1

Module 5
APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICS IN COMPUTING
Physics of Animation
Lecture-1

Taxonomy of physics based animation methods, Frames, Frames per Second, Size
and Scale, Weight and Strength.

Animation
Animation is a method of photographing successive drawings or models to create an
illusion of movement in a sequence. Since our eyes can only retain an image for approx.
( ⅒)th of a second, when multiple images appear in fast succession, the brain blends them
into a single moving image.
Animation is the process of displaying still images in a rapid sequence to create the
illusion of movement.
In traditional animation, pictures are drawn or painted on transparent celluloid sheets to be
photographed. But today most animated movies are made with computer generated
imagery or CGI.

The Taxonomy of Physics-Based Animation Methods

The field of physics-based animation and simulation can roughly be subdivided into two
large groups:
1. Kinematics: The study of motion of bodies without considering the actual cause for
the motion is known as kinematics. Here mass and forces are not considered.
2. Dynamics: The study of motion of bodies by considering the actual cause for the
motion is known as dynamics. Here mass and forces are taken into consideration
Kinematics and dynamics come in two flavors or subgroups:
 Inverse: This is the study of motion knowing the starting and ending points but not
necessarily the path or the forces involved. In this case, one typically knows where to

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 2

go, but needs to figure out how to do it.

 Forward: This is the study of motion when we only know the starting point and the
forces acting on the object. Here the goal is to predict the final destination.

Important Terminology:
Frames
A frame is a single image in a sequence of pictures. Each frame is a still image. When
frames are shown at a fast enough rate, our brains blend them together into a
continuous moving image.

Frame rate or Frames per Second (FPS):

The number of frames displayed in one second for smooth movement effect is known as
frame rate, or frames per second (FPS)
The human brain can only process about 10 to 12 FPS. Frame rates faster than this are
perceived to be in motion. The greater the FPS, the smoother the video motion appears.
Animation shot on film and projected, is played at 24 frames per second.
Animation for television in Europe, Africa, the Middle East and Australia is played at 25
frames per second. In these countries they use a television system called PAL
Animation for television in America, West Indies and the Pacific Rim countries is played
at 30 frames per second and television system used by them is called NTSC.

Size:
In animation, size refers to the dimensions of an object or character within the
animated environment. It’s a fundamental property that can greatly influence the
perception and interaction of the character or object. For instance, the size of a
character can dictates their perceived age, strength, or role within a story. Similarly,
the size of an object can determine how it’s used within the scene. A large rock might
serve as an obstacle for a character, while a small pebble could be easily picked up
and thrown. Adjusting the size of characters or objects is a common technique in

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 3

animation to create visual interest or to emphasize certain elements within a scene.

Scale
Scale in animation refers to the relative size of different elements in a scene. It is the
ratio of animation size to the actual size of the object. It’s about the relationship
between objects and characters and their environment. For instance, a character might
be drawn larger to show importance or smaller to show distance. Scale can also be
used to create visual effects or illusions. Understanding and manipulating scale is
crucial in animation to create believable environments and to guide the viewer’s
focus.

Proportion and Scale

Creating a larger or smaller character is not just a matter of scaling everything about the
character uniformly. When object is scaled, its volume and area does not change in equal
proportionate. Change in the volume is more compared to area. Volume increases by cube
times and area increases by square times. Hence proportionate scaling is very important.

(a)Cube with size doubled (b) Doubling or tripling area

Strength and weight

Strength refers to the ability of a character or object to exert force or withstand
pressure. It’s a crucial aspect that can influence a character’s actions, interactions, and
the overall narrative of the story. For instance, a character with high strength might
be able to lift heavy objects, break through barriers, or overpower adversaries.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 4

Weight in animation refers to the perceived heaviness of a character or object, which

is influenced by the force of gravity acting upon it. It affects how a character or object
moves, interacts with its environment, and even how it sounds. For example, a heavy
character might move more slowly, make louder footsteps, and have a harder time
getting up if they fall.
Since strength increases by squares and weight increases by cubes, the proportion of a
character’s weight that it can lift doesn’t scale proportionally with its size. If you double
his body size, his weight increases eight-fold, but he can only lift four times more weight.
Although he gains strength, he loses agility because he weighs more than eight times his
original weight. Hence care has to be taken while creating larger or smaller objects by
means of scaling.

Review Questions
1. What is animation?
2. What are kinematics and dynamics?
3. What are Frames & FPS in animation?
4. What are size & scale in animation?
5. What is proportionate scaling?
6. What is weight in animation?

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 5

Lecture 2
Motion and Timing in Animations, Constant Force and Acceleration.

Motion and Timing in animations

Motion is an essential component in animations. The motion is governed by the newton’s
laws and kinematic equations. When animating a scene, there are several types of motion
to consider. These are the most common types of motion:
1. Linear motion
2. Parabolic motion
3. Circular motion
4. Wave and Oscillatory motion
Motion and timing go hand in hand in animation.

Line of action and Path of action.

Line of action: Individual drawings or poses have a line of action, which indicates the
visual flow of action at that single image. A good line of action improves character’s
poses, makes the character look more dynamic.

Path of action: Motion has a path of action, which indicates the path along which the
object or character moves. The path of action refers to the object’s motion in space.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 6

Timing Tools
In animation, timing of action consists of placing objects or characters in particular
locations at specific frames to give the illusion of motion. When you increase the number
of objects between two extreme objects, the action will be slow and run for a longer time;
and when the number of objects in between the extremes is fewer, the action will be faster
and would take less time. This way, timing plays a very crucial role in establishing a
character’s nature, personality, mood and emotion.

Linear Motion Timing

Linear motion refers to motion in a straight line, always in the same direction. An object
moving with linear motion might speed up or slow down as it follows a linear path. A
heavy ball rolling on a table or incline is an example of linear motion. The ball is rotating,
but its center of gravity follows a linear path.

Uniform Motion Timing

When the net force on the object is zero uniform motion occurs. Uniform motion is a type
of linear motion with constant speed and no acceleration or deceleration. The object
moves the same distance between consecutive frames. The longer the distance between
frames, the higher the speed.
Uniform motion is the easiest to animate because the distance the object travels between
frames is always the same.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 7

Slow-in and Slow-out

When an objects motion is not uniform it is either accelerating or decelerating, we refer to
this type of motion as a slow-in or slow-out. This type of motion is sometimes called ease
in or ease out.

Slow-in (ease in): It is the process in which the object is slowing down, often in
preparation for stopping. In this, spacing between the objects in the frames are decreased.
For example, a ball rolling up an incline is slowing down.

Slow-out (ease out): It is the process in which the object is speeding up, often from a
still position. In this, spacing between the objects in the frames are increased.
For example, a ball rolling down an incline or dropping straight down is slowing out, as it
goes from a still position or slow speed to a fast speed.

Constant force and Acceleration

A constant force is a force that doesn’t vary over time. Examples of constant forces include
gravitational force, frictional force etc.
If the applied force is constant then the body will move with constant acceleration.
The resulting acceleration depends on the direction of the force. There are 3 possibilities
1. When constant net force is applied to an unmoving object, the result is acceleration.
2. When constant net force is applied to a moving object in the same direction as
the motion, the result is acceleration.
3. When constant net force is applied in the direction opposite the existing motion, the
result is deceleration (acceleration in the opposite direction).

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 8

Forces Exerted by Characters

Forces exerted by people’s bodies are rarely constant throughout an entire motion. For the
purposes of animation, however, one can break the character motion into short time
segments and consider each of these segments to be responding to constant net force. This
will make it easier for one to calculate the timing for each individual segment.
For example, A character walking and pushing a rock is not exerting a constant force
throughout the entire sequence, but during each short part of the walk cycle the net force
could be considered to be a different constant value.

Review Questions
1. Which are the different types of motion in animation?
2. What is line of action?
3. What is path of action?
4. What is timing in animation?
5. What are linear motion and uniform motion timing?
6. What are slow-in and slow-out ?

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 9

Lecture 3
The Odd rule, Odd-rule Scenarios, Motion Graphs

The Odd Rule

When acceleration is constant, one can use the Odd Rule to time the frames. With
this method, one can calculate the distance the object moves between frames using a
simple pattern of odd numbers. Between consecutive frames, the distance the object moves
is a multiple of an odd number.
For acceleration, the distance between frames increases by multiples of 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.

For deceleration, the multiples start at a higher odd number and decrease, for example 7, 5,
3, 1.

Base distance: base distance is the smallest distance traveled between two frames in the
sequence. For a slow-out, this is the distance between the first two frames and for a slow-
in, it’s the distance between the last two frames. This base distance, is used in all Odd Rule
calculations.

Odd Rule Multipliers

The Odd Rule in its simplest form, as described above, is just one way to use it. For
example, one can instead calculate the distance from the first frame to the current frame
and use these distances to place the object on specific frames.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 10

Multiply by base distance to get distance between

Frame # Consecutive frames First frame and this frame
1 n/a 0
2 1 0+1=1=12
3 3 0+1+3=4=22
4 5 0+1+3+5=9=32
5 7 0+1+3+5+7=16=42
6 9 0+1+3+5+7+9=25=52
7 11 0+1+3+5+7+9+11=36=62

If we are calculating the distance for a large number of frames, chart like this isn’t
practical, one can figure out the odd number multiplier for consecutive frames with this
formula:
Odd number multiplier for consecutive frames = ((current frame # – 1) × 2) – 1

In the charts above, note that the distances in the last column are squared numbers: 1=12,
4 = 22, 9 = 32, 16 = 42, and so on. One of the benefits of the Odd Rule is one can calculate
the total distance traveled from the start point to the current frame with the following
formula:
Multiplier for distance from first frame to current frame = (current frame # – 1)2

Odd Rule Scenarios

Here are a few different scenarios for calculating the distance an object travels between
keys in a slow-in or slow-out.
Base Distance Known Slow-out (Speeding up)
If the object is speeding up, the first frame distance is the base distance. If one knows the
base distance, figuring out the distance the object travels at each frame is pretty
straightforward. Just multiply the base distance by 1, 3, 5, 7, etc. to get the distances
between consecutive frames, or use squares to multiply the base distance to get the total

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 11

distance traveled on each frame.

Base Distance Known Slow-in (Slowing Down)
Suppose one wants an object to slow down, and one knows the distance between the last
two frames before it stops. For slow-ins, the base distance is the distance between the last
two frames. The solution is to work backward, as if the object were speeding up in the
opposite direction. Working backward, multiply the base distance by 1, 3, 5, 7, etc. to get
the distances between each previous frame in the sequence.
Total Distance and Number of Frames Known, Speeding Up
If you know the total distance and the total number of frames, you can find the base
distance with this formula:
Base distance = Total distance/(Last frame number – 1) 2
Suppose there is a jump push (takeoff ) with constant acceleration over 5 frames, and the
total distance traveled is 0.4m. Using the formula above, we find the base distance.
Base distance = 0.4m/(5 – 1)2 = 0.4m/16 = 0.025m

Using the base distance, one can calculate the distances between each frame.

If one adds up the distances traveled, one will find that they add up to exactly 0.4m.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 12

First Key Distance Known Slowing Down

Suppose one has a moving object that one wants to slow down, and one has set the
first frame of the slow-in to give an idea of the pacing for the sequence. In this case, one
can consider that the distance the object moved between the last two frames before the
slow-in is part of the calculation— the distance between them becomes the first frame
distance, and the first slow-in frame becomes the second frame in the sequence.

One feature of the Odd Rule is that the base distance is always half the difference between
any two adjacent distances.
To find the base distance, one can simply calculate:
(0.5m – 0.35m)/2 = 0.07m
To figure out how many frames are in the slow-in, divide the first distance by the base
distance to find out which odd number it corresponds to.
0.5/0.07 = 7
This means the first distance corresponds to 7 in the 7, 5, 3, 1 sequence, making the
sequence four frames long. Now we can work back the other way, multiplying the base

distance by odd numbers to get the distances for the rest of the slow- in frames.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 13

Motion Graphs
A motion graph plots an object’s position against time. It is also called as position-time
graph or x-t graph. If one is using animation software, understanding and using motion
graphs is a key skill in animating anything beyond the simplest of motions. If one is
drawing the animation, drawing motion graphs before animating can help one to visualize
the motion. One will need to understand the types of lines in a motion graph and what they
represent in terms of visible motion. one can also look at motion graphs to get a better
understanding of any difficulties one is having with the timing or action.
Uniform motion: For uniform motion the graph is a straight line. The higher the speed,
the steeper the curve. When an object is stationary the motion curve is a flat horizontal
line.
Acceleration: Graphs of accelerating motion always show a curve. The more the curve
bends, the more the object is accelerating.

Review Questions
1. What is Odd rule in animation?
2. How to place the frames when base distance is known and speeding-up?
3. How to place the frames when base distance is known and slowing down?
4. How to find base distance when total distance and no. of frames are known?
5. How to find no. of frames when first key distance is known and slowing down?
6. What are nature of the curve for stationary, uniform, acceleration and deceleration
motion?

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 14

Lecture 4
Examples of Character Animation: Jumping, Parts of Jump, Jump
magnification, Stop Time, Walking: Strides and Steps, Walk Timing.

Examples of Character Animation

Jumping
A jump is an action where the character’s entire body is in the air, and both the
character’s feet leave the ground at roughly the same time. A jump action includes a
takeoff, free movement through the air, and a landing.
Parts of Jump
A jump can be divided into several distinct parts:
• Crouch—A squatting pose taken as preparation for jumping.
• Takeoff—Character pushes up fast and straightens legs with feet still on the ground.
The distance from the character’s center of gravity (CG) in the crouch to the CG when
the character’s feet are just about to leave the ground is called the push height. The
amount of time (or number of frames) needed for the push is called the push time.
• In the air—Both the character’s feet are off the ground, and the character’s center of
gravity (CG) moves in a parabolic arc as any free-falling body would. First it reaches
an apex, and then falls back to the ground at the same rate at which it rose. The height
to which the character jumps, called the jump height, is measured from the CG at
takeoff to the CG at the apex of the jump. The amount of time the character is in the
air from takeoff to apex is called the jump time. If the takeoff pose and the landing
pose are similar, then the jump height and jump time are about the same going up as
they are going down.
• Landing—Character touches the ground and bends knees to return to a crouch.
The distance from the character’s CG when her feet hit to the ground to the point
where the character stops crouching is called the stop height. The stop height is not
always exactly the same as the push height.
• Path of action—It is the trajectory along which the character jumps

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 15

Calculating Jump Actions

When working out the timing for a jump, one will need to first decide on:
1. Jump height or jump time
2. Push height
3. Stop height
4. Horizontal distance the character will travel during the jump
From these factors, one can calculate the timing for the jump sequence.
Calculating Jump Timing
When planning the jump animation, the most likely scenario is that you know the jump
height, expressed in the units you are using for the animation (e.g., inch or cm).
Placement and timing for frames while the character is in the air follow the same rules as
any object thrown into the air against gravity.
Example:
Jump height = 1.2m
Jump time is amount of time it takes an object to fall that distance due to gravity,
2ℎ 1.2
Jump time is 𝑡 2 = = = 0.25
𝑔 9.8

t = 0.5
Jump time at 30fps = 0. 5 * 30 = 15 frames

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 16

Jump Magnification
The jump magnification (JM) is the ratio of the jump height to the push height.
𝐽𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐽𝑀 =
𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
It is also defined as the ratio of jump time and push time. It is used to calculate the push
timing and stop timing.
𝐽𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐽𝑀 =
𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Jump Magnification is in fact an exact ratio that tells one how much the character has to
accelerate against gravity to get into the air. The JM, besides being the ratio of jump-to-
push vertical height and time, is also the ratio of push-to-jump vertical acceleration. it is
given by
𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐽𝑀 =
𝐽𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The magnitude of jump acceleration is always equal to gravitational acceleration g
𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐽𝑀 =
𝑔

Push Time
The JM also gives you the ratio of the jump time to the push time.
JM = Jump Time/Push Time
Working a little algebra, we can express the equation in a way that directly calculates the
push time:
Push Time = Jump Time/JM
Example:
JM = 3
Jump Time: 15 frames
Push Time = 15/3 = 5 frames
Landing
The forces on landing are similar to takeoff. If the landing has faster timing, the forces
will be larger than for a longer timing.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 17

Stop Time
The stop height is often a bit larger than the push height, but the timing of the push and
stop are the same. Therefore we can write
Push Height/Push Frames = Stop Height/Stop Frames
This can also be expressed as:
Push Height/Push Time = Stop Height/Stop Time
Stop Time = (Push Time × Stop Height)/Push Height

Example:
Push Time: 5 frames
Push Height: 0.4m
Stop Height: 0.5m
Stop Time = (5 * 0.5) / 0.4 = 6 frames

Walking
Animation of walking needs the knowledge of basics of mechanics. The ability to animate
walk cycles is one of the most important skills a character animator needs to master.

Strides and Steps

A step is one step with one foot. A stride is two steps, one with each foot. Stride length is
the distance the character travels in a stride, measured from the same part of the foot. Step
and stride length indicate lengthwise spacing for the feet during a walk.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 18

Gait is the timing of the motion for each foot, including how long each foot is on the
ground or in the air. During a walk, the number of feet the character has on the ground
changes from one foot (single support) to two feet (double support) and then back to one
foot. You can plot the time each foot is on the ground to see the single and double support
times over time. A normal walking gait ranges from 1/ 3 to 2/3 of a second per step, with
1/2 second being average.

Walk Timing
Walking is sometimes called “controlled falling.” Right after you move past the passing
position, your body’s center of gravity is no longer over your base of support, and you
begin to tip. Your passing leg moves forward to stop the fall, creating your next step. Then
the cycle begins again.
The horizontal timing for between the four walk poses is not uniform. The CG slows in
going from the contact to passing position, then slows out from passing to contact. The CG
also rises and falls, rising to the highest position during passing and the lowest during
contact. The head is in the highest position during passing.

Review Questions
1. What are parts of jump?
2. What are Jump time and Push time?
3. What is jump magnification?
4. What are expressions for jump time and stop time.?
5. What is stride length?
6. What is step length?
7. What is Gait?

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 19

Lecture 5

Statistical Physics for Computing: Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics,

Poisson distribution and modeling the probability of proton decay.

Statistical Physics for Computing

Statistics is the study of the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and
organization of data.
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that summarizes,
organizes, and presents data in a meaningful way. It is a simple way to describe our data.
Descriptive statistics is very important to present our raw data in effective/meaningful way
using numerical calculations or graphs or tables. This type of statistics is applied to
already known data.
Inferential Statistics: In inferential statistics, predictions are made by taking any group of
data in which you are interested. It can be defined as a random sample of data taken from a
population to describe and make inferences about the population. Any group of data that
includes all the data you are interested in is known as population. It basically allows you to
make predictions by taking a small sample instead of working on the whole population.

Difference between Descriptive and Inferential statistics

Criteria Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
Summarizes and organizes data for Makes predictions or inferences about a
easy understanding population based on a sample of data.
Objective
Works with the complete dataset. Works with a random sample drawn
from the entire population.
Data Usage
Uses measures of central tendency, Uses probability theory, hypothesis
measures of variability, and testing, confidence intervals, regression
Methods
graphical representations. analysis, etc.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 20

No uncertainty as it deals with Uncertainty exists as it makes

actual data predictions about a population based on
Uncertainty
a sample.

Aim Aims to describe or summarize Aims to make predictions or

data. generalizations about a population
based on a sample.

Poisson Distribution
A Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution. It gives the probability of an
event happening a certain number of times (k) within a given interval of time or space.
The Poisson distribution has only one parameter, λ (lambda), which is the mean number of
events.
A Poisson distribution can be represented visually as a graph of the probability mass
function. A probability mass function is a function that describes a discrete probability
distribution.
The probability mass function of the Poisson distribution is:
𝜆𝑘 𝑒 −
𝑓(𝑘: 𝜆) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑘) =
𝑘!
Where:
 X is a random variable following a Poisson distribution
 k is the number of times an event occurs
 P(X: k) is the probability that an event will occur k times
 e is Euler’s constant (approximately 2.718)
  is the average number of times an event occurs
 ! is the factorial function.
The Poisson distribution may be used in the design of experiments such as scattering
experiments where a small number of events are seen.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 21

.
Example of probability for Poisson distributions
On a particular river, overflow floods occur once every 100 years on average. Calculate
the probability of k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 overflow floods in a 100 year interval, assuming
the Poisson model is appropriate.
Because the average event rate is one overflow flood per 100 years, λ = 1.
𝜆𝑘 𝑒 −𝜆
𝑓 (𝑘: 𝜆) = 𝑃(𝑋: 𝑘) =
𝑘!
𝜆𝑘 𝑒 −𝜆 1𝑘 𝑒 −1
P(k overflow floods in 100 years) = =
𝑘! 𝑘!
𝜆𝑘 𝑒 −𝜆 10 𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1
P(k = 0 overflow floods in 100 years) = = = 0.368
𝑘! 0! 1
𝜆𝑘 𝑒 −𝜆 11 𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1
P(k =1 overflow floods in 100 years) = = = 0.368
𝑘! 1! 1
𝜆𝑘 𝑒 −𝜆 12 𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1
P(k = 2 overflow floods in 100 years) = = = 0.184
𝑘! 2! 2
Modeling the Probability for Proton Decay
The Poisson distribution can be applied to model the probability for proton decay. The
experimental search for Proton Decay was undertaken because of the implications of the
Grand unification Theories. The lower bound for the mean life time of proton is now
proposed to be on the order of τ = 1033 Years. The probability for observing a proton decay
can be estimated from the nature of particle decay and the application of Poisson
distribution. The number of protons N can be modeled by the decay equation
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 -------(1)

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 22

Where N is the Number of protons remained undecayed after ‘t’ years.

No is the initial number of protons
 is decay constant, probability that any given proton will decay in a year.
λ = 1/ τ = 10-33/ year
Since the decay constant λ is so small, the exponential can be represented by the first two
terms of the Exponential Series.
e − λt =1 − λ t, -------(2)
thus N ≈ No (1− λ t ) ---------(3)
For a small sample, the observation of a proton decay is infinitesimal, but suppose we
consider the volume of protons represented by the Super Kameokande neutrino detector in
Japan. The number of protons in the detector volume is reported to be 7.5 x 1033protons.
For one year of observation, the number of expected proton decays is then from
equation(3)
N-No = Not = (7.5 ×1033 protons) ×(10-33/year)×(1 year)=7.5
About 40% of the area around the detector tank is covered by photodetector tubes,
Therefore average detected count must be 40% of 7.5 which is 3.
If we presume that λ = 3 observed decays per year is the mean, then the Poisson
distribution function tells us that the probability for zero observations (k=0) of a decay is
𝑘 0 −1
𝜆 𝑒−𝜆
𝑝(𝑘 = 0) =
𝑘!
= 3 0!
𝑒
= 0.05
This low probability for a null result suggests that the proposed lifetime of 10 33 years is
too short and actual life time may be more than that.
Thus, it serves to illustrate in principle how even a non-observation can be used to refine a
proposed lifetime.

Review Questions
1. What is inferential statistics?
2. What is descriptive statistics?
3. What is Poisson distribution?
4. Give example for Poisson distribution?
5. What is the mean life of proton?
6. Give Decay equation for proton
BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)
 23

Lecture 6
Normal Distributions (Bell Curves), Monte Carlo Method: Determination of Value of
pi

Normal Distribution and Bell Curves

A normal distribution, is also known as Gaussian distribution or the bell curve is a
distribution that occurs naturally in many situations. The term "bell curve" originates from
the fact that the graph used to depict a Normal Distribution consists of a symmetrical bell-
shaped curve. The normal distribution is characterized by two parameters: the mean (μ)
and the standard deviation (σ). The mean indicates where the bell curve is centered, and
the standard deviation determines the width of the bell curve.
The key properties of a normal distribution are:
1. A normal distribution is symmetric about the mean. This means that the left and
right halves of the distribution are mirror images of each other.
2. In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are all equal and are
located at the center of the distribution.
3. Approximately 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean,
95% falls within two standard deviations, and 99.7% falls within three standard
deviations. This is often referred to as the ”68-95-99.7” rule.
4. The tails of a normal distribution extend to infinity in both directions, but they
get closer and closer to the horizontal axis and theoretically never touch it.
5. A normal distribution is non-zero everywhere on the real line.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 24

Examples For Normal distribution:

1. Heights of people.
2. Birth weight of babies.
3. Blood pressure.

Monte-Carlo Method
The Monte Carlo method is a statistical technique that allows for numerical solutions to
problems that may be difficult to solve analytically. It involves performing a large
number of random simulations to obtain numerical results. The name of the method
comes from the Monte Carlo Casino in Monaco where the games of chance (roulette,
dice, slot machines) exhibit random behavior.
The Monte Carlo method is used in a wide variety of fields, including physics,
engineering, statistics, and finance. It’s particularly useful for evaluating complex
systems with many variables, and for studying stochastic (random) processes.
Monte Carlo methods vary, but tend to follow a particular pattern:
1. Define a domain of possible inputs.
2. Generate inputs randomly from a probability distribution over the domain.
3. Perform a deterministic computation on the inputs.
4. Aggregate the results.

Determination of value of π.
Consider a quadrant of circle inscribed in a square with side length 1. The area of the
square is 1, and the area of the quarter-circle is π/4 (it is one quarter of a circle with radius
1). Therefore ratio of their areas is π/ 4.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 25

The value of π can be approximated using a Monte Carlo method.

1. Draw a square, then inscribe a quadrant of circle within it.
2. Uniformly scatter a given number of points over the square
3. Count the number of points inside the quadrant, i.e. having a distance from the origin
of < 1
4. The ratio of the inside-count and the total-sample-count is an estimate of the ratio
of the two areas, π/ 4. Multiply the result by 4 to estimate π.

In this procedure the domain of inputs is the square that circumscribes the quadrant. We
generate random inputs by scattering grains over the square then perform a computation
on each input (test whether it falls within the quadrant). Aggregating the results yields our
final result, the approximation of π.

Review Questions
1. Why normal distribution is also known as bell curve?
2. What is standard deviation?
3. Give examples for normal distribution?
4. What is Monte-Carlo method?
5. What are the pattern of Monte-Carlo method?
6. How to find the value of pi using Monte-Carlo method?

2 Tutorial Classes (numerical Problems from Animation Physics and

statistical Physics)

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)

 26

Module 5
Question Bank
1. Discuss timing in linear motion, uniform motion, slow in and slow out.

2. Distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics

3. Illustrate the odd rule and odd rule multiplier with a suitable example.

4. Describe jumping and parts of jump.

5. Discuss the salient features of normal distribution using bell curves.

6. Elucidate the importance of size and scale and weight and strength in animation.

7. Mention the general pattern of Monte-Carlo method and hence determine the
value of 

8. Describe the calculation of push time and stop time with examples.

9. Discuss Poisson distribution and modelling the probability for proton decay.

10. Define the frame and show the importance of frame per second in animation.

BPHYS102/202 Module 5 Science &Humanities (Physics),CEC, Mangalore)