Part III — The Standard Model

Definitions

Based on lectures by C. E. Thomas

Notes taken by Dexter Chua

Lent 2017

These notes are not endorsed by the lecturers, and I have modified them (often
significantly) after lectures. They are nowhere near accurate representations of what
was actually lectured, and in particular, all errors are almost surely mine.

The Standard Model of particle physics is, by far, the most successful application
of quantum field theory (QFT). At the time of writing, it accurately describes all
experimental measurements involving strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions.
The course aims to demonstrate how this model, a QFT with gauge group SU(3) ×
SU(2) × U(1) and fermion fields for the leptons and quarks, is realised in nature. It is
intended to complement the more general Advanced QFT course.

We begin by defining the Standard Model in terms of its local (gauge) and global
symmetries and its elementary particle content (spin-half leptons and quarks, and
spin-one gauge bosons). The parity P , charge-conjugation C and time-reversal T
transformation properties of the theory are investigated. These need not be symmetries
manifest in nature; e.g. only left-handed particles feel the weak force and so it violates
parity symmetry. We show how CP violation becomes possible when there are three
generations of particles and describe its consequences.

Ideas of spontaneous symmetry breaking are applied to discuss the Higgs Mechanism
and why the weakness of the weak force is due to the spontaneous breaking of the
SU(2) × U(1) gauge symmetry. Recent measurements of what appear to be Higgs boson
decays will be presented.

We show how to obtain cross sections and decay rates from the matrix element squared
of a process. These can be computed for various scattering and decay processes in
the electroweak sector using perturbation theory because the couplings are small. We
touch upon the topic of neutrino masses and oscillations, an important window to
physics beyond the Standard Model.

The strong interaction is described by quantum chromodynamics (QCD), the non-

abelian gauge theory of the (unbroken) SU(3) gauge symmetry. At low energies quarks
are confined and form bound states called hadrons. The coupling constant decreases as
the energy scale increases, to the point where perturbation theory can be used. As
an example we consider electron- positron annihilation to final state hadrons at high
energies. Time permitting, we will discuss nonperturbative approaches to QCD. For
example, the framework of effective field theories can be used to make progress in the
limits of very small and very large quark masses.

Both very high-energy experiments and very precise experiments are currently striving
to observe effects that cannot be described by the Standard Model alone. If time

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 III The Standard Model (Definitions)

permits, we comment on how the Standard Model is treated as an effective field theory
to accommodate (so far hypothetical) effects beyond the Standard Model.

Pre-requisites

It is necessary to have attended the Quantum Field Theory and the Symmetries, Fields
and Particles courses, or to be familiar with the material covered in them. It would
be advantageous to attend the Advanced QFT course during the same term as this
course, or to study renormalisation and non-abelian gauge fixing.

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Contents III The Standard Model (Definitions)

Contents
0 Introduction 4

1 Overview 5

2 Chiral and gauge symmetries 6

2.1 Chiral symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Gauge symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Discrete symmetries 7
3.1 Symmetry operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Charge conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Time reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5 S-matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6 CPT theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.7 Baryogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Spontaneous symmetry breaking 9

4.1 Discrete symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Continuous symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 General case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4 Goldstone’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.5 The Higgs mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.6 Non-abelian gauge theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5 Electroweak theory 10
5.1 Electroweak gauge theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2 Coupling to leptons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3 Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4 Neutrino oscillation and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.5 Summary of electroweak theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

6 Weak decays 11
6.1 Effective Lagrangians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.2 Decay rates and cross sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.3 Muon decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.4 Pion decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.5 K 0 -K̄ 0 mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

7 Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) 12

7.1 QCD Lagrangian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.2 Renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.3 e+ e− → hadrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.4 Deep inelastic scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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0 Introduction III The Standard Model (Definitions)

0 Introduction

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1 Overview III The Standard Model (Definitions)

1 Overview

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2 Chiral and gauge symmetries III The Standard Model (Definitions)

2 Chiral and gauge symmetries

2.1 Chiral symmetry
Definition (Chirality). A Dirac fermion ψ is right-handed if γ 5 ψ = ψ, and
left-handed if γ 5 ψ = −ψ.
A left- or right-handed fermion is said to have definite chirality.

Notation.
ψL = PL ψ, ψR = PR ψ.
Definition (Helicity). We define the helicity to be the projection of the angular
momentum onto the direction of the linear momentum:

h = J · p̂ = S · p̂,

where
J = −ir × ∇ + S
is the total angular momentum, and S is the spin operator given by

1 σi 0
 
i
Si = εijk γ j γ k = .
4 2 0 σi

2.2 Gauge symmetry

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3 Discrete symmetries III The Standard Model (Definitions)

3 Discrete symmetries
Definition (Parity transform). The parity transform is given by
 
1 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0
Λµν = Pµν = 
0 0 −1 0  .


0 0 0 −1

Definition (Time reversal transform). The time reversal transform is given by

 
−1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
Tµν = 

.
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

3.1 Symmetry operators

Definition (Linear and anti-linear map). Let H be a Hilbert space. A function
f : H → H is linear if

f (αΦ + βΨ) = αf (Φ) + βf (Ψ)

for all α, β ∈ C and Φ, Ψ ∈ H. A map is anti-linear if

f (αΦ + βΨ) = α∗ f (Φ) + β ∗ f (Ψ).

Definition (Unitary and anti-unitary map). Let H be a Hilbert space, and

f : H → H a linear map. Then f is unitary if

hf Φ, f Ψi = hΦ, Ψi

for all Φ, Ψ ∈ H.
If f : H → H is anti-linear, then it is anti-unitary if

hf Φ, f Ψi = hΦ, Ψi∗ .

3.2 Parity
Definition (Intrinsic parity). The intrinsic parity of a field φ is the number
ηP ∈ C such that
P̂ φ(x)P̂ −1 = ηP φ(xP ).
Definition (Scalar and pseudoscalar fields). A real scalar field is called a
scalar field (confusingly) if the intrinsic parity is −1. Otherwise, it is called a
pseudoscalar field.
Definition (Vector and axial vector fields). Vector fields are vector fields with
ηP = −1. Otherwise, they are axial vector fields.

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3 Discrete symmetries III The Standard Model (Definitions)

3.3 Charge conjugation

3.4 Time reversal
3.5 S-matrix
3.6 CPT theorem
3.7 Baryogenesis

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4 Spontaneous symmetry breaking III The Standard Model (Definitions)

4 Spontaneous symmetry breaking

4.1 Discrete symmetry
4.2 Continuous symmetry
4.3 General case
4.4 Goldstone’s theorem
4.5 The Higgs mechanism
4.6 Non-abelian gauge theories

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5 Electroweak theory III The Standard Model (Definitions)

5 Electroweak theory
5.1 Electroweak gauge theory
Definition (Higgs field). The Higgs field φ is a complex scalar field with
two components, φ(x) ∈ C2 . The SU(2) action is given by the fundamental
representation on C2 , and the hypercharge is Y = 12 .
Explicitly, an (infinitesimal) gauge transformation can be represented by
elements αa (x), β(x) ∈ R, corresponding to the elements αa (x)τ a ∈ su(2) and
β(x) ∈ u(1) ∼
= R. Then the Higgs field transform as
a
(x)τ a i 21 β(x)
φ(x) 7→ eiα e φ(x),
1
where the 2 factor of β(x) comes from the hypercharge being 21 .

5.2 Coupling to leptons

5.3 Quarks
5.4 Neutrino oscillation and mass
5.5 Summary of electroweak theory

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6 Weak decays III The Standard Model (Definitions)

6 Weak decays
6.1 Effective Lagrangians
6.2 Decay rates and cross sections
Definition (Decay rate). Let X be a particle. The decay rate ΓX is rate of
decay of X in its rest frame. In other words, if we have a sample of X, then this
is the number of decays of X per unit time divided by the number of X present.
The lifetime of X is
1
τ≡ .
ΓX
We can write X
ΓX = ΓX→fi ,
fi

where ΓX→fi is the partial decay rate to the final state fi .

Definition (Invariant amplitude). We define the invariant amplitude M by

hf | S − 1 |ii = (2π)4 δ (4) (pf − pi )iMf i .

Definition (Cross section). The cross section is defined by

n = F σ.

6.3 Muon decay

6.4 Pion decay
6.5 K 0 -K̄ 0 mixing

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7 Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) III The Standard Model (Definitions)

7 Quantum chromodynamics (QCD)

7.1 QCD Lagrangian
7.2 Renormalization
7.3 e+ e− → hadrons
7.4 Deep inelastic scattering

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