Sardar Patel Institute of Technology

Munshi Nagar, Andheri(W), Mumbai-400058

(Autonomous Institute affiliated to the University of Mumbai)
Applied Sciences, Mathematics and Humanities Department

EC102: Basic Electrical Engineering

Dr. Payal Shah

Assistant Professor
Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Department
Electromag
netic and
Electro- • Magnetically Coupled Coils, Self and Mutual
Inductance and Dot Convention
Mechanical
Energy
Converters
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Analogy between Electric and Magnetic
circuits

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 Differences between Electric and
Magnetic circuits
• Continuous energy supply is required to an electric circuit to maintain current in it,
but the magnetic flux once set up, does not need any further supply of energy

• The magnetic circuit stores energy in its field while the electric circuit immediately
releases its energy as heat

• In magnetic circuits involving ferromagnetic materials, on increasing the magnetic

field strength the flux density increases only till the state of saturation is reached.
But in electric circuits, there is no such phenomenon as saturation

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws for magnetic circuit
• Kirchhoff’s Flux Law (KFL): The total magnetic flux towards a junction is equal to the
total magnetic flux away from that junction

• Coil C is wound on limb L and carries a current I. The total magnetic flux produced in
limb L divides at point P; some flux passes along limb M and the remaining along
limb N. These two parts join again at Q. There is no break or discontinuity in any of
the lines of flux at P and Q then
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 Kirchhoff’s Laws for magnetic circuit
• Kirchhoff’s Magnetomotive Force Law (KML): In a closed magnetic circuit, the
algebraic sum of the product of the magnetic field strength and the length of each
part of the circuit is equal to the resultant magnetomotive force.

• If HL is the magnetic field strength required for limb L and lL is the length of the
circuit from Q via L to P, and HM and lM are the corresponding values for limb M and
HN and lN are those for the limb extending from P via N to Q then

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 Self and Mutual inductance
• Whenever the current through a coil changes, the flux linked with it also changes.
This change in flux induces an emf in the coil.

• This property of the coil of capability of inducing an emf in itself by changing the
current flowing through it is known as self inductance

• Proportional to the rate of change of current

• e=Ldi/dt ; L=inductance

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 Energy stored in an inductor
• If the current through an inductor is made to increase from 0 to I in time t, an emf e
is induced in the coil. The total energy W absorbed by the inductor is given by

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 Self and Mutual inductance
• Self induced emf
• From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic inductance

• For linear inductor rate of change of current with respect to time is constant hence

• Also, and

• So, we can say

• Inductance depends on physical dimensions of the coil and magnetic properties of

core materials

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 Mutual Inductance
• When interchange of energy takes place between two circuits, they are called
mutually coupled.

• 3 ways of coupling between two circuits

✓ Conductive
✓ Electrostatic
✓ Electromagnetic

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 Conductive Electrostatic Electromagnetic

R12 is the mutual resistance C is the mutual capacitor A part of magnetic flux produced
between circuit 1 and 2 by a coil in one circuit interlinks
with the coil in other circuit. Energy
may be transferred from one circuit
to the other through the medium
of magnetic flux that is common to
both circuits. When current in one
circuit changes, the flux linking
with the other circuit changes
hence there is an induced emf in
the other coil known as mutually
induced emf e2

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 Mutual Inductance
• The mutually induced emf e2 in the second coil depends on rate of change of current i1 in
the first coil hence

• M is called mutual inductance

• Mutual inductance is a property; which is associated with two or more coils that are
physically close together.

• This principle is used in transformer

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 Magnetic coupling
• Φ1 = Φ11+ Φ12
• Φ2 = Φ22+ Φ21
• N1 and N2 are turns of coils 1 and 2
• Then if i1 is time varying then resulting flux Φ1 and linking flux Φ12 are also time varying
• Using Faraday’s law, comparing with

• Similarly,
• If flux and current are linearly related, then and
• Thus mutual inductance between two coils is ratio of weber turns of one coil to the current
through the other coil
• Also due to reciprocity,

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 Co-efficient of coupling
• Measure of how close the coupling between two coils i.e., indicates what portion of flux
produced by one coil links with the other coil
• Self inductance of two coil can be written as and

• Magnetic flux produced by coil 1 is

• The flux links with coil 2 is only a part of Φ1 i.e.,Φ12 =kΦ1 where 0≤k≤1 ; then mutual
inductance from coil 1 to 2 is

• similarly mutual inductance from coil 2 to 1 is

• Multiplying above two equations and writing M=M12=M21

• i.e

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 Dot conventions
• The voltage across coil 1 is

• Similarly, across coil 2 is

• Dot convention is a convenient way of determining the sign of mutual voltage without
going into the physical construction of the two coils
• A current entering the dotted terminal of one coil produces an open circuit voltage which is
positively sensed at the dotted terminal of the second coil.

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 Dot conventions
• A current entering the undotted terminal of one coil produces and open circuit voltage
which is positively sensed at the undotted terminal of the second coil.

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Coupled coil in series

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 Transformer
• Static device

• Transformers electrical energy from one circuit to another without any change in frequency

• Works on mutual induction principle

• Can’t work on dc supply

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 Applications
• Transmission and distribution of electrical power over long distances

• Small size are used in communication circuits, radio and TV circuits, telephone circuits,
instrumentation and control systems.

• Auto transformers are used for impedance matching in amplifier

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 Working principle
• Electromagnetism, Mutual Induction
• Two coils primary and secondary

• If one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the
laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually-
induced e.m.f. (according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction e = MdI/dt). If the
second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred
(entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil.

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 Working principle
• In brief, a transformer is a device that

✓ transfers electric power from one circuit to another

✓ it does so without a change of frequency

✓ it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and

✓ where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.

• TYPES: Step up and step down

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Step-up and Step-down transformer

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 Ideal Transformer
• Assumptions

• 1. The permeability of the magnetic circuit (core) is infinite. i.e. the magnetic circuit has
zero reluctance so that no mmf is needed to set up the flux in the core

• 2. The core of the transformer has no losses

• 3. The resistance of its windings is zero, i.e. no I2R losses in the winding

• 4. Entire flux in the core links both windings, i.e. there is no leakage flux.

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 Ideal Transformer
• Secondary is open and whose primary is connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V1
• This potential difference causes an alternating current to flow in the primary. Since the primary coil
is purely inductive and there is no output (secondary being open) the primary draws the magnetizing
current Iμ only
• The function of this current is merely to magnetize the core, it is small in magnitude and lags V1 by
90°.
• This alternating current Iμ produces an alternating flux φ which is, at all times, proportional to the
current (assuming permeability of the magnetic circuit to be constant) and, hence, is in phase with it
• This changing flux is linked both with the primary and the secondary windings. Therefore, it
produces self-induced e.m.f. in the primary.
• This self-induced e.m.f. E1 is, at every instant, equal to and in opposition to V1. It is also known as
counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f. of the primary.
• Similarly, there is produced in the secondary an induced e.m.f. E2 which is known as mutually
induced e.m.f. This e.m.f. is antiphase with V1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of change
of flux and the number of secondary turns.
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 EMF Equation
• Consider a sinusoidal varying voltage V1 is applied to the primary; of the transformer then due to this
voltage a sinusoidally varying flux is set up in the core given by

• As per the law of electromagnetic induction, the induced emf in a winding of N turns is given by

• The peak value of included emf is

• Hence Rms value will be

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 Transformation Ratio
• The ratio of secondary voltage to the primary voltage is known as transformation ratio,

• K=V2/V1=E2/E1=N2/N1
• K>1=>Step-up
• K<1=>Step-down

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 Volt-Amperes
• For an ideal transformer, the current I1 in the primary is just sufficient to provide mmf I1N1 to
overcome the demagnetizing effect of the secondary mmf I2N2
• Hence

• Thus current is transformed in the reverse ratio of the voltage

• The side of transformer with the larger no. of turns has the smaller current

• In step up transformer would have a primary with few turns of thick wire (Small voltage, large
current) and the secondary would have many turns of thin wire

• Also

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 Impedance Transformation

• If ideal transformer has N1 and N2 turns in its primary and secondary windings and a load impedance
ZL is connected across its secondary, then an equivalent impedance Zeq is defined at its primary.

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 Practical Transformer on no load
• Consider a transformer with its primary connected to an ac source V1, and no load
connected across its secondary, hence the current in the secondary winding is zero.

• If the transformer is ideal then primary current would be also zero, but in practice there
does flow a no-load current I0 in the primary.

• I0 is also called the exciting current

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 Practical Transformer on no load
• 1) Effect of Magnetization
• No magnetic material can have infinite permeability so as to offer zero reluctance to the
magnetic circuit
• Hence in a practical transformer a finite mmf is needed to establish magnetic flux in the
core
• As a result, an in-phase magnetizing current Im in the primary is needed to set up flux in the
core.
• The current Im is purely reactive and lags the voltage V1 by 900.
• The effect is modelled by an inductive reactance X0 in parallel with the ideal transformer

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 Practical Transformer on no load
• The flux ϕ induces emfs E1 & E2 in the primary and the secondary windings. Both these
emfs lag flux by 900
• As the current I2 in the secondary is zero, the voltage drop in the secondary winding is zero.
Hence V2=E2. The induced emf E1 counter balances the applied voltage V1 and establishes
an electrical equilibrium.
• If the effect of the resistance of the winding and the leakage of flux are ignored, the
magnitude of V1 will be the same as that of emf E1.
• Thus V1=-E1

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 Practical Transformer on no load
• 2) Effect of core losses
• In the core of the transformer, the energy loss is due to hysteresis and eddy current. The
source must supply enough power to the primary to meet the core losses
• The losses are proportional to the square of the core flux. As core flux is proportional to the
applied voltage V1, the iron loss can be represented by a resistance R0 in parallel with the
ideal transformer
• Core loss current Iw flowing through R0 is in phase with the applied voltage V1

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 Practical Transformer on no load
• Thus, no load current I0 has two components, Im and Iw. The magnetizing current Im lags
voltage V1 by 900 and the loss component Iw is in phase with voltage V1. The angle ϕ0 is the
no-load phase angle.
• Thus,
• Input power =
• In the equivalent circuit, the no-load current I0 is divided into two parallel branches. The
component Iw flowing through resistance R0 accounts for the core loss, and the component
Im flowing through reactance X0 represents magnetizing current.
• The R0-X0 parallel circuit is called exciting circuit of the transformer.

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Practical Transformer on no load

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Transformer on load

• i.e. load is connected to the secondary of the transformer

• For simplicity still assume ideal transformer
• Due to no load current I0, there exists a flux ϕ in core
• When load is connected current, I2 flows through the secondary
• Magnitude and phase of I2 depends on nature of load
• Current I2 is in phase with V2 if load is non-inductive, it lags if load is inductive and it leads if
load is capacitive.

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 Transformer on load
• The secondary current sets up its own m.m.f. (=N2I2) and hence its own flux Φ2 which is in
opposition to the main primary flux Φ which is due to I0.
• The secondary ampere-turns N2 I2 are known as demagnetizing amp-turns.
• The opposing secondary flux Φ2 weakens the primary flux Φ momentarily, hence primary back
e.m.f. E1 tends to be reduced.
• For a moment V1 gains the upper hand over E1 and hence causes more current to flow in
primary.
• Let the additional primary current be I2′. It is known as load component of primary current. This
current is antiphase with I2.
• The additional primary m.m.f. N1 I2 sets up its own flux Φ2′ which is in opposition to Φ2 (but is in
the same direction as Φ) and is equal to it in magnitude. Hence, the two cancel each other out.
• So, the magnetic effects of secondary current I2 are immediately neutralized by the additional
primary current I2′ which is brought into existence exactly at the same instant as I2.

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 Transformer on load
• Hence, whatever the load conditions, the net flux passing through the core is approximately the
same as at no-load.
• An important deduction is that due to the constancy of core flux at all loads, the core loss is also
practically the same under all load conditions.
• As Φ2 = Φ2′ ∴ N2I2 = N1I2′ ∴ I2′ = [N2/N1]I2 =KI2
• Hence, when transformer is on load, the primary winding has two currents in it; one is I0 and the
other is I2′ which is anti-phase with I2 and K times in magnitude. The total primary current is the
vector sum of I0 and I2′

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• vector diagrams for a load transformer when load is non-inductive and when it is inductive
• Voltage transformation ratio of unity is assumed so that primary vectors are equal to the secondary
vectors.
• I2 is secondary current in phase with E2 (= V2).
• It causes primary current I2′ which is anti-phase with it and equal to it in magnitude (as K = 1).
• Total primary current I1 is the vector sum of I0 and I2′ and lags behind V1 by an angle φ1.
• (b) vectors are drawn for an inductive load. Here I2 lags E2 (actually V2) by φ2.
• Current I2′ is again antiphase with I2 and equal to it in magnitude. As before, I1is the vector sum of I2′
and I0 and lags behind V1 by φ1.
• It will be observed that φ1 is slightly greater than φ2. But if we neglect I0 as compared to I2′ then φ1 =
φ2 .

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 Transformer with winding resistance
• Due to this resistance, there is some voltage drop in the two windings.
• i.e The secondary terminal voltage V2 is vectorially less than the secondary induced e.m.f. E2 by
an amount I2 R2 where R2 is the resistance of the secondary winding.
• The primary induced e.m.f. E1 is equal to the vector difference of V1 and I1 R1 where R1 is the
resistance of the primary winding.

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 Equivalent resistance

• The copper loss in secondary is I22R2. This loss is supplied by primary which takes a current
of I1. Hence if R2′ is the equivalent resistance in primary which would have caused the same
loss as R2 in secondary,

• Similarly, equivalent primary resistance as referred to secondary is

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 Equivalent resistance

• secondary resistance has been transferred to primary side leaving secondary circuit
resistanceless. The resistance R1 + R2′ = R1 + R2/K2 is known as the equivalent or effective
resistance of the transformer as referred to primary (R01)

• Similarly, the equivalent resistance of the transformer as referred to secondary is

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 Magnetic leakage

• All the flux linked with primary does not link the secondary but part of it i.e.ΦL1 completes its
magnetic circuit by passing through air rather than around the core
• This leakage flux is produced when the m.m.f. due to primary ampere-turns existing between points a
and b, acts along the leakage paths. Hence, this flux is known as primary leakage flux and is
proportional to the primary ampere-turns alone because the secondary turns do not link the
magnetic circuit of ΦL1
• The flux ΦL1 is in time phase with I1. It induces an e.m.f. eL1 in primary but not in secondary.
• Similarly, secondary ampere-turns (or m.m.f.) acting across points c and d set up leakage flux ΦL2
which is linked with secondary winding alone (and not with primary turns). This flux ΦL2 is in time
phase with I2 and produces a self-induced e.m.f. eL2 in secondary (but not in primary).
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 Magnetic leakage

• The leakage flux links one or the other winding but not both, hence it in no way contributes
to the transfer of energy from the primary to the secondary winding.
• The primary voltage V1 will have to supply reactive drop I1X1 in addition to I1R1. Similarly E2
will have to supply I2R2 and I2X2.

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Transformer with resistance and leakage
reactance

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 Transformer with resistance and leakage
reactance
• leakage reactances can also be transferred from one winding to the other in the same way
as resistance.

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 Equivalent circuit of transformer

• current I0 is simulated by pure inductance X0 taking the magnetising component Iμ and a

non-inductive resistance R0 taking the working component Iw connected in parallel across
the primary circuit.
• The value of E1 is obtained by subtracting vectorially I1 Z1 fromV1. The value of X0 = E1/I0
and of R0 = E1/Iw.

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 Equivalent circuit of transformer
• To make transformer calculations simpler, it is preferable to transfer voltage, current and
impedance either to the primary or to the secondary.
• The primary equivalent of the secondary induced voltage is E2′ = E2/K = E1.
• Similarly, primary equivalent of secondary terminal or output voltage is V2′ = V2/K.
• Primary equivalent of the secondary current is I2′ = KI2.
• For transferring secondary impedance to primary K2 is used.

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Equivalent circuit of transformer

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Approximate equivalent circuit

in this case X0 = V1/Iμ.

If we neglect I0 then, circuit would be

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 Regulation of a transformer
• It is change in secondary voltage from no load to full load assuming primary voltage constant

• When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage, the secondary voltage
decreases(power factor is lagging) because of its internal resistance and leakage reactance.

• Let 0V2 = secondary terminal voltage at no-load.

= E2 = KE1 = KV1 because at no-load the impedance drop is negligible.

• V2 = secondary terminal voltage on full-load.

• The change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load is = 0V2 −V2. This change
divided by 0V2 is known as regulation ‘down’. If this change is divided by V2, i.e., full-load
secondary terminal voltage, then it is called regulation ‘up’.

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 Regulation of a transformer
• Total Approximate Voltage Drop in a Transformer
• When the transformer is on no-load, then V1 is approximately equal to E1. Hence E2 = KE1 =
KV1. Also, E2 = 0V2 where 0V2 is secondary terminal voltage on no load, hence no-load
secondary terminal voltage is KV1. The secondary voltage on load is V2. The difference
between the two is I2Z02.
• The approximate voltage drop of the transformer as referred to secondary
= AN = AD +DN
= I2R02cos φ + I2X02sin φ
where φ1 = φ2 = φ (approx).
• This is considering lagging power factor

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Regulation of a transformer

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 Losses in transformer
• Static device ➔ no friction or windage losses.
• losses occurring are :
• (i) Core or Iron Loss : (Fixed Loss)
• a)hysteresis loss and b)eddy current loss.
• the core flux in a transformer remains practically constant for all loads (its variation being 1 to
3% from no-load to full-load). The core loss is practically the same at all loads.
• Obtained from open-circuit test
• (ii) Copper loss.: (Variable Loss)
• This loss is due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.
• Total Cu loss = I12R1 + I22R2.
• proportional to (current)2 or kVA2.
• i.e Cu loss at half the full-load is one-fourth of that at full-load.
• Obtained from the short-circuit test
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Efficiency of transformer

• Efficiency is based on power output in watts and not in volt-amperes, although losses are proportional to
VA. Hence, at any volt-ampere load, the efficiency depends on power factor, being maximum at a power
factor of unity.
• Efficiency can be computed by determining core loss from no-load or open-circuit test and Cu loss from
the short-circuit test.

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Minor losses in transformer : Ignored for
calculating efficiency
• Magnetostriction losses :
✓The ac flux in core causes it to physically expand and contract slightly.
✓Produces a buzzing sound and in turn causes losses due to friction heating
• Mechanical losses:
✓The ac flux causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between primary and secondary
windings
✓Incite vibrations within nearby metal work, producing buzzing noise and consuming a
small amount of power
• Stray losses:
✓Leakage flux that intercepts nearby conducting materials like transformer’s support
structure will give rise to eddy currents causing loss of power

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Condition for maximum efficiency

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All-day Efficiency
• The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is given by
• There are certain types of transformers like transformers used for supplying lighting and
general network i.e., distribution transformers have their primaries energized all the
twenty-four hours, although their secondaries supply little or no-load much of the time
during the day except during the house lighting period.
• i.e. whereas core loss occurs throughout the day, the Cu loss occurs only when the
transformers are loaded. Hence, it is considered a good practice to design such
transformers so that core losses are very low. The Cu losses are relatively less important,
because they depend on the load.
• The performance of such is compared on the basis of energy consumed during a certain
time period, usually a day of 24 hours

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 Think
• Why transformer rating is in KVA?
✓Core/iron depends on voltage
✓Copper loss depends on current
✓Hence, total transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and not on phase angle between
voltage and current i.e. it is independent of load power factor.
✓Hence, rating of transformers is in kVA and not in kW.

• Use of OC and SC test of transformer

✓Useful to get parameters of transformer to draw equivalent circuit

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 OC Test of transformer
• Used to determine no-load loss or core loss and no-load I0 which is helpful in finding X0 and R0

• With normal voltage applied to the primary, normal flux will be set up in the core, hence
normal iron losses will occur which are recorded by the wattmeter.
• As the primary no-load current I0 (as measured by ammeter) is small (usually 2 to 10% of
rated load current), Cu loss is negligibly small in primary and nil in secondary (it being open).
Hence, the wattmeter reading represents practically the core loss under no-load condition
which is the same for all loads

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 Short Circuit/ Impedance test of
transformer
• Used to find

(i) Equivalent impedance (Z01 or Z02), leakage reactance (X01 or X02) and total resistance (R01 or
R02) of the transformer as referred to the winding in which the measuring instruments are
placed.

(ii) Cu loss at full load (and at any desired load), which is used in calculating the efficiency of the
transformer.

(iii) Knowing Z01 or Z02, the total voltage drop in the transformer as referred to primary or
secondary can be calculated and hence regulation of the transformer determined.

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 Short Circuit/ Impedance test of
transformer

• A low voltage (usually 5 to 10% of normal primary voltage) is applied to the primary and is cautiously
increased till full-load currents are flowing both in primary and secondary (as indicated by the
respective ammeters)
• Since, the applied voltage is a small percentage of the normal voltage, the mutual flux Φ produced is
also a small percentage of its normal value. Hence, core losses are very small with the result that the
wattmeter reading represent the full-load Cu loss or I2R loss for the whole transformer i.e. both primary
Cu loss and secondary Cu loss
• If Vsc is the voltage required to circulate rated load currents, then Z01 = Vsc/I1

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 Auto-transformer
• transformer with one winding only, part of this being common to both primary and secondary.
• Hence, the primary and secondary are not electrically isolated from each other as is the case
with a 2-winding transformer.
• But its theory and operation are similar to those of a two-winding transformer.
• Because of one winding, it uses less copper and hence is cheaper.
• It is used where transformation ratio differs little from unity.

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 Auto-transformer

• In (a), AB is primary winding having N1 turns and BC is secondary winding having N2 turns.
Neglecting iron losses and no-load current.

• The current in section CB is vector difference of I2 and I1. But as the two currents are practically
in phase opposition, the resultant current is (I2 − I1) where I2 is greater than I1.
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 Three Phase Transformer
Three identical single-phase transformers can be connected to form a 3-phase bank. Primary and
secondary sides of the bank can be connected in star/delta with various possible arrangements as
– star/star
– delta/delta
– star/delta or delta/star
But three phase transformer has following advantages over 3 single phase transformers, hence
popularly used.
✓Occupies less floor space for equal rating
✓Weighs less
✓Costs about 15% less
✓Only one unit is to be handled and connected.

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 Three Phase Transformer

• The three cores are 120° apart and their empty legs are shown in contact with each other. The center
leg, formed by these three, carries the flux produced by the three phase currents IR, IY and IB. As at any
instant IR + IY + IB = 0, hence the sum of three fluxes is also zero.
• Therefore, it will make no difference if the common leg is removed. In that case any two legs will act as
the return for the third just as in a 3-phase system any two conductors act as the return for the current
in the third conductor
• In finding voltages and currents in a 3-phase transformer along with the ratio of transformation
between the coupled windings, the line and phase relationship of star/delta connections with the
assumption that the transformer is feeding a balanced load needs to be used

22-12-2024 Basic Electrical Engineering, Payal Shah, SPIT 65

 Applications of Transformer
• Current transformer: provides current in secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in primary
coil

• Voltage transformer: used for metering and protection purpose in high voltage circuits

• Leakage transformer: prevents thermal overload under all load conditions

• Resonant transformer: uses leakage inductance of secondary winding with external capacitor to create
one or more resonant circuits

• Audio frequency transformer: used for impedance matching purpose

• Power transformer: used in transmission network

• Distribution transformer: used for lower voltage distribution

22-12-2024 Basic Electrical Engineering, Payal Shah, SPIT 66