Superconductors

Properties, Applications, and

Future Prospects

Submitted By: Anushka Deshwal.

Submitted To: Mr. Vibhor Kr. Sharma

St. Ann’s Sr. Sec. School, Roorkee

 S U P E R C ON D U C T O RS : P R O P E R T I E S ,
A P P L I C AT I O N S , A N D F U T UR E P RO S P E C T S
 ABSTRACT

Superconductivity is a unique physical phenomenon where materials, under certain conditions,

exhibit zero electrical resistance and perfect diamagnetism, leading to extraordinary applications in
various fields. This report explores the fundamental principles of superconductivity, the different
types of superconducting materials, their mechanisms, and applications. The report also delves into
the challenges and future directions of superconducting technologies, emphasizing the role of high-
temperature superconductors in revolutionizing modern technology.
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Anushka Deshwal. of class XII B has successfully completed the project of physics
on the topic, “Superconductors: Properties, Applications, and Future Prospects”, under our
supervision and guidance.

Principal’ s Signature Teacher’ s Signature

 ACKNOWLEDGEMNT

I Would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my principal SISTER ALICE JOSEPH as well as
to our teacher Mr. VIBHOR Kr. SHARMA who gave me this golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project which also helped me in doing a lot of research and I came to know about many new things. I
am really thankful to them.

Further I would also like to thank my parents and friends in finalizing the project within the given time
frame.
 1. INTRODUCTION

Superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon where certain materials, when cooled

below a characteristic critical temperature (Tc), exhibit zero electrical resistance and expel magnetic
fields (Meissner effect). This discovery, made by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911, opened new
frontiers in material science and physics, leading to innovative technologies in energy transmission,
magnetic levitation, medical imaging, and more. The practical use of superconductors, however, is
limited by the need to cool materials to extremely low temperatures, a challenge that researchers are
actively working to overcome.
 2. PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

2.1 Zero Electrical Resistance

The most defining characteristic of superconductors is their ability to conduct electricity without
resistance when below the critical temperature. In normal conductors, electrical resistance arises due
to collisions between electrons and atoms in the material. However, in superconductors, electrons
form Cooper pairs that move through the material without scattering, leading to no energy loss in the
form of heat. This results in perfect electrical conductivity.

 Example: If a superconducting wire is looped and a current is introduced, the current will flow
indefinitely without any external energy source, as there is no resistance to dissipate the
energy.

2.2 Meissner Effect

When a material transitions into its superconducting state, it will expel all magnetic fields from its
interior, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect. This is one of the most intriguing properties of
superconductors. The magnetic field lines are forced out, which leads to the levitation of magnets
above a superconductor. This effect is an essential characteristic that distinguishes superconductors
from perfect conductors.

 Example: In laboratory experiments, small magnets are seen to float above a superconducting
material, demonstrating the Meissner effect.

2.3 Critical Temperature (Tc)

Superconductivity is only observed below a specific temperature known as the critical temperature
(Tc). Above this temperature, the material behaves as a normal conductor. For each superconducting
material, the critical temperature is a fixed value, which can range from a few kelvins to over 100 K for
high-temperature superconductors.

 Example: The critical temperature of lead (Pb) is around 7.2 K, while high-temperature
superconductors like YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide) have a Tc above 90 K.

2.4 Energy Gap

The energy gap in superconductors refers to the difference in energy between the superconducting
ground state and the excited states of the electrons. In this state, the material behaves as a superfluid
for electrons, enabling them to flow without resistance. This energy gap is crucial for understanding
the mechanism behind superconductivity, particularly in the context of Cooper pairing.

 Example: The BCS theory, which explains superconductivity in low-temperature

superconductors, involves the formation of Cooper pairs, which have a binding energy
corresponding to this gap.
 3. TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

3.1 Type I Superconductors

Type I superconductors are typically pure metals, such as lead, mercury, and tin. These materials
exhibit superconductivity when cooled below their critical temperature. However, they have the
limitation of expelling magnetic fields only up to a critical magnetic field strength, beyond which they
lose their superconducting properties.

 Properties:

o They exhibit a complete Meissner effect.

o They are superconducting only below a critical magnetic field strength (Hc) and
critical temperature (Tc).

o Upon exceeding the critical field, these materials revert to their normal conducting
state.

 Examples: Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), and Tin (Sn).

3.2 Type II Superconductors

Type II superconductors are generally alloys or complex compounds like niobium-titanium and YBCO
(Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide). They exhibit superconductivity at higher temperatures and magnetic
fields than Type I superconductors. They allow partial penetration of magnetic fields in the form of
quantized vortices or flux lines, making them more versatile for practical applications.

 Properties:

o They exhibit a partial Meissner effect, with magnetic fields penetrating the material in
discrete vortices.

o They can sustain higher magnetic fields and critical temperatures compared to Type I
superconductors.

o These materials are often used in high-performance applications like MRI machines,
power transmission lines, and maglev trains.

 Examples: Niobium-Titanium (NbTi), YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide), BSCCO (Bismuth
Strontium Calcium Copper Oxide).


 4. MECHANISM OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

4.1 BCS Theory (Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer Theory)

The BCS theory, formulated in 1957 by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer, explains
the phenomenon of superconductivity in conventional superconductors. According to this theory, at
low temperatures, electrons in a conductor interact with the lattice of the material to form Cooper
pairs. These pairs of electrons, with opposite spins and momentum, move through the material
without scattering, thus allowing for zero electrical resistance.

 Key Concepts:

o Cooper Pairs: Electrons in a superconductor form pairs that act as bosons, which can
move through the lattice without resistance.

o Energy Gap: An energy gap exists between the superconducting state and the normal
state, and breaking the Cooper pairs requires energy that exceeds this gap.

4.2 High-Temperature Superconductivity

High-temperature superconductors, discovered in the 1980s, are a class of materials that exhibit
superconductivity at much higher temperatures than conventional superconductors. These materials
include copper-based compounds (cuprates) and iron-based compounds, with critical temperatures
above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (77 K). The exact mechanism behind high-temperature
superconductivity is not fully understood, though theories such as electron pairing and magnetic
interactions are believed to play a role.

 Example: YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide) has a Tc of around 92 K and is one of the most
widely studied high-temperature superconductors.
 5. APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

5.1 Power Transmission

Superconducting cables have the potential to revolutionize the power transmission industry by
eliminating energy losses that occur due to resistance in traditional power lines. Superconducting
wires can carry much higher currents without the need for cooling systems like conventional power
lines, leading to more efficient electricity distribution.

 Example: Superconducting power cables have been tested in pilot projects in countries like
Japan, where they have shown promising results in reducing power loss.

5.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Superconducting magnets are used in MRI machines because of their ability to generate strong, stable
magnetic fields. These magnets enable high-resolution imaging, which is crucial for accurate
diagnostics in medicine.

 Example: MRI machines typically use niobium-titanium superconducting magnets to produce

the strong magnetic fields necessary for imaging.

5.3 Maglev Trains

Magnetic levitation (maglev) trains use superconducting magnets to levitate above tracks, eliminating
friction and allowing for extremely high-speed travel. The use of superconductors in maglev trains
provides a significant advantage in terms of energy efficiency and speed.

 Example: The Shanghai Maglev Train, one of the fastest commercial trains in the world, uses
superconducting magnets for levitation.

5.4 Particle Accelerators

Superconducting magnets are critical in particle accelerators like the Large Hadron Collider (LHC),
where they are used to guide and accelerate particles to near-light speeds. These high-strength
magnetic fields allow for precise control of the particles in the accelerator.

 Example: The LHC uses superconducting magnets to create magnetic fields of up to 8.3 Tesla
to steer particles.

5.5 Quantum Computing

Superconductors play a crucial role in the development of quantum computers, which rely on
qubits—quantum bits that leverage the principles of quantum mechanics. Superconducting qubits,
based on Josephson junctions, are among the most promising technologies for building practical
quantum computers.

 Example: Companies like IBM and Google are actively working on quantum computers that
use superconducting qubits to perform complex calculations.
 6. CHALLENGES IN SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

6.1 High-Temperature Superconductivity

One of the main challenges in the field of superconductivity is achieving superconductivity at room
temperature. While high-temperature superconductors have been discovered, they still require
cooling with liquid nitrogen or more expensive coolants. Room-temperature superconductivity
remains the Holy Grail of material science.

6.2 Material Limitations

Many superconducting materials are brittle or difficult to work with on a large scale. These materials
often require special handling and containment, which limits their widespread use in applications like
power grids or transportation.

6.3 Stability and Durability

Superconducting materials may suffer from performance degradation over time due to external
factors like exposure to high magnetic fields or radiation. Ensuring the long-term stability and
durability of superconductors in various environments remains a key challenge.
 7. FUTURE PROSPECTS

7.1 Room-Temperature Superconductivity

Researchers are actively searching for materials that can exhibit superconductivity at room
temperature. A breakthrough in this area could revolutionize energy storage and transmission,
transportation systems, and computing. Recent research has shown potential in hydrogen-rich
materials under extremely high pressures, though further experimentation is required.

7.2 Advances in Quantum Computing

As quantum computing technology advances, superconducting qubits could play a pivotal role in
solving complex problems that classical computers cannot handle. Superconducting materials are also
essential for scaling up quantum computers to more qubits.

7.3 New Applications

In the coming decades, superconductors may lead to new innovations in medicine, energy, and
transportation, such as faster maglev trains, more efficient MRI machines, and power grids with zero
energy loss.
 8. CONCLUSION

Superconductivity is a fascinating phenomenon that has the potential to revolutionize various

technologies. While challenges remain, particularly with high-temperature superconductivity, ongoing
research offers promising solutions. The future of superconductivity holds immense potential for
transforming industries and improving energy efficiency, medicine, and computing.
 REFERENCES

 Tinkham, M. (2004). Introduction to Superconductivity (2nd ed.). Dover Publications.

 Bardeen, J., Cooper, L. N., & Schrieffer, J. R. (1957). "Theory of Superconductivity," Physical
Review.

 Uemura, Y. J., et al. (1989). "High-Temperature Superconductivity," Physical Review Letters.