hydro) power
(e) Nuclear power
2. Non-Conventional Sources: These fuels are producing no net energy. The following are some of the
Non-Conventional energy sources.
Eg: Sun, Ocean Tides, wind, Geo-thermal Energy, Biomass/Biogas, Ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC), Fuel cells
Magneto Hydro Dynamic Generation (MHD), Thermo-electric power, Piezeo electric power.
These are also called renewable energy sources. Renewable energy sources are ones that won't run out.
For example winds will keep on blowing, whether we use the energy or not.

NECESSITY OF DEVELOPING NON-CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF POWER GENERATION

1. The major sources of electrical energy are the fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and water.
2. The fossil fuels and other conventional resources, presently used in generation of electrical energy, may
not be sufficient to meet the increased demand for electrical energy.
3. Increased use of fossil fuels also causes environmental problem both locally and globally.
4. This may led to "ozone depletion" and "global warming" & "vehicular pollution".
5. Also in order to conserve fossil fuels scientists and engineers are searching to develop new & alternative
method of power generation which is called Non-conventional method of power generation.
i) Because they cause less emission
ii) They can use to large extent.
iii) Reduce chemical, radioactive & thermal pollution.
6. Some of Non-Conventional Methods of power generation are Solar cells, wind power generation, etc.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF SOLAR POWER PLANT

Solar cells are a type of photoelectric device that undergo changes in their electrical properties, such as
voltage, current, or resistance, upon exposure to light. Solar panels, which are modules made by combining
multiple solar cells, are commonly used.

A solar cell diagram visually represents the components and working principle of a photovoltaic (PV) cell.
The diagram illustrates the conversion of sunlight into electricity via semiconductors, highlighting the key
elements: layers of silicon, metal contacts, anti-reflective coating, and the electric field created by the
junction between n-type and p-type silicon.

The solar cell diagram showcases the working mechanism of a photovoltaic (PV) cell. Sunlight
interacts with silicon layers, generating electron-hole pairs. These pairs, driven by the electric field
between n-type and p-type silicon, travel to metal contacts, creating a current that is harnessed as
electricity. The anti-reflective coating maximizes light absorption, boosting efficiency

Solar cells are made of semiconducting materials like silicon. When sunlight falls on the solar cell panel
the energy in the sunlight is absorbed by the semiconducting material (silicon) due to this the electrons and
protons are excited (or) base from their atomic orbitals.

The electrons then travel along a circuit built into solar cells thus creating a current of electricity. This
electricity is then used immediately (or) stored in batteries and the block diagram of energy conversion of
solar cells is shown below
.
Advantages -
1. Solar energy is free, and hence it needs no fuel.
2. In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no easy way to get electricity to a remote
place.
3. Utilized for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and battery charges.
4. Non-exhaustible.
5. It is clean and free from environmental pollution.
6. It can be utilized without highly specialized skills.

Disadvantages:
1. Doesn't work at night.
2. Very expensive to build solar power station.
3. Solar cells costs a great deal compared to the amount of electricity they will produce in their lifetime
4. Can be unreliable unless, it is very sunny climate.
5. Conversion of solar energy into useful form requires a large capital investment.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF WIND POWER PLANTS

Wind turbines capture the kinetic energy in surface winds and convert it into electrical energy in the form
of electricity, just as fossil-fueled plants use steam or combustion gases to turn electricity-producing rotors.
To do this use they use three basic parts: blades, a shaft and a generator.
As wind moves over turbine blades, it cause"lift the same effect used by airplane wings. Lift makes the
blades rotate. The turning blades turn a shaft. The turning shaft moves a magnetic field in the generator,
which in turn creates electricity

So how do wind turbines make electricity? Simply stated, a wind turbine work the opposite of a fan.
Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind
turns the blades, which spin & shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity.
Wind turbines commonly begin to produce power at a wind speed of 10-12 miles per hour. Wind plants
produce electricity only when the wind blows, so if the wind is not blowing, the plant is not producing
electricity. For this reason, wind is called an intermittent resource.
Advantages
1. It is a pollution-free, infinitely sustainable form of energy
2. It doesn't require fuel
3. It doesn't create greenhouse gasses
4. It doesn't produce CO₂ or toxic or radioactive waste.
5. Wind energy is quiet and does not present any significant hazard to birds or other wildlife.
6. Infinite energy source
7. The land beneath can usually still be used for farming
8. Wind farms can be tourist attractions.
9. A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.

Disadvantages:
1. Wind power technology requires a higher investment than fossil-fueled generators.
2. Wind is intermittent and it does not always blow when electricity is needed.
3. Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast, where land is expensive
4. Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities where the electricity is needed.
5. Can affect television reception if you live nearby

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HYDRO POWER STATION:

1. A power generating station which is the potential and kinetic energy of water for the generation of an
electrical energy is called a hydroelectric power station.
2. Water has a kinetic energy when it is in motion. The water stored at high level as a potential energy.
3. The difference in the level of water between the two points is called head.
4. Water head is created by construction of Reservoir across a river.
5. Generally a dam, is constructed at high water level which can be used as a continuous source of
water for hydroelectric power stations.
6. The water from the dam is taken through penstock by water pipes to the water turbine which is at
low level.
7. The water turbine converts the hydraulic energy in mechanical energy.
8. Alternator which is coupled on the same shaft of the water turbine will convert this mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
9.Water after doing useful work is discharged to the tail race
 Requirements of setting up of hydro power plant:
1. Catchment area :The area behind a dam , Where water is collected by the natural. In the catchment area
all rain flows to the dam.
2. Reservoir :It is a place where a large quantity of water is stored during the rain season and the same
water is supplied to the turbine to produce electricity. The water in the Reservoir is also used for irrigation.
A reservoir can either natural or artificial be made.
3. Dam: It is constructed in the path of the river to develop a reservoir to store rain water. it is also
necessary to create the head required to operate the turbine. The dam is constructed with concrete.
4. Penstock: Water pipeline which carries water from the dam to the turbine full stop is generally made of
steel concrete pen stocks are suitable for lower heads which is less than 30m stop Steel pen stocks are
suitable for any head.

5. Surge tank: To take care of the system load fluctuations, surge tank in between dam and valve house.
The surge tank controls the pressure changes created due to Rapid changes in the water flow in the
penstock and hence protects the penstock from water without any effect. Main function of surge tank is to
provide space for holding water during load decreased by the turbine and also supplies additional water .,,,
when load on turbine increases it relieves the water hammer pressure within the penstock under sudden
changes in water flow
6.Water turbine: The turbine with the water head available which rotates the alternator.
7.Draft tube: It is an airtight pipe connected to the outlet of a turbine for discharging water in to the
tailrace. By the use of a draft tube, the effective operating head is increased.
8.Power house: It consists of turbine alternator and electrical equipment and it is located normally at the
bottom of the dam.
9. Electrical equipment: Alternator, Power transformer, Switchgear are three main electrical equipment
used in hydro power stations.

Advantages of hydroelectric power plant:

1. Water is the cheapest and reliable source of electricity generation because it exists as a free gift from
nature.
2. It is free from pollution because no smoke and a share produced in this plant.
3. No fuel transportation problems.
4. It’s maintenance cost is low
5. These plants have no stand by losses.
6. Running cost of plants is low.
7. The cost per unit generation is low compared to thermal power stations.
8. Auxiliaries needed in the plant are less compared to steam plants of equal size.
9. It requires less supervising staff.
10. The efficiency of plants does not change with age.

Disadvantages of hydro electric power plant:

1. Initial cost of the plant including the cost of the dam is high.
2. It takes a long time for its construction as compared to thermal plants.
3. Power generation by the hydro plant is only dependent on the quantity of water available, which in turn
depends on rain. During the dry year, the power production may be discontinued. Hence the power from
these plants is not very reliable.
4. The site selected for a hydroelectric power plant is selected on the basis of water availability at economical
head. Hence these are almost away from the load centre because these require long transmission lines to
deliver power. Therefore, the cost of transmission lines and losses in the lines will be more.

Importance of Nuclear power plant:

Every day the demand for power is increasing. In order to meet this increasing power demand it is enough
with the utilization of available fossil fuels. Because the availability of fossil fuels are limited and causing
depleting by its usage. In India, the availability of fossil fuels is limited hence we must depend more on
nuclear fuel for power generation. It saves considerable amount of fossil fuels and also reduce the
transportation problems.

Merits of using nuclear energy:

i) The amount of fuel required is small; therefore the fuel cost is low.
ii) Since the fuel require is low, there is no problem of transportation, storage etc.;
iii) It is free from greenhouse effect and acid rain.
iv) It is clean source of energy.
v) The production of electrical energy by using nuclear energy is continuous.
vi) Output control (zero to upper limit) is extremely flexible.
vii) Fossil fuel may get exhausted in short time but not nuclear energy.

Risk involved in using Nuclear energy:-

i) The cost of fuel is very high.
ii) People who work at nuclear plants and live near those areas are at high risk of facing nuclear radiations.
iii) Fission by products is radioactive and may cause dangerous amount of radio-active pollution.
iv) The disposal of the radioactive by products is a big problem; they have either to be disposed of in a
deep trench (or) in a sea away from sea shore.
v) Small radiation leak can cause dangerous effects.

Nuclear fuels:-
The fuels used in nuclear power stations are uranium, thorium, and plutonium.
Nuclear Fission:-
The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two (or) more smaller nuclei is called “Nuclear fission” Fission is the
process that occurs when a neutron collides with the nucleus of certain heavy atoms, causing original
nucleus to split into two (or) more smaller nuclei. This process is accompanied by the emission of neutron
and gamma rays.
Uranium (235) +neutron: Lanthanum (148) +bromine (85) +3 free neutrons
U235+n La148 + Br85 + 3n - (1)

Nuclear Fusion:
Fusion is the process of combining to higher nuclei into a stable and heavy nucleus. In this case large
amount of energy released because the mass of heavy nucleus is less than masses of adding of two nuclei.
Now consider fusion of two heavy hydrogen atom 1H^2 which produces a helium atom

1H2 + 1H2 He3 + n + energy (1)

chain reaction:
A Chain reaction is that process in which the number of neutrons keeps on multiplying rapidly during
fission, till whole of fissionable material is disintegrated.
Working of moderate type nuclear power station:
The essential components of nuclear power plant are:
a) Nuclear reactor b) Heat exchanger c) Steam turbine d) Alternator e) Condenser.
The nuclear reactor is the heart of nuclear power plant. A tremendous amount of heat energy is produced in
the reactor in breaking of atom of uranium other fission materials by fission process. The heat is extracted
by pumping coolant generally a sodium metal or gas; the coolant carries heat to heat exchanger. It converts
after giving up heat; the coolant is again pumped to the reactor. The steam produced in heat exchanger is
fed to steam turbine through steam valve. After doing useful work in the turbine the steam is allowed to
condenser. The condenser condenses the steam and is pumped to the heat exchange by feed water pump.
The steam drives the turbine to couple an alternator which converts mechanical energy of turbine into
electrical energy. The output of alternator is step-up and is fed to the bus bar through isolator and circuit
breaker

Materials used for coolant, reflector, control rods:

Coolant: 1. Heavy water 2. Light water 3. Liquid metals coolant 4. Gas 5. Organic liquids.
Reflector:- 1. Graphite 2. Beryllium 3. Heavy water 4. Ordinary water
Control rods:- 1. Cadmium 2. Boron 3. Indium 4 silver 5. Hafnium
Working of reactor in nuclear power station:
Nuclear reactor is the heat of the nuclear power station, where tremendous amount of heat energy is
released as result of nuclear fission of radio-active materials.

a) Fuel:- fuels generally used in the reactor are uranium, thorium, plutonium etc., Used in the form of rods
or plates which are surrounded by the moderator in the reactor, such that uniform heat produced.
b) Moderator: The purpose of moderator in reactor core is to moderate or reduce the neutron speed to a
value that increases the probability of fission occurrence. The neutron collides with the nuclei of moderator
material, loose their energy and gets slowed down

c) Control rods: The control rods are inserted into the reactor core from top of the reactor vessel; these
control rods are regulated or control the fission process or chain reaction. The control rods are made with
cadmium or boron. Because they are strong neutron absorber.
d) Reflector: In order to avoid the leakage or escape of neutrons from reactor it is essential to surround the
reactor with material acting as a reflector. The reflector gets heated due to collision of neutrons with its
atoms, hence cooling is essential. The material used for reflector, Graphite, heavy water.
e) Coolant: A coolant is a medium through which heat produced in the reactor is transferred to the heat
exchanger to produce steam. Liquid sodium is generally used as coolant; the coolant is recirculating after
heat transfer has taken place.
f) Shielding: The radiation of radioactive substances from reactor core, these radiations are very harmful to
human life. Shielding is provided around the reactor core to prevent the escape of these radiations to the
atmosphere.
g) Reactor core: It houses the fuel, moderate and reflector. Ex: steel and concrete lined.
h) Heat exchanger: It is a device used to exchange the from the primary circuit to secondary circuit the
coolant carries the heat from the reactor to exchanger where the water convert into steam.

Power Rating Of House Hold Appliances:

A power rating is a measurement of the maximum amount of power that can be used by a
device/appliances. It is provided in order to keep the user safe and to prevent device/appliances from
becoming damaged.

Not every appliance consumes the same amount of electricity. Heavy appliances such as washing
machines, air conditioners, and refrigerators consume more electricity.

Every electrical appliance will come with a certain wattage, which is the unit of power. You can find it in
the product label. So, the higher the wattage, the more power it will consume.

Apart from this, there are several other methods to calculate the energy consumed by the electrical
appliances.

Calculate the annual cost to run the appliance

You can calculate the annual cost by multiplying the annual energy consumption and utility rate per kWh.

Annual cost = Energy consumed annually x rate of utility per kWh

Using the above formula, let us find the annual cost to operate an AC.

 Run time per day: Let us assume that you run the AC for 7 hours a day.

 Wattage: You will find the wattage on the label or the user manual. Let us assume it as 1500 W.

 Energy consumed daily: (1,500 x 7) ÷ 1,000 = 10.5 kWh

 Energy consumed annually: Most people run the AC only during summers. However, some people
run it throughout the year. Let us assume you run the AC for 200 days in a year.

10.5 kWh x 200 = 2,100 kWh

 Annual cost: Let us assume the utility rate is 12 rupees per kWh

 Annual cost = Energy consumed annually x rate of utility per kWh

2,100 x 12/kWh = 25,200 per year.
 MINIMUM MAXIMUM
APPLIANCE
WATTAGE WATTAGE

2 Ton Air Conditioner 1300W 2000W

2 Ton Inverter Air Conditioner 1000W 2000W

42 Inch LED TV 70W 90W

Desktop Computer 100W 450W

Domestic Water Pump 200W 1500W

Electric Iron 800W 1500W

Fridge 150W 450W

Laptop Computer 40W 120W

LED Light Bulb 7W 10W

Refrigerator 100W 200W

Table Fan 10W 25W

Tube Light 22W 22W

Vacuum Cleaner 450W 900W

Washing Machine 500W 500W

Inkjet Printer 20W 30W

1.Calculate the electricity bill amount for a month of 31 days, if the following devices are used as
specified:
a) 3 bulbs of 30 watts for 5 hours
b) 4 tube lights of 50 watts for 8 hours
c) 1 fridge of 300 watts for 24 hours
Given the rate of electricity is 2 Rs. per unit.

Solution

The energy consumed by the bulbs,

As we know enegry=power×time

3 bulbs × 30 watts × 5 hours × 31 days = 13950 Wh

The energy consumed by the tubes,

4 tubes × 50 watts × 8 hours × 31 days = 49600 Wh

The energy consumed by the fridge,

1 fridge × 300 watts × 24 hours × 31 days = 223200 Wh

Therefore, the total energy consumption is given by,

13950+49600+223200 = 286750 Wh = 286.75 KWh

We need to convert it into units, where 1 unit = 1 kWh

So, electricity bill = Total Energy consumed x rate of utility per kWh

= 286.75 units × 2 rs = Rs. 573.5

Tariff

The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff

Two-part tariff. When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of the
consumer and the units consumed, it is called a two-part tariff.

In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two components viz., fixed
charges and running charges. The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer while
the running charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the consumer.

Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of maximum†† demand plus a certain amount
per kWh of energy consumed i.e.,

Total charges = Rs (b × kW + c × kWh)

where, b = charge per kW of maximum demand

c = charge per kWh of energy consumed

This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable maximum demand.
Advantages

(i) It is easily understood by the consumers.

(ii) It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer but are
independent of the units consumed.

Disadvantages

(i) The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has consumed or not
consumed the electrical energy.

(ii) There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.

Fuse:
A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive current flows
through it and thus breaks the circuit. The fuse element is generally made of materials having low melting
point, high conductivity and least deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver, copper etc.

Working Principle Of Fuse:

A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current flows through it for
sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected. Under normal operating conditions,
the fuse element it at a temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it carries the normal load current
without overheating. However, when a short circuit or overload occurs, the current through the fuse
element increases beyond its rated capacity. This raises the temperature and the fuse element melts (or
blows out), disconnecting the circuit protected by it. In this way, a fuse protects the machines and
equipment from damage due to excessive currents. It is worthwhile to note that a fuse performs both
detection and interruption functions.
The time required to blow out the fuse depends upon the magnitude of excessive current. The greater the
current, the smaller is the time taken by the fuse to blow out. In other words, a fuse has inverse time-
current characteristics. Such a characteristic permits its use for overcurrent protection.
Advantages
(i) It is the cheapest form of protection available.
(ii) It requires no maintenance.
(iii) Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which requires an
elaborate equipment for automatic action.
(iv) It can break heavy short-circuit currents without noise or smoke.
(v) The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under short-circuit conditions.
(vi) The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse makes it suitable for overcurrent protection.
(vii) The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than with the circuit breakers.
Disadvantages
(i) Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.
(ii) On heavy short-circuits, *discrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained unless
there is sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuses concerned.
(iii) The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be co-related with that of the protected
apparatus.
Miniature circuit breaker(MCB):

A miniature circuit breaker (MCB) is an Electrical Switch that automatically switches off the electrical
circuit during an abnormal condition of the network means an overload condition as well as a faulty
condition.

Nowadays we use an MCB in a low-voltage electrical network instead of a fuse. The fuse may not sense it
but the miniature circuit breaker does it in a more reliable way. MCB is much more sensitive to overcurrent
than a fuse

Handling an MCB is electrically safer than a fuse. Quick restoration of supply is possible in case of a fuse
because fuses must be rewirable or replaced for restoring the supply. Restoration is easily possible by just
switching it ON. Let’s look at the working of the miniature circuit breaker.

Working Principle of MCB

Whenever continuous overcurrent flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by
bending. This deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a mechanical latch.

As this mechanical latch is attached to the operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit
breaker contacts, and the MCB turns off thereby stopping the current to flow in the circuit. To restart the
flow of current the MCB must be manually turned ON.

This mechanism protects from faults arising due to overcurrent or overload and short circuits.

But during short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly, causing electromechanical displacement of
the plunger associated with a tripping coil or solenoid. The plunger strikes the trip lever causing the
immediate release of the latch mechanism consequently opening the circuit breaker contacts. This was a
simple explanation of a miniature circuit breaker’s working principle.
An MCB is very simple, easy to use, and is not generally repaired. It is just easier to replace. The trip unit
is the main part, responsible for its proper working. There are two main types of trip mechanisms.

A bi-metal provides protection against overload current and an electromagnet provides protection against
electric short-circuit current.

Advantages & Disadvantages:

Advantages Disadvantages

Safety Limited current protection

Reliability Limited overcurrent rating

Easy to install and use Nuisance tripping

Cost-effective Replacement and maintenance

Space-saving Limited protection for high power appliances

Electric shock:
An electric shock occurs when a person comes into contact with an electrical energy source.
Electrical energy flows through a portion of the body, causing a shock. Exposure to
electrical energy may result in no injury at all or may result in devastating damage or death.

Safety precautions to avoid shock:

1.Always use insulated tools while working.
2.Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.
3.Know the wire code of your country.
4.Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in
your home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass
through your body. Use a bamboo, wooden or a fibreglass ladder instead.
5.Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any
electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electric
current.

6. Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any
branch circuit or any other electrical circuit
7.Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-energized first by
using a tester. When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester
lights up showing that an electrical current is flowing through the respective wire
8. Make sure the appliance or the socket is properly earthed.
Earthing:
Earthing is the instantaneous discharge of electrical energy by passing charges directly to
the earth using a low-resistance cable.
The four types of electric earthing systems are:
1. Pipe earthing
2. Plate earthing
3. Strip or Wire earthing
4. Rod earthing.

Types of Earthing:
1. Pipe Earthing:

Pipe earthing is a common method of connecting to the earth's electrical conductors by

using a steel pipe. Galvanized steel pipe with a diameter of 38 mm and a length of 2 meters
is used as an earth electrode in pipe earthing by being laid vertically in the ground.

The amount of moisture in the soil and the strength of the current influence the size of the
iron pipe that needs to be used. The soil's moisture will determine the maximum depth at
which the steel pipe may be installed. The finest and most effective method of earthing is
pipe earthing, which is also easily affordable.
2. Plate Earthing:

For this form of earthing, a plate composed of copper or galvanized iron is placed
vertically in the ground pit less than three meters above the ground. For a more effective
electrical grounding system, one must maintain the earth's moisture condition surrounding
the plate earthing system. This plate is attached to electrical wires to redirect the electric
charge within the earth.

3. Strip or Wire Earthing:

 In this form of earthing, strip electrodes with a minimum cross-sectional area of 6.0
mm2 and a minimum depth of 0.5 m are buried in horizontal trenches. If the electrodes are
made of galvanized iron or steel, their cross-sectional area shall not be less than 25 mm x
1.6 mm.When buried in the ground, a conductor with a minimum length of 15 m would
provide enough earth resistance.

4. Rod Earthing:

In this method of earthing, a copper rod with a galvanized steel pipe is placed vertically into
the ground manually or with a hammer to the desired value; the lengths of the implanted
electrodes reduce the earth's resistance.

The rod used for this purpose is buried in the dirt at a certain depth, securely diverting the
short-circuit electricity to the ground.

This earthing technique is suitable for sandy areas and is also very budget-friendly.
Advantages of Earthing:
The major advantages of electrical earthing are:
1. Ensures the safety of electrical appliances and devices from the excessive amount of
electric current.
2. Helps in the flow of electric current directly inside the ground.
3. Keeps the electric appliance safe from the damage
4. It protects building breakdown from the lightning
5. It shields from fire occurred because of an electric short circuit and saves goods from
fire.
6. Earthing helps in protecting overvoltage, stabilization of voltage.
7. Earthing prevents injury damage and death caused by electric current.
8. It helps to avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.

Calculation Of Electricity Bill For Domestic Consumers:

Electricity bill for domestic consumers is calculated based on electrical energy (Kwh)
consumption by Domestic appliances(Fan,AC,Fridge,Cooler,Wahing Machine,Bulbs etc.,)
for a period of month.

Electrical energy (Kwh) consumed by Domestic appliances is represented by units in

electricity bill.

Cost of electricity = number of units consumed * charge per 1 unit

Tariff Table by AP Electricity board:

Fixed
Units Range Charge Per Unit
Charges/kW/Month
0-30 1.9 10
31-75 3 10
76-125 4.5 10
126-225 6 10
226-400 8.75 10
>400 9.75 10
Bill calculation:
Example let us calculate the electricity bill for the 290 units for a month.

Current Bill Calculation for 290 units

Bill in
Units Range Per unit(₹) Our Consumption
rupees
0-30 1.9 30 57
31-75 3 45 135
76-125 4.5 50 225
126-225 6 100 600
226-400 8.75 65 568.75
Bill Amount 1585.75
Fixed Cost 10
Customer charges 55
Duty 17.4
Total 1668.15

The consumer pays Rs 1668.15 as electricity bill based on the current tariff for a month.