2A – Forest Mensuration & Remote Sensing Vishal Khatri

AIR 5
Before you begin…

Importance of the topic – Mensuration & surveying are the only understanding-based topics in the
syllabus – most other topics are based on rote-learning. If you understand them once, they’re highly
scoring. If you are not comfortable with mensuration, please go through IIT Kanpur course here – it is
really simple & taught by an IFS officer.

Answer writing – Draw well-labelled, proportional & clean diagrams. Write math formula properly with
sufficient detail & explain use of symbols.

What to remember by heart – All the formulae along with what each variable means in that formula,
working/ advantages/ disadvantages of various instruments, everything about volume tables, Point
sampling, form factors, stump analysis.

Even if you hate Math, don’t leave this topic. Ignore all the math, and just read it as a theory topic
with focus on instruments, volume table, etc.

Units

Units 1. Length -
i. Inch --> feet --> yard --> Chain --> Furlong --> Mile
12 3 22 10 8 (mile = 1.6 km)
2. Area -
i. 10 sq chain --> 1 acre
ii. 640 acre --> 1 mile square
3. Weight -
i. Ounce --> Pound --> Quarter --> Hundred weight --> Ton
16 28 4 20 (1 ton ~ 1016 kg)

Objectives of 1. Basis for value estimation for sale of produce

mensuration 2. Basis of mgmt
3. Measurement for research
4. Measurement for planning

Factors 1. Skill of forester - bias inherent

affecting 2. Undulating terrain --> undergrowth
accuracy of 3. Instrumental error - wind & handshake in hypsometer
FMensuration 4. Suitability of instrument
5. Object of measurement
6. Budget of exercise
7. Time available

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 8. Characteristics of trees - Form, Fluting/ buttress/ bark thickness

Diameter & 1. Measurement usually at breast height (DBH/ GBH) - 1.37 m or 4'6" or 4.5 ft
girth 2. Reason for breast height -
i. Convenient --> avoids fatigue
ii. Base usually inaccessible - covered with grasses, shrubs, thorns
iii. Abnormalities at base - root swell, buttress, etc near base
iv. Uniform point --> standardizes data
v. More useful than measurement at stump height - stumps are never cut at a
uniform height
3. Unless specified by default, measurements are considered over bark - DBH (ob) &
GBH (ob)

Area 1. Area calculation -

2. Basis - ellipse
i. Area = pi*a*b
ii. Perimeter = 2*pi*[sqrt ((a^2 + b^2)/ 2)]
iii. k = 16/3*pi*(a-b)^2

By Area Error

Girth g^2 / 4*pi 3*k/ 32

Radius pi* [(a+b)/ 2]^2 2*k/ 32

A - error = pi*a*b
Best method, min error

Radius pi* (a^2 + b^2)/ 2 4*k/ 32

A - error = pi*a*b
Max error

Instruments

Instruments 1. Common instruments -

i. Wooden scale - to measure diameter of stumps or end sections of logs or
stump/ stem analysis
ii. Swedish bark guage - measure bark thickness
iii. Tape - also called inchi tape
iv. Calliper - Scale + fixed arm + movable arm
2. Choice of instrument -
i. Accuracy reqd
ii. Tree - standing or felled

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 iii. If felled, conditions in which logs are lying

Callipers i. Units -
a. For sample plot/ research purpose - cm & mm
b. For routine forest works - diam classes painted in different colours
ii. Use -
a. To make diam of standing trees & logs
b. Girth = pi*d. Girth callipers are graduated to read the circumference.
iii. Disadvantages -
a. Taking 2 diam cumbersome
b. Difficulties in locating major & minor axis
c. Difficut to carry & handle
d. Movable arm sticks when scale is wet or dirty
iv. Advantages -
a. Diameter can be directly read
b. Point of arm touching the tree are always in sight --> less error
c. Arms firmly pressed against bole --> crushing of loose bark --> accurate
measurement
d. More accurate than tape
e. Errors are both +ve & -ve --> usually neutralize or cancel to give more
accurate result
v. Precautions -
a. Movable arm shouldn't be forced on the tree --> otherwise, damage to the
arm
b. Reading should be taken before caliper is removed
c. If more of elliptical than circular, 2 diams should be measured corresponding
to major & minor axes of ellipse. Avg taken to minimize error in calculation of
basal area.
d. Caliper should be perpendicular to tree axis
e. Movable arm should be perpendicular to tree axis
f. Scale arm should touch tree stem
g. Avoid parallex

Tape 1. Special features -

i. Reinforced with metal wires to prevent expansion
ii. Provided with hook at the end to stick in the bark
iii. Ends plated with metal to prevent tearing
iv. Some tapes graduated to read Diam directly (G/ pi)
v. Std colors for diff diam class for use of illiterate workers
2. Use -
i. To measure girth of trees & logs
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 ii. Longer tapes to measure land distances
3. Advantages -
i. Convenience - in carrying & use. In case of logs lying on ground, tape is more
convenient since it's difficult to take 2 diams
ii. Economy - Requires only 1 measurement (even for elongated non-circular X-
sections)
iii. Predictable errors - always +ve & systematic --> easy to correct
iv. Touches the whole of the tree --> Measure size of the tree better than the
calliper
v. Consistency - unlike callipers, doesn't give diff results for the same tree
4. Disadvantages -
i. Diff stretch due to diff tension affects measurement
ii. Frequently not perpendicular to the tree
iii. Observer doesn't see the full circumference of the tree --> may affect
accuracy
iv. Slower to use in area of dense shrub growth
v. Rough bark --> exaggerated diam reading
5. Precautions -
i. Not too old - to avoid expansion errors
ii. If end broken, measurement to be taken from the next cm
iii. Must be flat against the tree & not twisted
iv. Tape must lie in plane perpendicular to the axis of the tree
v. Care that no climber, etc is included in the wrap of the tape
vi. Should not be rolled when wet, dirty or twisted
6. Typical diam classes -
i. < 30 cm DBH - 2 cm class interval
ii. 30-50 cm DBH - 5 cm class interval
iii. > 50 cm DBH - 10 cm class interval

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Height

1. Points -
i. A - Crown point - lowest green branch forming green crown all round
ii. B - lowest green branch on bole
iii. C - midpoint of A & B
2. Heights -
i. Commercial bole height - height of the bole that is usually fit for utilization
as timber
ii. Standard timber bole height - height from ground upto point where avg
DOB is 20 cm
3. Crown width - max spread of crown along its widest diam. Basis of thinning.

Methods of 1. Ocular estimate -

height i. By visual judgement
measurement ii. 1st few trees measured exactly & then comparison
iii. Pole of 3m used for comparison
iv. Not accurate - result varies with experience
2. Instrumental methods -
i. Christen's Hypsometer
ii. Brandis Hypsometer
iii. Smythies' hypsometer
iv. Abney's level
v. Topographic Abney's level
vi. Haga altimeter
vii. Spiegel relaskop
3. Non-instrumental methods - generally, faster than instrumental & more reliable
than ocular
i. Single pole method

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 ii. Shadow method

Principles of 1. Principle of similar triangles -

height i. Shadow method
measurement ii. Single pole method
iii. Christen hypsometer
iv. Smythies hypsometer
2. Trignometric principles - sine rule & tan ratio
i. Relaskop
ii. Haga altimeter
iii. Abney's level
iv. Brandis hypsometer
v. Tangent method
vi. Sine method

Christen's 1. Description -
hyspometer i. A staff or known length used along
ii. Graduation are wider apart at top & closer below
iii. Upper hole to suspend instrument, lower hole to hand a weight
iv. 2 flanges are protruding edges
2. Measurement - AC, A'C' & A'B' are known. By similarity, AB = (A'B')* (AC)/ (A'C')

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 i.

3. Advantages -
i. Quick
ii. Distance between observer & tree not reqd
iii. Light & easy to transport
iv. Height of the tree can be read directly
4. Disadvantages -
i. Fatigue - by constantly holding out arm in reqd position
ii. Staff is difficult to carry & place
iii. Not useful for large trees - close readings < 30 m
iv. Shaking of arm, wind disturbance
v. Requires skill to hold top & bottom of the tree within the hypsometer

Haga 1. Description -
altimeter i. Consists of a pointer & a rotatable scale
ii. Eye piece with pin hole at the top of the case
iii. It has hexagonal bar inside which can be rotated by a turning knob. The bar
has separate scale on each of its face.
iv. Gravity controlled pointer indicates height above or below eye level

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 v. Usual height scales - 15, 20, 25, 30 m
2. Measurement -
i. Stand at one of these distances with eye piece towards himself & sight vane
towards the tree
ii. Sight the top --> trigger depressed to lock the pointer --> gives height of tree
above eye level
iii. Similarly, base
iv. Add or subtract

Brandis 1. Description -
hypsometer i. Hollow metal tube ~14 cm long & rectangular X-section
ii. A wheel enclosed in a circular metal case attached on 1 side, outer rim of
wheel graduated to show degrees (read through an opening in the metal case
by a magnifying glass in eyepiece)
iii. Tree sighted through hollow tube from the end with pivoted wheel in 0
position when instrument is horizontal
iv. Using 2 angles & distance, find h using tangent formula

Abney's level 1. Description - in forestry, used to measure tree heights, contour surveying &
alignment of roads
i. Hollow tube with eye piece on 1 side & short sighting tube on the other
ii. Eyepiece has a small horizontal wire & a mirror to see the spirit level's bubble
iii. Spirit level fitted on the tube can be rotated by -
a. 1 wheel - big movt
b. 1 screw - small movt
iv. An index arm attached to the spirit level & arc is graduated to read whole
degrees
v. A vernier & magnifying glass are fitted on the index arm
vi. As index arm is rotated to make spirit level horizontal, index arm moves along
a graduated scale to read the angle of rotation
2. Measurement -
i. Sight top while rotating screw & making spirit level horizontal & bubble image
bisected by wire
3. Advantages -
i. Small & light
ii. High angle accuracy
iii. Quick for experienced forester
4. Disadvantages -
i. Sensitive to shaking of hand
ii. Difficult to simultaneously move wheel & screw

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Height errors 1. From ground level, H = D*tan x
i. dH/ dx = D* sec^2 x
ii. % error = 200*dx/ sin 2x
iii. Min when x = 45*
2. Sources of error -
i. Personal -
a. Hand-shaking in Abney's level
b. Not getting tree correctly in between Christen's H
ii. Instrumental -
a. Least count errors
b. Swinging of christen's H
c. Brandis wheel swings so much with a rattling sound
iii. Lean of trees - how to correct -
a. Measure such that lean is sideways & not towards/ away from
observer
b. Measure the horizontal distance to the point vertically below the tip of
the tree
c. Take avg of 2 measurements - one when tree leaning towards, one
away
iv. Errors due to observation -
a. Lean of tree not properly observed
b. Diff to see the base of the tree
c. Diff to see top tip of broad-leaved trees
v. Errors due to measurement -
a. Not possible to keep tape straight in bushes & shrubs
b. % error in H = 200*dx/ sin 2x

Others 1. Plumb bob - used to measure lean of trees

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 2. Height classes - half of diam classes
i. < 15m - 1m class interval
ii. 15-25m - 3m class interval
iii. > 25m - 5m class interval
3.

Stem form 1. Metzger's/ girder theory -

i. Tree stem <---> cantilever beam
ii. Bending force of wind
iii. Wind pressure conveyed to lower parts in increasing measure
iv. To counter the danger of tree snapping at its base, growth material
distributed to reinforce the base
v. Isolated tree ---> large crown & high wind --> high taper
vi. Trees in dense crop --> cylendrical
vii. Shear stress = 32*tau/pi*(d^3)
viii. Tau = F * l
ix. d^3 proportional to l --> cubic paraboloid shape
2. Tree estimated as -
i. Cone - Y^2 = kX^2
ii. Paraboloid - Y^2 = kX
iii. Neiloid - Y^2 = kX^3

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Form ratios 1. Vol of cylinder = basal area*height
2. Volume form factor - vol of tree/ vol of cylinder

Form Basal area Vol measure

Factor measure

Artificial DBH Whole tree Default, unless mentioned

FF otherwise

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 Absolute Any Above that
FF convenient height
height

Normal Fraction (1/n) Whole tree

FF of total height

3. Form height = form factor*height of tree

4. Form point ratio - Height of form point / Total height of the tree
i. Form point - point on the tree where wind pressure is estimated to be
centred
5. Form quotient -
i. Normal FQ - mid-diameter/ DBH
ii. Absolute FQ - Diam at half of its height above BH/ DBH

Calculation of 1. Newton's/ Prismoidal formula -

log volumes i. (S1 + 4Sm + S2)*L/ 6
ii. Most accurate, but cumbersome
2. Quarter girth formula -
i. Pi*d^2*L/ 4 = pi*g^2*L/ 4*(pi^2) ~ g^2*L/ 16 (taking pi = 4)
ii. Underestimation (78.5%) than true --> bark loss, etc brings close to this
3. Huber's formula -
i. Sm * L
ii. More accurate than Smalian's
iii. Underestimates volume
4. Smalian's formula -
i. (S1 + S2)*L/ 2
ii. Overestimates
iii. But easier to apply - end diams can be measured with wooden scale

Misc 1. Conversion factor - Solid volume = stacked volume * conversion factor

2. Saw milling/ lumbering - converting a round log of wood into rectangular piece of
lumber/ timber/ sawn wood
3. Scaling of timber - measuring timber to determine its volume or mass

Volume of 1. Ocular estimate -

standing trees i. Very subjective
ii. Even same worker may estimate different volume due to lack of
standardization
2. Partly ocular, partly by measurement - measuring diam/ height/ both & estimating
volume keeping taper in mind

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 3. Volume table - a table showing avg volume of trees for a given species depending
upon 1/ more dimensions like diam, height, taper or their combination
4. Indirect measurement - w/o climbing up the height & measuring various
diameters
i. Pentaprism calliper
ii. Relaskop
iii. Optical dendrometers
5. Direct measurement -
i. Similar to exact volume determination of felled trees
ii. Diam at diff heights measured by a man who climbs up the tree

Dendrometer 1. Optical instrument - used to make diam measurement at any point up the stem
beyond the reach of the forester
2. A simple dendrometer measures three angles. Using distance from the tree, we
can calculate diam at any height.

3. Diameter = 2R*tan (C/2) / sqrt (tan^2(C/2) + cos^2 (B))

= 2R tan (C/2) sec B
4.

Volume tables 1. Choice of variables - variables include diam (DBH), height, form
i. Intended application, speed, area extent, accuracy
ii. Only diam sufficient for small/ restricted area - local volume table
iii. 3 var table - most accurate, but never used since very diff to prepare & use
iv. 1 var table - easy to prepare/ use, but least accurate
v. At least 2 var tables for large, diverse areas
2. Classification of volume tables -
i. Basis # vars -

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 1 var DBH Height does not vary much in small area vis-a-vis
diam
Used for local volume table

2 var DBH x Height Applicable to large areas

3 var DBH x Height x Called form class volume tables

Form Not prepared in India due to difficulty of prep/
use

2. Basis kind of outturn/ output -

Sawn outturn Give sawn timber in # std pieces

assortment table

Assortment table Volume in round down to various thin end

diameters

Std volume table Ground-level to 20 cm diam

Commercial volume Round timber, stump excluded

table Down to thin end diam upto which conversion is
done

Sawn outturn table Similar to commercial volume table except

instead of round volume, it gives volume of sawn
timber

iii. Basis scope of application -

Local VT i. Prepared either from field data or derived from general

volume table (by regression or graphical method)
ii. For use in restricted locality - same diam --> same height
iii. Based on DBH only

Regional VT i. Application limited to a particular region

ii. Prepared by measurement of trees growing in a region

General VT i. 2 var - DBH, H classes

ii. Used for large areas
iii. Used to derive local VTs

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 o Info in VT -
i. Volume by diam & height class
ii. Applicability
iii. Common/ Scientific names of species
iv. Basic data -
a. Locality where data collected
b. # trees measured for compilation
c. Analysis done - stump analysis, stem analysis, increment boring
v. Method of computation - std techniques or some other method
vi. Mathematical equations used - like Newton's/ Smalian's/ Quarter girth
formula
vii. Other tables - table of/ for
a. basic averages
b. Individual & aggregate checks
c. Underbark volume
d. Bark thickness

Method of 1. Regression equation method/ least square method -

preparing VT i. Small sum of deviation square
ii. Assume sqrt V = a + bD or V = a + bD^2 + cDH
2. Graphical method -
i. Selection of trees -
a. Choose ones with typical height & dev
b. Avoid ones with defects
c. 1k sufficient
d. Greater the precision reqd, higher # trees
ii. Measurements - basis outturn table reqd
iii. Curves -
a. Smooth curves drawn & harmonized
b. Avg diam plotted against corresponding avg volume separately for each
height class
iv. Checks -
a. Avg deviation check - of individual tree volume
b. Relative check - should be < 3% (2/ more tables derived independently
from same data - e.g. local volume table derived from data vs derived
from General VT of the same data)
c. Height/ diam class check - < 5% (aggregate check applied to each
diam/ height class)

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 d. Aggregate volume check - < 1% (actual volume of trees measured vs
total volume read from the final curve)
v. Sources of error -
a. Personal bias
b. Measurement errors
c. Sampling errors - failure to select representative trees
vi.

Volume 1. Cull - portion of tree stem/ log which is unmerchantable

adjustments - 2. Formula for volume -
"procedure i. Above a certain height h of total H - c = h/ H
for ii. Wedge shaped sector above h of total H - c = h/H * x/ 360
measuring" iii. Concentric cylinder above h of total H - c = h/ H * (d/ D)^2

Factors 1. Density -
affecting i. Decreases from base to top
weight ii. Increases from pith to cambium
2. Moisture content - Moisture/ oven dry weight
i. In sapwood, water is more
ii. Varies with locality, species, season of felling, delay after cutting, age &
physical condition of the tree
iii. This restricts use of weight as a measure of wood quantity
iv. Moisture - free water in intercellular spaces & absorbed water in the cells
3. Bark & foreign material - bark has lower density than wood --> removed before
weighing
i. Bark weight 1-20% of weight of greenwood
ii. Higher diam trees have lower bark %

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Biomass 1. Weight of the above ground vegetative matter produced per unit acre
i. incl wood, branches, bark, leaves, shrubs, herbs
2. Measurement of biomass -
i. In firewood estimation, usually measurements are done in earlier stages.
Instead of DBH, diam & girth are measured 50 cm above ground level.
ii. Using regression - W = a + b*D^2*H
iii. Estimation by destructive sampling -
a. Trees measured during dormant stage like winter
b. Grouped into diam & girth classes
c. Good sample trees (~30) selected
d. Measurement of girth at 50 cm height
e. Tree felled & separated into main stem, branchwood, leaves - each
weighed separately
f. Biomass = sum of all weights
g. In case of multi-stemmed shrubs, girth of tallest shoot at 50 cm
measured & # shoots multiplied

Age of felled 1. Stump analysis - Count # rings in stump + estimate # years reqd to grow upto
tree stump height
i. But incidents of false rings - rings that do not run right around the tree
ii. There might be closed-formed rings - difficult to count
iii. In certain years of low growth or defoliator attack, ring formation may not
take place

Age of 1. From existing records -

standing tree i. There might be beating up operations
ii. Takes few years for regeneration
2. Mathematical relationships - regress on age vs diam/ girth
3. General appearance -
i. Taper - less for older trees
ii. Crown - conical early on, later circular
iii. Bark - older trees have smooth/ light-colored, younger - rough/ cracked
4. By # annual shoots - clear marks on bole
5. Pressler's increment borer -
i. Wedge inserted to carve out the bored wood piece
ii. Small trees bored upto pith, bigger trees to 5-10 rings

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 iii. Advisable to seal the bore with sterilized wood to prevent subsequent
damage
iv. Age known either by 3 periodic measurement or available diam-age curve
a. Age at beginning = 1/ (P1*S) where -
b. P1 - growth per unit diam per year during 1-2 interval & P2 in 2-3
interval
c. S = [ Log (P1/P2) / Log (D2/ D1) ]

Determinatio 1. Stump analysis - measuring annual rings on stump X-section

n of growth of i. Aim - to estimate age of the tree & its past rate of diam & basal area growth
trees with ii. Obtaining rotation age using age-diam relationship
annual rings iii. Know the effect of external factors
2. Stem analysis - analysis of complete stem by measuring annual rings at diff X-
sections
i. Aim - estimate avg growth rate of diam/ height/ volume increment
ii. Used to prepare volume table
3. Increment boring - boring of stem with pressler's increment to determine age &
diam increment
i. Obtaining rotation age

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 ii. Effect of adverse/ favourable factors on diam increment
iii.

Stump 1. Selection of tree -

analysis i. Sound stumps of rotation size are chosen
ii. Shouldn't have malformation/ abnormality
iii. Avg size - neither too large, nor suppressed
2. Advantages -
i. Simple field work
ii. Less labour requirement
iii. Each stump provides data for whole life of the tree
iv. Can be collected from stump of felled trees as long as wood remains sound
3. Curves -
i. Age vs Height (age corresponding to stump height known) - from seedling
data
ii. Avg stump diameter (UB) vs DBH (over bark) for diff height classes - from
taper data
iii. Age vs Stump diam (UB) - radii data + 1st curve
4. Measurements - stump cross-cut to get a smooth & horizontal X-section. Surface
moistened with water if rings aren't clear.
i. Recording of taper data -
a. DUB/ DBH-OB measured at 15, 45, 75 cm from ground
b. Trees of diff diam classes are selected
ii. Recording of age data -
a. Age calculated at diff heights to determine age to grow to stump
height
b. Saplings of 2-3m height cut at 0, 20, 30, 50, 100 cm from ground-level
for ring counting
iii. Radii at successive decades is recorded -
a. Pins at 10 rings
b. Incomplete/ false rings not counted
c. Avg radius for diff ages calculated

Stem analysis 1. Selection of tree -

i. Similar to stump
ii. Limited # trees since stem study is expensive & time-consuming
2. Advantages -
i. Gives complete info wrt growth - diam, height, volume
ii. Data calculated from the whole tree --> more reliable
3. Measurements -

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 i. After tree is felled, crown height, crown length, bole height & total height is
measured
ii. Sectioning done - lowest section of 2BH, following of 3m length each
a. Mid-diam (UB & OB) measured for each section
iii. Sections cross-cut at mid-point to measure rings - decade-wise counting
a. Diff between rings on BH & any other section gives the age of that
section
iv. Recording of age data - same as stump analysis
v. Volume computation -
a. For each section of felled tree, volume computed by multiplying basal
area by height
b. For last section, use cone V = BH/ 3
c. Add up all volumes to get total volume
4. Curves -
i. Diam vs Age
ii. Diam vs Height for each decade
iii. Age vs Height
iv. Volume vs Age

Increment 1. Few trees of each diam class selected

boring 2. For each tree, DBH (UB & OB) recorded
i. Tree bored at major & minor diam (perpendicular to each other & to axis of
tree)
ii. Length of outermost 5 rings at one end of each of the two diameter recorded
3. Diam vs increment curve is drawn
4. From this smooth curve, obtain initial diam (D1), increment (i) & final diam (D2 =
D1 + 2i)
i. Process repeated taking D2 as initial
5. Final diams plotted against equidistant points corresponding to age in years (5 rings
--> 5Y). Hence, we get diam-increment (5Y) curve
6. Diam-age curve also plotted - time axis shifted by # years taken to reach lowest
plotted diam

Misc 1. Linear growth - due to original tissue or PRIMARY MERISTEM

2. Radial growth - due to Cambium or SECONDARY MERISTEM
3. Tree rings - due to seasonal variations in the growth
i. More prominent in temperate forests
ii. Spring wood - lighter & more porous
iii. Summer wood - darker & denser
iv. Hence, a pattern on concentric rings across a X-section

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 v. Some tropical trees like Acacia Catechu & Tectona Grandis show annual
growth rings

Forest 1. FI - tabulated tree info arranged in a hierarchical order.

inventory i. A quantitative description of quality, quantity, diam dist of forest trees &
characteristics of forest land.
ii. Synonymous with enumeration (counting of trees in a forest crop & their
classification by species, size, condition, etc)
2. Objects of FI Maintenace or Enumeration -
i. Determine volume of timber growing in the forest to determine the yield
ii. Reqd for assessing value for purpose of sale
iii. Determine CAI current periodic annual increment
iv. Prepare a map of the area showing regions of high/ low volume production
per unit acre to help decision-making in setting of industry
3. Kinds of enumeration -
i. Total - entire area of forest unit covered
a. Expensive, time-consuming
b. Performed in smaller areas where max accuracy reqd - e.g. PBI of
uniform SWS
c. For statistical studies to check results of partial enumeration
ii. Partial - done only in a repr portion of whole forest
a. Sample - part of the forest population consisting of 1/ more sampling
units, selected as a repr of the whole
b. Sampling intensity = sample population/ total population
iii. Choice depends on -
a. Extent of area to be covered
b. Variation in composition & density
c. Accuracy reqd - depends on purpose
d. Available resources - labour, time, money

Sampling 1. Advantages -
i. Reduced cost, time savings
ii. Relative accuracy -
a. Total enumeration is subject to error, which can't be calculated unless
whole work is repeated. Total E gives false sense of complacency
b. Errors are known
c. Personnel of high quality employed
iii. Knowledge of errors - checking of errors is easy
a. Errors can be kept within desirable limits by statistical methods
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 iv. Greater scope - specialised equipment can be used that requires greater skill
a. Skilled personnel can't be expected to do complete enumeration
2. Sampling types/ designs -
i. Random sampling - sampling units composing a sample are selected st all
possible units of same size have equal chance/ probability of being chosen
a. Unrestricted or simple
b. Stratified - population divided into homogenous sub-populations &
from each sub-P, simple random sampling acc to their population size
c. Multistage
d. Multiplhase - enumeration work divided into multiple phases & for
each phase, same or diff sample can be used. For ex, to determine, #
bamboo culms in forest, phase 1 - determine # clumps per Ha & phase
2 - determine # culms per clump
e. List sampling -
f. Sampling with variable probability - e.g. point sampling
ii. Non-random sampling - samples selected acc to certain rules/ guidelines
that indicate which sampling units should be chosen
a. Selective - sampling units chosen with subjective judgement of
observer
b. Sequential -
c. Systematic - acc to pre-determined pattern (e.g., tree every 30 m) -
uniform dist simplicity

List sampling 1. Another form of sampling with varying probability

i. E.g. hierarchical order (by size) of sampling units - taking cumulative size &
then simple random sampling from cumulative list

Sequential 1. Aim - to achieve the avg of total enumeration by convergence

sampling 2. # observations in sample not pre-determined
3. Sampling stopped when desired precision is reached. Confidence interval CI
decreasese at each stage of sampling.
4. Each sample - of course - contains the sampling units of previous sample

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Kinds of 1. Fixed area
sampling units 2. Only points

Fixed area 1. From statistics, we know that smaller sampling units are more efficient than larger
sampling units ones coz higher # units --> better precision
2. Shapes of FASU -
i. Plots - std shapes like rectangle, square, circle, polygon
a. Most common - rectangle areas demarcated by 4 corners
b. Suited to plantation crops raised in lines as border trees can be
minimized
ii. Strips - 20m wide strips laid across the forest from 1 end to another
a. Diff to maintain constant intervals in hills
iii. Topographical units - units with predominantly topographical boundaries
like rivers, ridges, streams, etc
a. Best suited for hills where others can't be used
3. Sampling intensity -
i. Typical - plains 5%, hills 20%
ii. Should be st sampling error < 10%
iii. Factors to decide - accuracy reqd, resources available, object of inventory,
type of forest, kind of sampling to be used
4. Errors in forest inventory -
i. Sampling errors -
a. Error = mean forest - mean sample
b. Arises coz only a fraction of the forest enumerated & result applied to
whole forest
c. Can be minimized by proper size, #, distr of sampling units
ii. Non-sampling errors -
a. Measurement errors
b. Instrumental errors
c. Bias of enumerator
d. Faulty computation

Principles of 1. Accuracy - size of total error of inventory incl error due to bias
sampling 2. Precision - only sampling error (doesn't include error due to bias)
3. An accurate inventory is always precise. An inventory can be precise, but not
accurate (when there's error due to bias)
4. Confidence interval - estimates of sample statistics lie in a range within which the
true values is expected to lie at a given probability. The range is called confidence
interval.

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Horizontal Principle of point sampling
point 1. Counting from a random point, the # trees whose BH X-section exceeds a certain
sampling critical angle, when multiplied by a constant factor, gives an unbiased estimate of
basal area per Ha
i. Constant (F) depends only on chosen critical angle - F = 2500*k^2 where k =
2 sin (theta/ 2)
ii. For F = 1, theta = 1.14* (or 68.75 minutes)
iii. 1 Ha = 10k m2

Use of HPS -
1. Determination of basal area per Ha = basal area factor (F) * # tally trees
2. Volume per Ha - basal area * stand form height
i. Stand form height calculated from subsample of trees
3. # stems per Ha

Instrument of HPS - SWAT

1. Simple angle guage - theta = 2 cm/ 1 m
2. Tele relaskop
3. Spiegel relaskop
4. Wedge prism -
i. Need to be kept perfectly vertical
ii. Tree counted if image overlaps
iii. Wedge shaped piece of glass - light rays bend acc to critical angle
iv. No tally only if there's no contact between tree & image

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 Non-sampling errors in HPS
1. In making 360* sweep, starting tree is often left out or counted twice. Avoided by
marking it.
2. While making 360* sweep with instrument in hand, often instrument isn't kept at
the same point, but moved.
3. Concealed trees - serious source of bias
4. Borderline trees must be checked carefully for inclusion/ exclusion
5. Imaginary circle may extend outside the stand

Point 1. Sample trees selected proportional to their area - thus, big & valuable trees are
sampling vs selected preferentially
plot sampling 2. Total basal area measured by mere counting w/o diam measurements
3. Point sampling requires higher levels of skills of foresters
4. Point sampling - diff in dense areas like tropical rainforest
5. Total basal area - point sampling more effective
6. # stems - plot sampling more effective

7. Point sampling also called -

i. Bitterlich
ii. Variable plot
iii. Probability proportional to size (PPS)

Vertical Point 1. All trees appearing taller than a critical angle counted to determine mean height
Sampling - of the stand
VPS 2. Based on conimeter principle
3. Area of cone base = pi*h^2*tan^2 (theta) / 10k Ha
4. # trees per Ha = N, # trees in the sample with height > h is n, where h is the avg
height of the stand, then
i. n = Area of cone base*N
ii. n = N*pi*h^2*tan^2(theta)/ 10k
iii. h = 100/ tan (theta) * sqrt (n/ N*Pi)

Yield table 1. YT - Tabular statement which summarizes per unit area, all essential data related
to dev of a fully stocked & regularly thinned even-aged crop at periodic intervals.
i. Gives all the quantitative info regarding dev of a crop
ii. In India, yield table gives info by site quality, per unit area, basis interval of 5-
10Y
2. Content of YT -
i. Main crop -

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 a. Avg diam
b. Avg height
c. Total basal area
d. # trees
e. Avg form factor
f. Stem timber volume (A)
g. Small wood volume (B)
h. Total standing volume (A+B)
ii. Thinning - A, B, C
iii. Final yield - A, B, C
iv. Accumulated yield of thinning - A, B, C
v. Total yield - A, B, C
vi. MAI - Volume of stem timber (A), total volume (C)
vii. CAI - A, C
3. Kinds of YT -
i. Based on # grades of thinnings used -
a. Multiple YT - data given for diff grades of thinning like in case of Deodar
YT
b. Single YT - based on only 1 grade of thinning (C- grade moderately
heavy)
ii. Based on volume/ value -
a. Money YT - outturn expressed in terms of money, prepared from
volume YT
b. Volume YT - outturn in terms of volume
4. Preparation of YT -
i. Select plots to be sampled
ii. By vegetative/ site factors method, all plots are assigned in quality classes
iii. For each quality class, main crop data grouped into classes by decade &
following avgs computed -
a. Basal area per Ha
b. # trees per Ha
c. Avg crop diam
d. Avg crop height
e. Vol (A, B, C) per Ha
f. Form factor
iv. For each quality, smooth curve of avgs vs age class drawn
5. Use of YT -
i. Determine site quality
ii. Estimation of total yield/ growing stock

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 iii. Determination of increment
iv. Determination of rotation
v. As a guide for silvicultural thinning
vi. Prep of stock map by site quality
vii. # stems corresponding to a given age
viii. # trees corresponding to a given crop diam

6. Stand structure - distribution & representation of age & size classes of trees in a
stand. Broadly 2 types -
i. Even aged - age class --> yield table
ii. Uneven aged - size class --> stand table
7. Balanced forest - stand where #stems by diam class decrease in constant
geometric progression
i. E.g. by De Liocourt's quotient - N1/ N2 = N2/ N3 = N3/ N4 = … = q

Stand table 1. ST - table showing distr of stems by diam classes

2. Info -
i. % trees over a given diam
ii. # trees per Ha over a given diam class
iii. % of total # trees by 10 cm diam classes
3. Objective -
i. Assists in forest mgmt activities
ii. Helps to convert YT to local standards
iii. Provides info such as range of diam class to be removed at each thinning
4. Application -
i. To prepare money YT
ii. Determine fin value of a crop

Determining 1. Method of control -

past growth of i. Same local VT used in both inventories
the stand ii. European method
iii. Complete enumeration - possible only for small stand
iv. Periodic growth (I) = V2 (vol at 2nd inventory) + Ve (vol removed in period) -
V1 (vol at 1st inventory)
2. Continuous forest inventory method/ CFI method -
i. Sampling intensity - ~0.1%
ii. American method
iii. Use of sample plots
iv. Use of modern computing methods

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 v. Plots should be representative of whole forest - i.e. they should undergo
similar silvicultural treatment as rest of the forest

Stand density 1. To determine future growth, 2 factors are imp - stand density & site quality
2. SD - a measure of relative completeness of tree stocking expressed as % of
normal number of trees/ basal area/ volume
i. Also called crop density, density of stocking, stocking
ii. Yardstick to measure normalcy provided by yield table
iii. For species not having yield table (or for uneven aged crop), density should
be expressed as basal area per Ha
3. To estimate yield/ future growth of a stand from a yield table, 1st estimate
density of stand & then apply correction factor to the yield table figures of future
growth (yield tables prepared for fully stocked stand)
i. But an under/ over stocked forest does not grow in same proportion as
normally stocked forest --> correction factor modified based on one's
experience)

Site quality 1. Measure of relative productive capacity of a site.

i. A complex of physical & biological factors of an area that determine what
forest it may carry
2. Site factors -
i. TM - Max Temp, Tm - min Temp
ii. Does not take into account soil factor
iii. E - evapotranspiration
iv. P - precipitation, G - growth period
v. Climate vegetation productivity CVP index = TM/ Tm * P*G/ 12 * E/ 100
3. Vegetative characteristics - characteristics of vegetation could be used as basis to
determine site quality
4. Plant indicators -
i. Based on theory that certain species of lower vegetation (herbs, shrubs, etc)
are clear indicators of site quality & suitability of the site for a particular
tree species
ii. Requies considerable ecological knowledge to deduce site quality from plant
indicators
5. Tree characteristics - represent productivity of an area
i. Volume
ii. Basal area
iii. Diam
iv. Height

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Canopy 1. Measure of relative completeness of canopy expressed as decimal/ fraction taking
density closed canopy as unity
2. Measure -
i. Closed - 1
ii. Dense - > 0.6
iii. Thin - 0.4 - 0.6
iv. Open - 0.2 - 0.4
v. Sparse - < 0.2
3. Square spacing - crown area/ ground area = pi/ 4
4. Equilateral triangle spacing - crown area/ ground area = pi/ (2*1.73)

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