Learner Surname & Initials:

________________________________ PHYSICS 2
2024
Learner Guide

FACULTY: APPLIED & COMPUTER SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT: APPLIED PHYSICAL SCIENCES

SUBJECT: PHYSICS 2

SUBJECT CODE: APHYT2A

COMPILED BY: F.P. NEMALILI

YEAR & SEMESTER 2024 – SEMESTER 1

CREDITS: 10 CREDITS
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTACTS PERSONS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..III
SEMESTER PLANNING ........................................................................................................................ IV
COURSE STRUCTURE AND WEIGHTS................................................................................................... IV
ACCESS TO VUTELA (BLACKBOARD) .................................................................................................... V
PHYSICS FORMATIVE ASSESSMENTS .................................................................................................. VI
LEARNING MATERIAL ....................................................................................................................... VII
PROBLEM SOLVING .......................................................................................................................... VII
TIPS ON HOW TO STUDY PHYSICS .................................................................................................... VIII

TEST 1: MECHANICS, IDEAL GAS AND THERMODYNAMICS

LEARNING UNIT 1: UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION AND ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS .............................. 1
LEARNING UNIT 2: ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS ....................................................................................... 6
LEARNING UNIT 3: SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND ELASTICITY ...................................................... 13
LEARNING UNIT 4: THE IDEAL GAS AND KINETIC THEORY ................................................................... 17
LEARNING UNIT 5: THERMODYNAMICS ............................................................................................. 21

TEST 2: CIRCUITS AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

LEARNING UNIT 6: KIRCHOFF’S, CAPACITORS AND RC CIRCUITS ......................................................... 29
LEARNING UNIT 7: LRC CIRCUITS ........................................................................................................ 37
LEARNING UNIT 8: MAGNETIC FORCE AND MAGNETIC FIELDS ............................................................ 40
LEARNING UNIT 9: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION ........................................................................... 46
LEARNING UNIT 10: NUCLEAR PHYSICS .............................................................................................. 51

EXAMINATION FORMULA SHEET ....................................................................................................... 56

PERIODIC TABLE ................................................................................................................................ 57

ii
 WORD OF WELCOME
The Department of Applied Physical Sciences welcomes you as a student to the Faculty of Applied and Computer
Sciences at the Vaal University of Technology.

The department strives towards integration of existing knowledge with new knowledge to afford student the ability to:

• Think logically and visualise concepts.

• Gain knowledge of Physics in order to make a positive contribution in your chosen career once you have completed
your studies.

DEPARTMENTAL STAFF CONTACTS

Telephone Number and

Title and Surname Office Number
E- Mail address

PHYSICS LECTURERS
016 – 950 9761
DR. I.Q. SIKAKANA (HOD) F112-B
[email protected]
016 – 950 6655
MR. F.P. NEMALILI (COORDINATOR) F210-A
[email protected]
016 – 950 7686
DR. M.N RANTHO F210-B
[email protected]
016 – 950 7858
MR. L.T. MELATO F210-C
[email protected]
016 – 950 7586
MR. C. DLAMINI F210-D
[email protected]
016 – 950 9338
MR. T.M. SITHOLE F210-E
[email protected]
016 – 950 9824
MR. R.A PHOKOJOE F210-F
[email protected]
016 – 950 9824
DR. V. MAPHIRI F210-F
[email protected]
016 – 950 7774
MR. F. MMETHI F210-G
[email protected]
016 – 950 7509
MISS. P. MOKOENA E016-5
[email protected]

PHYSICS LABORATORY STAFF

016 – 950 9904
MR. M.J. THEBE (COORDINATOR) C202-1
[email protected]
016 – 950 9365
MISS. T.G. MALATSI C201-1
[email protected]
016 950 9043
MISS. L.J. LEHUTSO F110
[email protected]
016-950-7848
MISS. B. MAMOROBELA C201-1
[email protected]
016 – 950 7848
MR. F.W. POOE C201-2
[email protected]
016 – 950 9365
MR. E. NKUNA C201
[email protected]
016 – 950 9365
MR. E. SELEMA C201
[email protected]

iii
2024 SEMESTER 2 PLANNING: PHYSICS 2 THEORY (APHYT2A)

WEEK DATE OF FIRST LEARNING TEXT BOOK ASSESSMENT + REASSESSMENT

NO. DAY OF WEEK UNIT CHAPTERS (DATES & TIME (15:30 – 17:00)

1 22/07/2024 UNIT 1 CH. 5 & 8

2 29/07/2024 UNIT 2 CH. 9
3 05/08/2024 UNIT 3 CH. 10 CLASS TEST 1 (UNIT 1 – 3)
4 12/08/2024 UNIT 4 CH. 14
5 19/08/2024 UNIT 5 CH. 15 CLASS TEST 2 (UNIT 4 – 5)
6 26/08/2024 REVISION (UNIT 1 – 5) SEMESTER TEST 1: LU 1 – 5
(FRIDAY 30TH AUGUST 2024)
7 02/09/2024 UNIT 6 CH. 20
8 09/09/2024 UNIT 7 CH. 23 CLASS TEST 4 (UNIT 6 – 8)
9 16/09/2024 UNIT 8 CH. 21
10 23/09/2024 UNIT 9 CH. 22 CLASS TEST 5 (UNIT 7 – 8)
12 30/09/2024 UNIVERSITY RECESS
13 07/10/2024 UNIT 10 CH. 30 & 32 SEMESTER TEST 2: LU 6 – 10
(SELF-STUDY) (FRIDAY 11TH OCTOBER 2024)
14 14/10/2024 SICK TEST: LU 1 – 10
(TUESDAY 15TH OCTOBER 2024)
17 21/10/2024
18 28/10/2024 PUBISHING OF SEMESTER MARK

15

22 18 – 30/11/2024 UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION WEEK

ALL TEST WILL BE WRITTEN ON FRIDAY FROM 15:30 UNTIL 17:00 (90 MINUTES)

*Times and dates might change.

METHOD OF ASSESSMENT: SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS STRUCTURE

SUBJECT WEIGHTS WILL BE CALCULATED AS FOLLOWS:
ASSESSMENTS DESCRIPTION WEIGHTING COMMENTS
Semester Test Test 1 33% (See Planning for Scope of Test)
Semester Test Test 2 33% (See Planning for Scope of Test)
Weekly Class Tests Class Tests 34% (Will be written during Class)

Semester Mark Semester Work 60% Semester Work (T1 + T2+ CT)
Examination Mark December Exam 40% 3 Hours Paper (All Learning Units)
TOTAL 100%

FINAL MARK = SEMESTER MARK (60%) + EXAMINATION MARK (40%), > 50%, To Pass

iv
 ASSESSMENTS AND WEIGHTS STRUCTURE WITH EXAMPLE:
Assessment Semester Semester Class-Tests Total
Type Test 1 Test 2 Average Mark
Weight % 33 33 34 100
Student Mark 40 56 69
Example /100%
Weighted Mark 13,20 18,48 23,46 55%

Assessment Type Semester Examination Final Mark

Mark (SM) Mark (EM) (FM)
Weight % 60% 40% 100%
Student Mark % 55 45
Weighted Mark 33 18 51%

HOW TO ACCESS PHYSICS MODULE USING VUTELA

1. On your internet browser type: https://vut.blackboard.com and enter your login details (student
number and password).
2. Click on the Physics 1 to gain access to the module, and view learning materials.
3. All the announcement and changes during the course of the semester will be posted on the blackboard,
so visit your VUTELA site all the time.

Figure 1: Opening Blackboard on Internet Figure 2: Login menu

Select Option 3 - Student login Please enter your student

to access Sign in option. number and your password.

Figure 3: Main Menu User can click the link to

view Physics 1 Home page

v
PHYSICS 2 ATTENDANCE AND ASSESSMENTS PROCEDURES

ATTENDANCE PROCEDURES:
1. The Duly Performed (DP) rule for all our Physics modules for the students to be permitted to sit for the Semester
Tests. This DP rule is in addition to the Module Study Guides requirements - Assessment weighting and calculation
of year mark. For a student to qualify to write Semester Tests the requirement on students will be as follows:
- Theory: 70% Contact Class Attendance; 80% Online class attendance.
- Practical: 100% performance of All Experiments; and Practical Test is written.
2. Students MUST also visit their VUTela, Email and WhatsApp groups (if any) for communication with their
lecturers on a regular basis (at least twice a day).

ASSESSMENTS PROCEDURES:
1. All Online Physics Class Tests will be written on CAMPUS/HOME using Lockdown browser + Respondus.
2. Semester Work (Semester Tests, Class Tests, etc.) will contribute 60% of a Module mark.
3. A Single “Sick” Test will be considered at the end of semester for those students who missed a Semester Tests
during the semester due to a valid reason (e.g. medical). Approval in accordance with the applicable University
policies and standing orders will the module lecturer and endorsed by the Department Teaching & Learning Quality
Assurance Committee.
4. A Minimum of 50% from the Semester Mark is required for student to qualify to write Final Examinations.
5. Module will have a “First Opportunity (1st Opp)” Examination by the end of Semester, and it will contribute the
other 40%.
6. After 1st Opportunity Examination, to pass a module, a minimum of 50% Average must be obtained from the
Semester Mark (SM) and 1st Opportunity Examination Mark (EM). Note that a minimum of 40% Exam Mark is
required regardless of Semester Mark.
7. A student will be given a Second Opportunity (2nd Opp ) Examination after the First Opportunity Examination if:
• The student miss 1st Opportunity Examination due to any reason (No valid proof is needed), as long as
student was qualifying to write 1st Opportunity.
• The Final Mark (60% of Semester Mark + 40% of 1st Opp) is less than 50%.
8. After 2nd Opportunity Examination, to pass a module, a minimum of 50% Average must be obtained from the
Semester Mark (SM) and 2nd Opportunity Examination Mark (EM).
9. Both 1st and 2nd Opportunity Examination will cover all the syllabus of the module.
10. Where the Test is online (if any), test will be posted on VUTela with instructions and MUST be submitted on
VUTela. (NO Attachment, nor Email or nor WhatsApp submissions will be accepted).
11. Lecturers will NOT be responsible for Tests that are lost and submitted on wrong forums. And all Tests submitted
on wrong forums will NOT be marked.
12. All Test dates are scheduled on the Semester Planning page. Lecturers will communicate to you in class and on
VUTela / Learner Guide/ WhatsApp groups, if there is any changes.
13. A student may, on formal application to examinations department and after payment of the applicable fee,
have his/her 2nd Opportunity Examination reviewed / remarked in accordance with the policies approved by the
Senate and the Council. “No remark is allowed on the first opportunity”.

vi
 WAYS OF COMMUNICATION
1. VUTela is the FIRST LINE of communication between the student and the lecturer. It is very important for all
students to regularly log in on VUTela (at least twice in a day) to check for course updates from lecturers.
2. Besides VUTela here are the list of other ways of communication:
- Face to face Consultation: office visit during working hours as prescribed by Lecturer.
- WHATSAPP Group: communication created by Lecturer, if any.
- Email: Check your Lecturer’s email address on the list of staff contacts for email communication.

CLASSES/CONSULTATION
Two of the theory classes will be conducted on campus and One online. The classes timetable and consultation hours
will be communicated to students by their lecturer for this module; students are thereby requested to adhere to this.
Consultation hours will only be used to clarify concepts in class or further assistance from tutorials and class exercises,
not for the presentation of a lecture.

LEARNING MATERIAL
1. Prescribed textbook
John D Cutnell and Kenneth W Johnson, Physics, 10th, 11th or 12th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All references in this study guide are given for the seventh edition.

2. Practical Manual
Practical Notes will be uploaded on the Blackboard, and hard copies will be given during laboratory sessions.

3. Learner guide.
In this learner guide the following words are used extensively in the outcomes: Explain and Define.
The following meaning has been attributed to these words in this guide:
Explain: Clarify or give reasons for something in your own words. You must prove that you understand the
contents. It may be useful to use examples or illustrations where possible.
Define: Give the mathematical formula of the law or concept, if possible, the meaning of all variables must
be stated clearly. Otherwise, state a definition in words.

4. Additional learning material

Additional material related to this module will be uploaded on the Blackboard as class notes and or tutorial
questions in due course.

5. Website: BLACKBOARD LMS:

https://vut.blackboard.com/

PROBLEM SOLVING IN PHYSICS

Solving problems is a big stumbling block for many learners of physics. You only learn to solve problems by doing
them. Even if you think you “understand” how a problem is done, you must do other similar problems to see if you
really understand how to solve a problem.

“Word problems” can most effectively be solved by following the following steps:
Step 1: Review the problem to get an overview of the question. Don’t get bogged down by details. Don’t
worry about numbers of formulas that you must use.

Step 2: Identify what it is you must calculate. Look for words such as “Find…” or “How many…” or “What
is…”. They let you know where you are heading.

Step 3: Look for the information provided in the question. Don’t worry about the numbers yet. Simply
examine the nature of the data. Tabulating the data is useful so that it is not cluttered with words.

Step 4: Consider the kinds of calculations that must be performed on the data. Still don’t worry about the
numbers. You must now write the necessary formulas to do the calculation.

Step 5: You have compiled the necessary information and decided how the problem will be solved. Insert
the numbers into the formulas and solve.

Step 6: Look whether your answer is reasonable. Are the units correct? If so, you are finished.

vii
 DUTY OF THE STUDENT
Students are expected to:
• Attend ALL classes, as it is compulsory to attend all classes on the timetable.
• Constantly review all outcomes to be achieved.
• Review all the principles and calculations necessary for the achievement of the specified outcomes.
• Constantly refer to the learner guide for clarification on what they are expected to know.
• Use the text book with the learner guide. Do not try to study only with the learner guide. Do problems
in the text book and learner guide!
• Apply the knowledge gained from one learning outcome to the successive learning outcomes.
• Take responsibility for their own learning and monitor their own progress.

TIPS ON HOW TO STUDY THIS MODULE

1. ATTEND ALL YOUR PHYSICS CLASSES. You will not understand tomorrow’s lecture if you do not attend today!
If you miss a lecture (because of sickness, late entry, or any other reason), it is your responsibility to catch up! Do
that before the next class.

2. DO ALL THE GIVEN HOMEWORK. You do not have to get all the homework right, it is more important that you try
all, so that the lecturer knows where to help you. Bring the homework to class so that the lecturer can discuss the
problems in class. If it is not discussed in class, ask the lecturer during his/her consulting hours.

3. EFFECTIVE STUDY AREA. Designate well-lit area for studying. If you can’t find an effective area at home or
residence, go to the library. It is advisable that you should study while sitting at a table or desk. Studying in a very
comfortable chair or a bed may cause you to feel drowsy.

4. WRITE IT DOWN. When you learn for an upcoming test, event, or anything, you must prepare for or attend,
immediately write it in your planner. Don’t wait for later, or you may forget about it.

5. BREAK UP YOUR STUDY TIME. Determine how many study hours you need, and schedule study time in your
planner. For example, if you need six hours of time to study for a test, you may break that time up into six sessions,
of one hour each. Choose the six days, and make a Study Time notation in your calendar.

6. SCHEDULE CONSISTENT STUDY TIMES. Set aside time every day for study, and make it consistent. For
example, set your study time for each afternoon from 6:00pm to 8:00pm. Whatever you do, avoid last minute
studying and cramming.

7. EAT YOUR BROCCOLI FIRST. Imagine eating your dessert before your broccoli. What would be left for you to
look forward to? Just the same, do your homework for your most difficult subjects first. Then, everything else will
be a breeze, and therefore, more enjoyable.

8. LEARN THE THEORY FIRST: Before attempting problems make sure that you know all the background (definitions
and laws). Physics is like all professional sports- You must know the rules of the game to be good at it.

9. GET ASSISTANCE. If you don’t understand a lesson, ask for help. Be specific on what you need help with. Try a
problem on your own and if you get stuck bring it to the lecturer so that the lecturer can understand where you went
wrong. Please do the problem neatly so that it is possible for the lecturer to read your attempt.

10. WHOOPS! If you find yourself getting off track, simply take a deep breath and get back on track. It is better to get
slightly off the path, rather than giving up.

viii
LEARNING UNIT 1
CHAPTER 5 & 8: DYNAMICS OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION AND
ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS
Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:
5.1 Uniform Circular Motion ..........................................................p 135 (p 125)
5.2 Centripetal Acceleration .........................................................p 136 (p 125)
5.3 Centripetal Force ....................................................................p 139 (p 128)
8.1 Rotational Motion and Angular Displacement ....................... p 223 (p 207)
8.2 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration ........................... p 226 (p 209)
8.3 The Equations of Rotational Kinematics ............................... p 228 (p 212)
8.4 Angular Variables and Tangential Variables ......................... p 231 (p 215)
8.5 Centripetal Acceleration and Tangential Acceleration .......... p 232 (p 216)

Know the following concepts:

✓ Period, Speed
✓ Centripetal acceleration, Centripetal Force

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ Centripetal acceleration and Centripetal force are always directed to the centre of the circle.

Summary
Uniform circular motion occurs when a body moves in a circular path with constant speed.

2 r
v=
T
Centripetal acceleration
An object moves in a circle with constant speed. Show the direction of the centripetal acceleration in each of the five
points of the diagram. “Centripetal comes from a Latin word meaning “center-seeking.”
v2
ac =
r
Centripetal Force
Wherever you find acceleration, you will also find force. For a body to experience centripetal acceleration, a centripetal
force must be applied to it. The vector for this force is similar to the acceleration vector: it is of constant magnitude, and
always points radially inward to the center of the circle, perpendicular to the velocity vector.
We can use Newton’s Second Law and the equation for centripetal acceleration to write an equation for the centripetal
force that maintains an object’s circular motion.
v2
Fc = mac = m
r
Example: On an unbanked curve, the static
frictional force provides the centripetal force.

1|Page
 Reasoning Strategy for the problem Solving:
1. Draw a free body diagram. Choose one point on the circular path and
draw the forces (weight, normal force, friction force, Tension in the rope)
working on the object at that point on the circular path. Always choose positive
direction in the direction of acceleration – to the center of the circle if it is
centripetal acceleration. Remember: Centripetal force is NOT one of the forces
you should draw in the free body diagram because centripetal force is the
resultant force.
2. Set up equations to solve for the unknowns:
3. If the mass or weight is not given, rather use mg in the equations (not
W), because the mass might cancel out in some equations.

For objects moving in a horizontal circle with For objects moving in a vertical with constant
constant speed: speed:

Case 1:
If a car is moving around an Unbanked horizontal circle

v2
Fx = mac = m
r Fx = 0
Fy = 0 v2
Fy = mac = m
r

Summary
Axis of Rotation
The rotational motion of a rigid body occurs when every point in the body moves in a
circular path around a line called the axis of rotation, which cuts through the center of
mass.

Angular Displacement
When a rigid body rotates about an fixed axis, the angular displacement is the angle
Δθ swept out by a line passing through any point on the body and intersecting the axis
of rotation perpendicular.

The S.I unit of angular displacement is radians:

1 revolution = 360 degree = 2π radians

 =  −  o
Arc length s
 (in radians) = =
Radius r
Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration

Angular velocity, , is defined as the change in the angular displacement per unit time. = , units of rad/s.
t

Angular acceleration, , is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity per unit time. = . units of rad/s2.
t
2|Page
Rolling Motion

Linear motion Angular motion

v f = v o + at  f =  o + t
v f = vo + 2as  f =  o + 2
2 2 2 2

1 1
s = vo t + at  =  o t + t
2 2
s=
1
(vo + v f )t  = ( o +  f )t
1
2 2
Relation between linear and angular quantities
s v a
= = = ac = rw2
r r r

If 2 objects rotate together with different radius:

Connected at their sides: Rotate around the same axis:

s1 = s 2 v1 = v 2 a1 = a 2 1 =  2 1 =  2 1 =  2
and and
1r1 =  2 r2 1 r1 =  2 r2  1 r1 =  2 r2 s1 s and v1 v 2 and a1 a 2
= 2 = =
r1 r2 r1 r2 r1 r2

3|Page
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1.1 A child swings a yo-yo of weight mg in a horizontal circle so that the cord makes an angle of 30° with the
vertical, as in the figure. Find the centripetal acceleration of the yo-yo.Ans.: 5.67 m/s2

1.2 A child is swinging a 0.0120 kg ball on a string in a horizontal circle whose radius is 0.100 m. The ball travels
twice around the circle in 1.00 s.
a. Determine the centripetal force acting on the ball. Ans.: 0.19 N
b. If the speed is doubled, does the centripetal force double? If not, show by what factor does the
centripetal force increase? Ans.: No, factor of 4

1.3 The earth rotates once per day about an axis that passing through the north and south poles, an axis that is
perpendicular to the plane of the equator. Assuming the earth is a sphere with a radius of 6.38 × 106 m, determine
the speed and centripetal acceleration of a person situated:
a. at the equator. Ans.: 463.97 m/s; 0.033 m/s2
b. at a latitude of 30,0° north of the equator. Ans.: 401.81 m/s; 0.029 m/s2

1.4 A car with a constant speed of 83.0 km/h enters a circular flat curve with a radius of curvature of 0.400 km. If the
friction between the road and the car’s tires can supply a centripetal acceleration of 1.25 m/s2, does the car
negotiate the curve safely? Justify your answer.

1.5 A ball on a string swings in a circle of radius 1.20 m at 28o angle with the vertical. The tension in the string is 1.80
N.

28o

1.20 m

a. What is the mass of the ball? Ans.: 0.162 kg

b. How long does the ball take to complete one orbit? Ans.: 2.99 s

1.6 An object of mass m is on a horizontal rotating platform. The mass is located 0.22 m from the center and makes
one revolution every 0.74 s. The friction force needed to keep the mass from sliding is 13 N. What is the object's
mass? Ans.: 0.82 kg

1.7 How large must the coefficient be between the tires and the road if a car is to round a level curve of radius
95 m at a speed of 90 km/h? Ans.: 0.67

1.8 A box rests at a point 2 m from the axis of a horizontal platform.  = 0.25. The angular speed of the platform is
slowly increased from 0 rad/s. At what angular speed will the box starts to slide? Ans.: 1.1 rad/s

1.9 A 4.0 kg mass is attached to one end of a rope 2 m long. If the mass is swung in a vertical circle from the free
end of the rope, what is the tension in the rope when the mass is at its highest point if it is moving with a speed
of 5 m/s? Ans.: 10.8 N

4|Page
1.10 During the spin-dry cycle of washing machine, the motor slows from 95 rad/s to 30 rad/s while turning the drum
through 4320 degrees. What is the magnitude of the angular acceleration of the motor? Ans.: 53.88 rad/s2
1.11 A roulette wheel with a diameter of 2.4 m reaches a maximum linear speed of 21.8 m/s before it begins
decelerating. After reaching this maximum angular speed, it turns through 35 revolutions before it stops. How
long did it take the wheel to stop after reaching its maximum linear speed? Ans.: 24.44 s

1.12 A motorcycle accelerates uniformly from rest and its wheels reach an angular speed of 78 rad.s -1 in a distance of
100 m. The radius of each wheel of the motorcycle is 0.28 m. Calculate the angular as well as the linear
acceleration of each wheel on the motorcycle. Ans.: 8.25 rad/s; 2.38 m/s

1.13 Determine which has the greater angular speed: particle A, which travels 160º in 2.00 s, or particle B, which travel
4π rad in 8.00 s or particle C travel with 13,50 rpm. Ans.: particle B

1.14 The hour, minute and second hands on a clock are 0.25 m, 0.30 m and 0.35 long, respectively. What are the
distances travelled by the tips of the hand in a 30 min interval? Ans.: 65.97 m, 0.94 m, 0.065 m

1.15 A jogger on a circular track that has a radius of 0.250 km runs a distance of 1.00 km. What angular distance does
the jogger cover in (a) radians and (b) degrees? Ans.: 4 rad; 229.30o

1.16 You measure the length of a distant car to be subtended by an angular distance of 1.5º. If the car is actually
5.0 m long, approximately how far away is the car? Ans.: 190.99 m

1.17 An airplane engine starts from rest; and 2 seconds later, it is rotating with an angular speed of 300 rev/min. How
many revolutions does the propeller undergo during this time? Ans.: 5 rev

1.18 An exercise bike that you peddle in place has a bicycle chain connecting the wheel you peddle to the large wheel
in front. For the wheel diameters shown, calculate how many rpm must you produced to turn the large wheel at
75 rpm? Ans.: 30 rpm

1.19 A space station consists of two donut-shaped living chambers, A and B that have the radii shown in the drawing.
As the station rotates, an astronaut in chamber A is moved 240 m along a circular arc. How far along a circular
arc is an astronaut in chamber B moved during the same time? Ans.: 825 m

1.20 A 60 cm-rope is tied to the handle of a bucket which is then whirled in a vertical circle. The mass of
the bucket is 3 kg. At the lowest point in its path, the tension in the rope is 50 N. Calculate the speed
of the bucket at this point. Ans.: 2.03 m/s

5|Page
LEARNING UNIT 2
CHAPTER 9: ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:
9.1 The Action of Forces and Torques on Rigid Objects .................................. p 248 (p 232)
9.2 Rigid Objects in Equilibrium ........................................................................ p 251 (p 234)
9.4 Newton’s Second Law for Rotational Motion About a Fixed Axis ............... p 261 (p 242)
9.5 Rotational Work and Energy ....................................................................... p 269 (p 248)
9.6 Angular Momentum ..................................................................................... p 271 (p 251)

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ Lever arm and the force must always be perpendicular to produce torque.
❖ Draw a free body diagram for the object under consideration.
❖ Choose a direction for the unknown forces. If the answer is negative, it only means that the direction of the
force was chosen incorrectly.
❖ Choose any point for the axis of rotation. It is best to choose the axis at such a point that one or more of the
unknown forces acts through the axis (thus the lever arm is zero and torque produced is also zero).
❖ Use the Moments of Inertia as in Table 9.1 p 244. Note that the Moment of Inertia is axis dependent.

Summary
Leverarm
Shortest (or perpendicular) distance between the axis of rotation and the work line of a force.

Torque
Definition of Torque = (Magnitude of the Force) x (Lever arm)

 = F
SI Unit of Torque: newton x meter (N·m)
The torque is positive when the force tends to produce a counterclockwise rotation about the axis.

A force of 10 N is working on a 1 m beam, with an axis of ration as shown in each of the following sketches. In each
of the following sketches:
• Show the work line of the force.
• Show the leverarm.
• Determine the lenth of the leverarm
• Determine the torque.

6|Page
 90o

30o
Leverarm Leverarm
Torque Torque

120o

Leverarm Leverarm
Torque Torque

Newton’s First Law and Equilibrium

If the net torque acting on a rigid object is zero, it will rotate with a constant angular velocity.
The most significant application of Newton’s First Law in this context is with regard to the concept of equilibrium. When
the net torque acting on a rigid object is zero, the object is not rotating.

Rigid Objects in Equilibrium: If a rigid body is in equilibrium, neither its linear motion nor its
rotational motion changes.

ax = a y = 0  =0

F x =0 F y =0
 = 0
Newton’s Second Law
The angular acceleration of a body is proportional to the torque applied to it. Of course, force is also proportional to
mass, and there is also a rotational equivalent for mass: the moment of inertia, I, which represents an object’s
resistance to being rotated. Using the three variables, , I, and , we can arrive at a rotational equivalent for Newton’s
 Moment of   Angular 
Net external torque = 
 inertia
  
  acceleration

  = I 
Rotational Kinetic Energy
There is a certain amount of energy associated with the rotational motion of a body, so that a ball rolling down a hill
does not accelerate in quite the same way as a block sliding down a frictionless slope. The kinetic energy of a rotating
rigid body is: Ekr=½Iω2.

Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia of a particle spinning a distance r away from its mass is I=mr 2. The axis of rotation is not going
through the object and is not tangential to the object.
r
m

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Example: The Moment of Inertial Depends on Where the Axis Is.

Two particles each have mass and are fixed at the ends of a thin rigid rod. The length of the rod is L. Find the moment
of inertia when this object rotates relative to an axis that is perpendicular to the rod at
(a) one end and (b) the center.

The moment of inertia for a few common shapes – axis of rotation is going through the object or
is tangential to the object.

2
Thin-walled hollow cylinder or hoop, I = MR2 Solid sphere, axis through center , I= MR2
5

1 2
Solid cylinder or disk, I = MR2 Thin-walled spherical shell, axis through center, I = MR2
2 3

Thin rod, axis perpendicular to rod passing through center,

Thin rectangular sheet, axis parallel to one edge and passing
1
I= ML2 1
12 through center of the other edge, I = MR2
12

1 1
Thin rod, axis through one edge, I = ML2 Thin rectangular sheet, axis through one edge, I = MR2
3 3

Angular Momentum
The angular momentum L of a body rotating about a fixed axis is the product of the body’s moment of inertia and its
angular velocity with respect to that axis. The angular momentum vector always points in the same direction as the
angular velocity vector.
L = I
Requirement: The angular speed must be expressed in rad/s. SI Unit of Angular Momentum: kg·m2/s

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Conservation of Angular Momentum
If the net torque action on a rigid body is zero, then the angular momentum of the body is constant or conserved.

I A A = I B B

How would you distinguish between an angular momentum and conservation of energy problem?

Subject Linear Motion Rotational Motion

Mass/Moment of Inertial m I = kmr 2
Force/Torque F  = Fl
Newton Second Law F = ma  = I
Work Done 𝑊 = 𝐹𝛥𝑠 𝑊 = 𝜏𝛥𝜃
Power P = Fv P = w
Momentum P = mv L = Iw
Impulse Impulse = Ft Impulse = t
Kinetic Energy 1 1
KE = mv 2 KE = Iw 2
2 2
1 1 1
Total Mechanical Energy KE = mv 2 + mgh KE = mv 2 + Iw 2 + mgh
2 2 2

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

2.1 A string is wrapped around a pulley of radius 0.10 m and moment of inertia 0.15 kg • m2. The string is pulled with
a force of 12 N. What is the magnitude of the resulting angular acceleration of the pulley? Ans.: 8 rad.s-2
2.2 A wheel rolls five revolutions on a horizontal surface without slipping. If the center of the wheel moves 3.2 m,
what is the radius of the wheel? Ans.: 0.102 m
2.3 Two children are sitting on opposite ends of a uniform seesaw of negligible mass.
a. Can the seesaw be balanced if the masses of the children are different? How?
b. If a 35 kg child is 2.0 m from the pivot point (or fulcrum), how far from the pivot point will her 30 kg playmate
have to sit on the other side for the seesaw to be in equilibrium? Ans.: 2.33 m
2.4 A fixed 0.15 kg solid disk pulley with a radius of 0.075 m is acted on by a net torque of 6.4 N.m. What is the
angular acceleration of the pulley? Ans.: 1.52 x 104 rad/s2
2.5 A 15 kg uniform sphere with a radius of 15 cm rotates about an axis tangent to its surface at 3.0 rad/s. A constant
torque of 10 N.m ten increases the rotational speed to 7.5 rad/s. Through what angle does the sphere rotate
while accelerating? Ans.: 1.12 rad
2.6 A person opens a door by applying a 15 N force perpendicular to it at a distance 0,90 m from the hinges. The
door is pushed wide open (to 120º) in 2 s. (a) How much work was done? (b) What was the average power
delivered? Ans.: 28.22 J, 14.1 W
2.7 A constant torque of 10 N.m is applied to a 10 kg uniform disk of radius 0.20 m. What is the angular speed of the
disk about an axis through its center after it rotates 2.0 revolutions from rest? Ans.: 35.45 rad/s
2.8 In a tumbling clothes dryer, the cylindrical drum (radius 50 cm and mass 35 kg) rotates once every second (a)
Determine its rotational kinetic energy about its central axis. (b) If it started from rest and reached that speed in
2.50 s, determine the average net torque on the dryer drum. Ans.: 172.18 J, 21,96 N.m

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2.9 An industrial flywheel with a moment of inertia of 4.25 x 102 kg·m2 rotates with a speed of 7500 rpm. (a) How
much work is required to bring the flywheel to rest? If this work is done uniformly in 1.50 min, how much power
is expended? Ans.: −1.31 x 108 J; 1.46 x 106 W
2.10 A father gently places his small son on a rotating merry-go-round. The merry-go-round is essentially a disk with
a mass of 250 kg and a radius of 2.50 m initially rotating at one revolution every 5.00 seconds. Assume the boy
has a mass of 15.0 kg and is placed (without slipping) near the edge of the merry-go-round. Determine the final
angular speed of the merry-go-round/boy combination. Ans.: 1,12 rad/s
2.11 A turntable with moment of inertia 5.4 x 10−3 kg.m2 rotates freely with angular speed of 33.33 rpm. Suddenly, a
cute 36 g mouse falls on the rim of the turntable, 15 cm from the center. Calculate the angular speed of the
turntable after the mouse falls on it. Ans.: 28,98 rpm.
2.12 A skater has a moment of inertia of 100 kg·m2 when his arms are outstretched and a moment of inertia of
75 kg·m2 when his arms are tucked in close to his chest. If he starts to spin at an angular speed of 2,0 rps
(revolutions per second) with his arms outstretched, what will his angular speed be when they are tucked in?
Ans.: 16.57 rad/s
2.13 An ice skater spinning with outstretched arms has an angular speed of 4.0 rad/s. She tucks in her arms,
decreasing her moment of inertia by 7.5%.
a. What is the resulting angular speed? Ans.: 4.33 rad/s
b. By what factor does the skater’s kinetic energy change? (Neglect any frictional effects.) 1.084
c. Where does the extra kinetic energy come from?
2.14 A 2.0 kg solid cylinder of radius 0.5 m rotates at a rate of 40 rad/s about its cylindrical axis. What power is required
to bring the cylinder to rest in 10 s? Ans.: 20 W
2.15 A block of mass 0,05 kg is attached to a cord passing through a hole in a horizontal frictionless surface, as in the
drawing. The block is originally revolving at a distance of 0.2 m from the hole, with an angular velocity of
3 rad/s. The cord is then pulled from below, shortening the radius of the circle in which the block revolves to
0,1 m. The block may be considered a point mass.
a. What is the new angular velocity? Ans.: 12 rad/s
b. What is the change in kinetic energy of the block? Ans.: 0,027 J

2.16 The sign below is 4,5 m long, weighs 1350 N, and is made of uniform material. A weight of 225 N hangs 1 m
from the end. Find the tension in each support cable. Ans.: 1125N; 450 N

1m 2m 1,5 m

Larry’s Barber and Styling

1m

2.17 A 3,0-kg ball and a 1.0 kg ball are placed at opposite ends of a massless beam so that the system is in
equilibrium as shown. Note: The drawing is not drawn to scale. What is the ratio of the lengths, b/a? Ans.: 4

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2.18 The span of a certain bridge is 32.0 m long and has a mass of 5.38 x 104 kg. A truck of mass 11 700 kg is
stopped 11.4 m from one end. Find the upward force that must be exerted by each pier. Ans.: 3.04 x 105 N;
3.38 x 105 N
11,4 m 20,6 m

16 m
Pier P Pier Q
FBridge

2.19 A solid sphere of radius 0.35 m is released from rest from a height of 1.8 m and rolls down the incline as
shown. What is the angular speed of the cylinder when it reaches the horizontal surface? Ans.: 14.34 rad/s

1,8 m

2.20 A spinning skater draws in her outstretched arms thereby reducing her moment of inertia by a factor of 2.
Determine the ratio of her final kinetic energy to her initial kinetic energy. Ans.: 2
2.21 A thin-walled hollow cylinder and a solid cylinder of the same mass, m and same radius, r start from rest at the
same time of an incline of height ho = 65 cm. Show with the necessary calculation that solid cylinder will reach
the bottom of the incline first with the greatest translational speed . Ans.: 2.90 m/s; 2.52 m/s

2.22 In this drawing, the large wheel has a radius of 8.5 m. A rope is wrapped around the edge of the wheel and a
7.6 kg box hangs from the rope. A smaller disk of radius 1.9 m is attached to the wheel. A rope is wrapped
around the edge of the disk as shown. An axis of rotation passes through the centre of the wheel disk system.
What is the value of the mass M that will prevent the wheel from rotating? Ans.: 34 kg

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2.23 Uniform 20 kN beam of length L is hinged at point P as shown in the sketch. Calculate the tension in the rope
3
attached L from P. Ans.: 22.402 kN
4

2.24 A solid cylindrical 5.00 kg reel with a radius of 0.600 m and a frictionless axle, starts from rest and speeds up
uniformly as a 3.00 kg bucket falls into a well, making a light rope unwind from the reel (Fig. below). The bucket
starts from rest and falls for 4.00 s. (a) What is the linear acceleration of the falling bucket? (b) How far does it
drop? (c) What is the angular acceleration of the reel? Ans.: 5.35 m/s2; 42.8 m; 8.91 rad/s2

2.25 Consider the following diagram. The 4420 N crate is being lifted by a motor through the duel pulley system. The
pulleys are fastened together, have radii r1 = 0.6 m and r2 = 0.2 m and turn as a single unit with moment of inertia
I = 50 kg.m2. If a tension of magnitude T1 = 2150 N is maintained in the cable connected to the motor, calculate:

a. The angular acceleration of the pulley. Ans.: 5,967 rad/s2

b. The linear acceleration of the crate. Ans.: 1,1934 m/s2
c. The tension in the cable attached to the crate. Ans.: 4958,25 N

T1 r1

r2
motor

crate

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LEARNING UNIT 3
CHAPTER 10: SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND ELASTICITY
Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:
10.1 The Ideal Spring and Simple Harmonic Motion ...................... p 286 (p 267)
10.2 Simple Harmonic Motion and the Reference Circle ............... p 290 (p 270)
10.3 Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion ..................................... p 295 (p 275)
10.7 Elastic Deformation ................................................................ p 303 (p 282)
10.8 Stress, Strain, and Hooke’s Law ............................................ p 308 (p 286)

Summary
Angular Frequency
Angular frequency, f, is defined as the number of circular revolutions in a given time interval. It is commonly measured
in units of Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 s–1. For example, the second hand on a clock completes one revolution every 60
seconds and therefore has an angular frequency of 1 /60 Hz.

The relationship between frequency and angular velocity is:  = 2f .

Angular Period
Angular period, T, is defined as the time required to complete one revolution and is related to frequency by the
equation: T = 1 .
f

Restoring force of spring

F= - kx
F- restoring force of spring (The force applied by spring to pull/push it back to equilibrium position)
k- spring constant
x- displacement of the spring

Simple harmonic motion

The vibration motion in which a system obeys Hooke’s law. Oscillates with a constant amplitude.

Resonance
Resonance is the condition in which a time-dependent force can transmit large amounts of energy to an oscillating
object, leading to large-amplitude motion. Resonance occurs when the frequency of the force matches the natural
frequency at which the object will oscillate.

Displacement, velocity and acceleration

Displacement of SHM: x = A cos t with  = 2f. Because  is directly proportional to f, it is often called angular
frequency.
Velocity of SHM: v = −A sin t. (vmax = A)

Acceleration of SHM: a = −A2 cos t. (amax = A2)

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 30
x = 5 cos (2t)
20 v = −10 sin (2t)
a = −20 cos (2t)
10
x
0 v
0 0.785 1.57 2.355 3.14 3.925 4.71 5.495 6.28 7.065 a
-10

-20

-30

The angular frequency with which a mass m on a spring will vibrates (frequency of vibration):

k
 = 2f =
m

Elastic potential energy

E = ½kx2 . The energy stored in a stretched or compressed spring.

Conservation of energy
½kx12 + ½mv12 + mgh1 = ½kx22 + ½mv22 + mgh2

For a simple pendulum:

g
 = 2f =
L

Elasticity
Elasticity is the property by which a body returns to its original size and shape when the forces that deformed it are
removed.

Elastic deformation:

F L
= Y ( ) Y - Young’s modulus. (F is perpendicular to the area A)
A Lo

F X
Shear deformation: = S( )
A Lo
S - Shear modulus (F is parallel to the area A)

F V
Bulk deformation: ( ) = P = B( )
A Vo
B- Bulk modulus

F L
Hookes law: Stress  strain, ( )
A Lo

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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:
3.1 A 0,5 kg mass attached to a spring with a spring constant of 8 N/m vibrates in simple harmonic motion with an
amplitude of 10 cm. Calculate the:
a. maximum value of its speed and acceleration Ans.: 0,4 m/s; 1,6 m/s2
b. speed and acceleration when the mass is 6 cm from the equilibrium position. Ans.: −0,32 m/s; 0,97 m/s2

3.2 A 1,0 kg object is suspended from a spring with k = 16 N/m. The mass is pulled 0,25 m downward from its
equilibrium position and allowed to oscillate. What is the maximum kinetic energy of the object? Ans.: 0,5 J

3.3 A certain spring compressed 0,20 m has 10 J of elastic potential energy. The spring is then cut into two halves
and one of the halves is compressed by 0,20 m. How much potential energy is stored in the compressed half of
the spring? Ans.: 20 J

3.4 A spring with constant k = 40,0 N.m-1 is at the base of a frictionless, 30,0° inclined plane. A 0,50 kg block is
pressed against the spring, compressing it 0,20 m from its equilibrium position. The block is then released. If the
block is not attached to the spring, how far along the incline will it travel before it stops? Ans.: 0,326 m

0.5 kg
30.0°

3.5 Gina's favourite exercise equipment at the gym consists of various springs. In one exercise, she pulls a handle
grip attached to the free end of a spring to 0,80 m from its unstrained position. The other end of the spring (spring
constant = 53 N/m) is held in place by the equipment frame. What is the magnitude of the force that Gina is
applying to the handle grip? Ans.: 42,4 N
3.6 A spring is mounted as in the figure. By attaching a spring balance to the free end and pulling sideways, it is
determined that the force is proportional to the displacement, a force of 4,00 N causing a displacement of
0,02 m. A 2,00 kg body is attached to the end, pulled aside a distance of 0,04 m, and released.
X=0

a. What is the spring constant of the spring? Ans.: 200 N/m

b. What is the frequency of vibration, and the period? Ans.: 10 rad/s; 0,63 s
c. What is the maximum velocity attained by the vibrating body? Ans.: 0,4 m/s
d. What is the maximum acceleration of the body? Ans.: 4 m/s
e. Calculate the velocity when the body moved halfway in towards from its initial position? Ans.: 0,35 m/s
f. How much time is required for the body to move halfway in toward from its initial position? Ans.: 0.105 s

3.7 A ping-pong ball weighs 0,025 N. The ball is placed inside a cup that sits on top of a vertical spring. If the spring
is compressed 0,055 m and released from rest, the maximum height above the compressed position that the ball
reaches is 2,84 m. Neglect air resistance and determine the spring constant. Ans.: 47 N/m

compressed
position

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3.8 When a 19.6 N block is suspended from a vertically hanging spring, it stretches the spring from its original length
of 5 cm to 6 cm. The same block is attached to the same spring and placed on a horizontal, frictionless surface.
The block is then pulled so that the spring stretches to a total length of 0,10 m. The block is released at time t =
0s and undergoes simple harmonic motion, as in the sketch.

a. What is the frequency of the motion? Ans.: 4,98 Hz

b. What is the speed of the block each time the spring is 5,0 cm long? Ans.: 2,71 m/s
c. What is the maximum acceleration of the block? Ans.: 97,91 m/s

3.9 The acceleration of a block attached to a spring is given by: a = – 0.302cos (2,41t) m/s2.
a. What is the frequency of the block’s motion? Ans.: 0,384 Hz
b. What is the Amplitude of the block’s motion? Ans.: 0,0519 m

3.10 A vertical spring with spring constant 450 N/m is mounted on the floor. From directly above the spring, which is
unstrained, a 0.3 kg block is dropped from rest. It collides and sticks to the spring, which is compressed by
2.5 cm in bringing the block to a momentary halt. Assuming air resistance is negligible; from what height above
the compressed spring was the block dropped? Ans.: 0,048 m

3.11 A pendulum is transported from sea-level, where the acceleration due to gravity g is 9.80 m/s2, to the bottom of
Death Valley. At this location, the period of the pendulum is decreased by 3.00%. What is the value of g in Death
Valley?

3.12 A 500 N object is hung from the end of a wire of cross-sectional area 0.010 cm2. The wire stretches from its
original length of 200.00 cm to 200.50 cm. Determine the Young's modulus of the wire. Ans.: 2.0 x 1011 N/m2

3.13 The brick shown in the drawing is glued to the floor. A 3500 N force is applied to the top surface of the brick as
shown. If the brick has a shear modulus of 5.4  109 N/m2, how far to the right does the top face move relative to
the stationary bottom face? Ans.: 2.6  10–6 m

0.10 m 3500 N

0.10 m 0.25 m

3.14 Find stress, strain and young modulus of elasticity in the case of a wire 1.5 m long & 1mm in cross section, if it is
increased by 1.55 mm in length when a weight of 10 kg is suspended from it. Ans: 124.78 × 106 N/m2,
1.03 × 10−3, 1.21 × 1011 N/m2.
3.15 The radius of a sphere of lead (B = 4.2 x 1010 N/m2) is 1.000 m on the surface of the earth where the pressure is
1.01 x 105 N/m2. The sphere is taken by submarine to the deepest part of the ocean to a depth where it is
exposed to a pressure is 1.25 x 108 N/m2. What is the volume of the sphere at the bottom of the ocean?
Ans: 4.176 m3.
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LEARNING UNIT 4
CHAPTER 14: THE IDEAL GAS LAW AND KINETIC THEORY
Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:
14.1 Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s Number ............. p 417 (p 394)
14.2 The Ideal Gas Law ................................................................. p 419 (p 396)
14.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases ......................................................... p 424 (p 399)
14.4 Diffusion .................................................................................. p 429 (p 403)

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ The pressure in the Ideal Gas Law is the absolute pressure and not the gauge pressure.
❖ The temperature used in the Ideal Gas Law must be in Kelvin.
❖ Guy-Lussa’c Law is not in the textbook. It can also be derived from the Ideal Gas Law, like Boyle’s Law.
P1 P2
For Guy-Lussac’s Law, n and V must be constant then: = .
T1 V2

Summary
Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s Number
One mole of a substance contains as many particles as there are atoms in 12 grams of the isotope cabron-12.
The number of atoms per mole is known as Avogadro’s number, NA.

N A = 6.022 1023 mol−1

N
n= number of Atoms
NA (or molecules) in a sample
number of
moles
Avogadro’s number

mparticle N mass of the sample m

n= = =
mparticle N A Mass per mole Mr

Mass per mole mass of the sample

mparticle = mparticle =
NA N
Example 1 (Text Book)

The Hope diamond (44.5 carats) is almost pure carbon. The Rosser Reeves ruby (138 carats) is primarily aluminum
oxide (Al2O3). One carat is equivalent to a mass of 0.200 g. Determine (a) the number of carbon atoms in the Hope
diamond and (b) the number of Al2O3 molecules in the ruby.

17 | P a g e
The Ideal Gas Law
The absolute pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature and the number of moles of the
gas and is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.

PV = nRT R = 8.31J (mol  K ) - Universal gas constant

 R 
PV = nRT = N  T = NkT
 A
N

R 8.31J (mol  K )
Boltzman _ cons tan t , k = = = 1.38  10−23 J K
N A 6.022  10 mol
23 −1

In the equation everything MUST be in SI units

Universal gas law

P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
In the above equation Temperature must be in the SI unit (Kelvin). Pressure and volume can be in any unit though
pressure must be absolute pressure and not gauge pressure.

Boyle’law Gay lussac’s law Charle’s law

Pressure is indirectly proportional to Pressure is directly proportional to Volume is directly proportional to
volume if temperature and mass is temperature if volume and mass is temperature if pressure and mass is
kept constant. kept constant. kept constant.
P1 P2 V1 V2
= =
P1V1 = P2V2 T1 T2 T1 T2

Kinetic theory of gases

Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules in a material. Because individual molecules are so
small, and because there are so many molecules in most substances, it would be impossible to study their behaviour
individually. However, if we know the basic rules that govern the behaviour of individual molecules, we can make
statistical calculations that tell us roughly how a collection of millions of molecules would behave. This, essentially, is
what thermal physics is: the study of the macroscopic effects (temp. ,volume and pressure) of the microscopic
molecules that make up the world of everyday things.

The distribution of particle speeds in an ideal gas at constant temperature is the Maxwell speed distribution. The
kinetic theory of gases indicates that the Kelvin temperature T of an ideal gas is related to the average translational
kinetic energy of a particle.

PV =
2
( ) 2 1
N E k = N  mv rms
3 2
2 
 vrms – root-mean square speed.
3 

The average particle speed squared. The kinetic energy in the equation is the average kinetic energy of the gas as a
whole, a property of the gas and not a property of a single gas particle individually.

2 1 2 1 2 3
PV = NkT  NkT = N ( mvrms )  mvrms = kT
3 2 2 2

KE = 12 mvrms
2
= 32 kT

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Internal energy of a monatomic gas
1 2 3 3 3
U = N ( mvrms )  U = N ( kT ) = NkT  U = nRT
2 2 2 2
Diffusion
Is the process in which molecules move from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration.

Fick’s law of diffusion

The mass m of solute that diffuses in a time t through a solvent contained in a channel of length L and cross sectional
area A is

m=
(DAC )t
Diffusion constant concentration gradient
L between ends
SI Units for the Diffusion Constant: m2/s

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

4.1 A runner weighs 580 N, and 71% of this weight is water. (a) How many moles of water are in the runner’s body?
(b) How many water molecules (H2O) are there? Ans.: 2.3 x 103 mol, 1.4 x 1027

4.2 A mass of 135 g of a certain element is known to contain 30.1 x 10 23 atoms. What is the element?
Ans.: Aluminum

4.3 The artificial sweetener NutraSweet is a chemical called aspartame (C 14H18N2O5). What is (a) its molecular mass
(in atomic mass units), (b) the mass (in kg) of an aspartame molecule? Ans.: 294.31 u, 4.89 x 10–25 kg

4.4 In a diesel engine, the piston compresses air at 305 K to a volume that is one-sixteenth of the original volume
and a pressure that is 48,5 times the original pressure. What is the temperature of the air after the compression?
Ans.: 925 K

4.5 What is the density (in kg/m3) of nitrogen gas (N2) at a pressure of 2.0 atmospheres and a temperature of
310 K? Ans.: 2.2 kg/m3

4.6 Atmosphere is composed primarily of Nitrogen N2 (78%, M = 28 g/mol) and Oxygen O2 (21%, M = 32 g/mol)
a. Is the kinetic energy of Nitrogen greater than, less than, or the same as the kinetic energy of Oxygen?
Explain your answer with the aid of equations.
b. Is the rms speed of Nitrogen greater than, less than, or the same as the rms speed of Oxygen. Explain
your answer with the aid of equations.
4.7 What is the root-mean-square speed of a hydrogen molecule (H2) at 300 K? Ans.:1.92 x 103 m/s

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4.8 If the translational rms speed of the water vapor molecules (H2O) in air is 648 m/s, what is the translational rms
speed of the carbon dioxide molecules (CO2) in the same air? Both gases are at the same temperature.
Ans.: 414 m/s

4.9 Very fine smoke particles are suspended in air. The translational rms speed of a smoke particle is
2.8 x 10 – 3 m/s, and the temperature is 301 K. Find the mass of a particle. Ans.: 1,6 x 10-15 kg

4.10 An oxygen molecule is moving near the earth’s surface. Another oxygen molecule is moving in the ionosphere
(the uppermost part of the earth’s atmosphere) where the Kelvin temperature is three times greater. Determine
the ratio of the translational rms speed in the ionosphere to that near the earth’s surface. Ans.: 1,73

4.11 Near the surface of Venus, the rms speed of carbon dioxide molecules (CO 2) is 650 m/s. What is the temperature
(in kelvins) of the atmosphere at that point? Ans.: 750 K

4.12 Insects do not have lungs as we do, nor do they breathe through their mouths. Instead, they have a system of
tiny tubes, called tracheae, through which oxygen diffuses into their bodies. The tracheae begin at the surface
of the insect’s body and penetrate into the interior. Suppose that a trachea is 1.9 mm long with a cross-sectional
area of 2.1 x 10– 9 m2. The concentration of oxygen in the air outside the insect is 0.28 kg/m3, and the diffusion
constant is 1.1 x 10 – 5 m2/s. If the mass per second of oxygen diffusing through a trachea is 1.7 x 10 – 12 kg/s,
find the oxygen concentration at the interior end of the tube. Ans.: 0.14 kg/m3

4.13 Ammonia, which has a strong smell, is diffusing through air contained in a tube of length L and cross-sectional
area 4.0 x 10 – 4 m2. The diffusion constant for ammonia in air is 4.2 x 10 – 5 m2/s. In a certain time, 8.4 x 10 – 8 kg
of ammonia diffuses through the air when the difference in ammonia concentration between the ends of the tube
is 3.5 x 10 – 2 kg/m3. Find the speed at which ammonia diffuses through the air—that is, the length of the tube
divided by the time to travel this length. Ans.: 7.0 x 10-3 m/s

4.14 It is found that the amino acid glycine diffuses through water at a mass rate of m/t = 6.00 x 104 kg/s. The diffusion
constant is 10.6 x 10-10 m2/s. A tube of water has a radius of 1.4 cm. What difference in concentration per unit
length of the tube C/L must be maintained to give this flow? Ans.: 9.19 x 1016 kg/m

4.15 A frictionless gas-filled cylinder is fitted with a movable piston, as the drawing shows. The block resting on the
top of the piston determines the constant pressure that the gas has. The height h is 0.120 m when the
temperature is
273 K and increases as the temperature increases. What is the value of h when the temperature reaches 318
K? Ans.: 0,14 m

4.16 Suppose that a tank contains 680 m3 of neon at an absolute pressure of 1,01 x 10 5 Pa. The temperature is
changed from 293,2 to 294,3 K. What is the increase in the internal energy of the neon? Ans.: 3.9 x 105 J

4.17 Consider two ideal gases, A and B, at the same temperature. The rms speed of the molecules of gas A is twice
that of gas B. How does the molecular mass of A compare to that of B? Ans.: 4

4.18 An ideal gas at 0 °C is contained within a rigid vessel. The temperature of the gas is increased by 1 C°. What
is Pf/Pi the ratio of the final to initial pressure? Ans.: 1,004

20 | P a g e
LEARNING UNIT 5
CHAPTER 15: THERMODYNAMICS
Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:
15.1 Thermodynamic Systems and Their Surroundings ............... p 442 (p 417)
15.2 The Zeroth Law of thermodynamics ...................................... p 443 (p 417)
15.3 The First Law of thermodynamics ......................................... p 443 (p 418)
15.4 Thermal Processes................................................................ p 446 (p 420)
15.5 Thermal Processes Using an Ideal Gas ................................ p 449 (p 423)
15.6 Specific Heat Capacities ....................................................... p 451 (p 424)
15.7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics ................................... p 452 (p 426)
15.8 Heat Engines ......................................................................... p 453 (p 427)
15.9 Carnot’s Principle and the Carnot Engine ............................. p 455 (p 428)
15.10 Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps ................. p 457 (p 430)
15.11 Entropy .................................................................................. p 460 (p 433)

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ Heat is positive when the system gains heat, and negative if the system looses heat.
❖ Work is positive when the system is doing the work, and it is negative if the work is done on the system.
❖ The area under a pressure-volume graph is the work for any kind of process.
❖ When determining the efficiency of a Carnot Engine, be sure that the temperature of the cold an hot
reservoirs are in Kelvin.
❖ No heat engine (even a perfect heat engine) can have an efficiency of 100%.
❖ An air conditioner and a heat pump are the reverse of each other.

Summary
Dynamics is the study of why things move the way they do. The prefix thermo denotes heat, so thermodynamics is the
study of what compels heat to move in the way that it does. The laws of thermodynamics are a bit strange. There are
four of them, but they are ordered zero to three, and not one to four. They weren’t discovered in the order in which
they’re numbered, and some—particularly the Second Law—have many different formulations, which seem to have
nothing to do with one another.

Zeroth Law
If system A is at thermal equilibrium with system C, and B is at thermal equilibrium with system C, then A is at thermal
equilibrium with B.

Two systems are at thermal equilibrium if they have the same

temperature. If A and C have the same temperature, and B and C
have the same temperature, then A and C have the same
temperature. The significant consequence of the Zeroth Law is that,
when a hotter object and a colder object are placed in contact with
A C B
one another, heat will flow from the hotter object to the colder object
until they are in thermal equilibrium.

First Law
U = U f − U i = Q − W
Heat (Q) is positive when the system gains heat and negative when the system loses heat.
Work (W) is positive when it is done by the system and negative when it is done on the system.

U – INCREASE/DECREASE in internal energy, U = nRT

W- Work done BY/ON the system, W = PV

21 | P a g e
 Q
W=PV
U
The area under a pressure-volume graph is the work for any kind of process.

The First Law is just another way of stating the law of conservation of energy. Both heat and work are forms of energy,
so any heat or work that goes into or out of a system must affect the internal energy of that system.

Thermal processes

Quasi-static process
A thermal process that occurs so slowly, that uniform pressure and temperature exist throughout the system at all
times.

ISOBARIC PROCESS
A process taking place at constant pressure. Ex: process in container with movable lid/piston.

W = PV = nRΔT
5
Q = U + W = nRT
2
V1 V2
=
T1 T2

ISOCHORIC PROCESS

A process taking place at constant VOLUME. No work done!

W = PV = 0
3
Q = U = nRT
2
Pi Pf
=
Ti T f

22 | P a g e
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS

Heat bath
No temperature change
3
U = nRT = 0
2
Vf Vf
1 V 
Q = W = PV = V PdV = nRT V V dV = nRT ln Vif 

i i

PiVi = Pf V f

ADIABATIC PROCESS

Insulator
No heat transfer (Q=0)
3
W = –U = – nRT
2
3
W=– nR(Tf – Ti)
2
3
W= nR(Ti – Tf)
2
 
PiVi = Pf V f

Derive equation for the relations to show relation between P and T, and the relation between V and T in an
adiabatic process from the equation P1V1 = P2V2

Thermal Gas law Change in Work done by Heat added to

processes relation internal the system the system
(∆U = Q - W) energy
Isobaric Vi V f ∆U =
3
nR∆T W = P∆V, Q = ∆U + W
= W= nR∆T 5
(∆P = 0: Pi = Pf) Ti T f 2 Q= nR∆T
2
Isochoric Pi Pf ∆U =
3
nR∆T W=0J Q = ∆U =
3
nR∆T
=
(∆V = 0: Vi = Vf) Ti T f 2 2

Isothermal PiVi = Pf V f ∆U = 0 J W= P ʃ dV V
Q = W= nRT ln  f


(∆T = 0: Ti = Tf) V   Vi 
W = nRT ln  f 
 Vi 
  W = – ∆U,
Adiabatic PiVi = Pf V f ∆U =
3
nR∆T Q=0J
(Q = 0J ) 2 3
γ=C /C W=– nR∆T
P V 2

23 | P a g e
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES

m
Q = mcT = cMT = nCT
M

Qconstant pressure = U + W = 32 nR(T f − Ti ) + nR(T f − Ti ) = 52 nRT
   


Qconstant volume = U + W = 32 nR(T f − Ti ) + 0 = 32 nRT
  

For a monatomic gas

3
QP = nC P T = nRT
2
5
QV = nCV T = nRT
2
5 CP 5
CP = R and CV =
3
R , with  = = and CP − CV = R
2 2 CV 3

Heat Engines

What is a heat engine?

A heat engine is a machine that converts heat into work. A large number of the machines we use—most notably our
cars—employ heat engines.

A heat engine is any device that uses heat to perform work. It has three essential features.
1. Heat is supplied to the engine at a relatively high temperature from a place called the hot reservoir.
2. Part of the input heat is used to perform work by the working substance of the engine.
3. The remainder of the input heat is rejected to a place called the cold reservoir.

The engine of a car generates heat by combusting petrol. Some of that heat drives pistons that make the car do work
on the road, and some of that heat is dumped out the exhaust pipe.

The steam engine is an example of a heat engine. In the boiler the water becomes steam, which pushes a piston, and
external work is done. In the condenser the steam becomes a liquid again. This water is returned to the boiler by
pumping. The water is thermally cycled.

Efficiency or coefficient of performance = Output/input

Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage rather than in decimal form. That the efficiency of a heat engine can
never be 100% is a consequence of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. If there were a 100% efficient machine, it
would be possible to create perpetual motion: a machine could do work upon itself without ever slowing down.

24 | P a g e
Carnot’s principle

No irreversible engine operating between two reservoirs at constant temperatures can have a greater efficiency than a
reversible engine operating between the same 2 temperatures. Furthermore, all reversible engines operating between
the same temperatures have the same efficiency.
QC TC
=
QH TH
Heat engine

QH = W + QC

QH = magnitude of input heat

QC = magnitude of rejected heat

W = magnitude of the work done

QC TC
Use = to derive an equation for e for a Carnot engine in terms of T H and Tc:
QH TH

output W QH − QC Q T
e= = , eCarnot = =1− C =1− C
input QH QH QH TH

Refrigerator / Aircon during Summer

QH = W + Qc COP = Qc/W
QC TC
Use = to derive an equation for COP for a Carnot refrigerator in terms of TH
QH TH
and Tc:

output QC
COP = =
input W
−1 −1 −1
QC  Q − QC   QH  T 
COPCarnot = = H  = − 1 =  H − 1
QH − QC  QC   QC   TC 

25 | P a g e
Heat Pump / Air conditioner during Winter

Q H = W + QC COP = QH/W
QC TC
Use = to derive an equation for cop for a Carnot heat pump in terms
QH TH
of TH and Tc:

output QH
COP = =
input W
−1 −1 −1
QH  Q − QC   QC   TC 
COPCarnot = = H  = 1 −  = 1 − 
QH − QC  QH   QH   TH 

What is the relation between COPheat pump and eheat engine?_________________________________________

Second Law

The Second Law in Terms of Heat Flow

Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter object to a colder one, but not spontaneously in the opposite direction.

The Second Law in Terms of Heat Engines

One consequence of this law, which we will explore a bit more in the section on heat engines, is that no machine can
work at 100% efficiency: all machines generate some heat, and some of that heat is always lost to the machine’s
surroundings.

Entropy
The word entropy was coined in the 19th century as a technical term for talking about disorder.
Q
S = Q – Heat transfer TO the system. T – Temperature in Kelvin.
T

The Second Law in Order-disorder statement

System goes from order to disorder spontaneously, but it can never goes from disorder to order spontaneously.

The Second Law in entropy statement

Suniverse>0 for a irreversible process.
Suniverse=0 for a reversible process.

26 | P a g e
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:
5.1 A quantity of carbon monoxide gas is slowly adiabatically compressed in an insulated container to one-half of
its initial volume. The ratio of the specific heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume, cP/cV, for
carbon dioxide is approximately 1.3. Determine the final pressure of the gas if the initial pressure is 2.0 x 105
Pa.
Ans.: 4.93 x 105 Pa
5.2 The pressure of a monatomic ideal gas (γ = 1,67) doubles during an adiabatic compression. What is the ratio of
the final volume to the initial volume? Ans.: 0.66
5.3 A monatomic ideal gas (γ = 1.67) is contained within a perfectly insulated cylinder that is fitted with a movable
piston. The initial pressure of the gas is 1.5 x 105 Pa. The piston is pushed so as to compress the gas, with the
result that the Kelvin temperature doubles. What is the final pressure of the gas? Ans.: 8.49 x 105 Pa
5.4 The work done by one mole of a monatomic ideal gas (γ = 1.67) in expanding adiabatically is 825 J. The initial
temperature and volume of the gas are 393 K and 0.100 m3. Obtain (a) the final temperature and (b) the final
volume of the gas. Ans.: 327 K; 0.132 m3
5.5 An engine is run in reverse as a heat pump. An identical engine (with the same values of Q H, QC and W as the
first engine) is run in reverse as a refrigerator. The coefficient of performance of the heat pump is three times
greater than the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator. Obtain the coefficient of performance of the
refrigerator, coefficient of performance of the heat pump, and the efficiency of the engine. Ans.: 0.5; 1.5; 66%
5.6 Engine 1 has an efficiency of 0.18 and requires 5500 J of input heat to perform a certain amount of work. Engine
2 has an efficiency of 0.26 and performs the same amount of work. How much input heat does the second
engine require? Ans.: 3800 J
5.7 A Carnot engine has an efficiency of 0.700, and the temperature of its cold reservoir is 378 K. (a) Determine the
temperature of its hot reservoir. (b) If 5230 J of heat is rejected to the cold reservoir, what amount of heat is put
into the engine? Ans.: 1260 K, 1.74 x 104 J
5.8 A refrigerator, Heat pump, and Air-conditioner operates between temperatures of 296K and 275 K. What would
be their maximum coefficient of performances? Ans.: 13 ; 14
5.9 The temperatures indoors and outdoors are 299 and 312 K, respectively. A Carnot air conditioner deposits
6.12 x 105 J of heat outdoors. How much heat is removed from the house? Ans.: 5.86 x 105 J
5.10 To keep a room at comfortable 21 oC, a Carnot heat pump does 345J of work and supplies it with 3240J of heat.
a. How much heat is removed from the outside air by the heat pump? Ans.: 2895 J
b. What is the temperature of the outside air? Ans.: 262.7 K
c. What is the coefficient of performance of the heat pump? Ans.: 9.39
5.11 On a cold day, 24 500 J of heat leaks out of a house. The inside temperature is 21 °C, and the outside
temperature is –15 °C. What is the increase in the entropy of the universe that this heat loss produces?
5.12 In an isothermal process 2.33 moles of an ideal gas is compressed to one-fifth of its initial volume at 285 K.
What quantity of heat is added to, or removed from, the system during this process? (State also whether this
heat is removed or added.) Ans.: –8.89 x 103 J, removed
5.13 The compression ratio of a certain diesel engine is 15. This means that air in the cylinders is compressed to
1/15 of its initial volume. The initial pressure is 1.0 x 105 Pa and the initial temperature is 300 K. The final
temperature is 886 K. Air is mostly a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, and  = 1.40.
a. Find the final pressure after compression. Ans.: 4.43 x 106 Pa
b. How much work does the gas do during the compression if the initial volume of the cylinder is
1.0 x 10–3 m3? Ans.: –292.3 J
c. Is this work done on the system or by the system? Give a reason for your answer. Ans.: Negative; gas
is compressed, then work is done on the system
5.14 From a hot reservoir at a temperature of T1, Carnot engine A takes an input heat of 5550 J, delivers 1750 J of
work, and rejects heat to a cold reservoir that has a temperature of 503 K. This cold reservoir at 503 K also
serves as the hot reservoir for Carnot engine B, which uses the rejected heat of the first engine as input heat.
Engine B also delivers 1750 J of work, while rejecting heat to an even colder reservoir that has a temperature
of T2. Find the temperatures T1 and T2. Ans.: 734.65K; 271.36 K
5.15 An engine is used to lift a 2700 kg truck to a height of 3.0 m at constant speed. In the lifting process, the engine
received 3.3 x 105 J of heat from the fuel burned in its interior. What is the efficiency of the engine?
Ans.: 24.05%

27 | P a g e
5.16 The engine of a Ferrari F1 sports car takes air in at 20 oC and 1 atm, and then compresses it adiabatically to
0,09 times its original volume. The air may be treated as an ideal gas with  = 1.4. Calculate the final temperature
and pressure of the air in the engine. Ans.: 767.66 K; 2.95 x 106 Pa
5.17 An ideal monatomic gas expands isothermally from state A to state B. It then cools at constant volume to state
C. The gas is then compressed isobarically to D where it is then heated until it returns to state A.

a. What is the internal energy of the gas at point B? Ans.: 3.03 x 103 J
b. What is the pressure of the gas when it is in state B? Ans.: 5.05 x 105 Pa
c. What is the temperature of the gas when it is in state C (in °C)? Ans.: –33.04°C
d. What is the ratio of the internal energy of the gas in state C to that in state A? Ans.: 0.4
e. How much work is done on the gas as it is compressed isobarically from state C to D? Ans.: –404 J
f. What is the net amount of work done after one complete cycle? Ans.: 996.37 J

5.18 A cylinder with a piston contains 0.25 mole of ideal oxygen at pressure 2.4 x 105 Pa and temperature 355 K.
The gas first expands isobarically to twice its original volume. It is then compressed isothermally back to its
original volume and finally it is cooled isochorically to its original pressure.
a. Show the series of the process on a PV diagram.
b. Calculate the initial volume of the gas. Ans.: 3.07 x 10–3 m3
c. Calculate the temperature during the isothermal process. Ans.: 708.9 K
d. Calculate the maximum pressure. Ans.: 4.8 x 105 Pa
e. Calculate each of the following:

Work done by oxygen Change in internal energy Heat transfer to oxygen

Initial isobaric expansion (i). (ii). (iii).
Isothermal compression (iv). (v). (vi).
Isochoric cooling (vii). (viii). (ix).

5.19 A refrigerator has a coefficient of performance of 2,1. In each cycle it absorbs 3,4 x 104 J of heat from the cold
reservoir. (a) How much work is done in each cycle? (b) In each cycle, how much heat is discarded to the high
temperature reservoir? Ans.: 16190.48 J; 50190 J

5.20 A first year student with nothing better to do add heat to 0.35 kg ice at 0 oC until it’s all melted. The source of
the heat is a very massive body at a temperature of 25 oC. Lf = 33.5x104 J/kg.
a. What is the change in entropy of the water? Ans.: 429.5 J/K
b. What is the change in entropy of the hot object? Ans.: –393.5 J/K
c. Does the above (negative) answer contradict the 2nd law – entropy statement?
d. Is this process reversible or irreversible? Explain your answer.

28 | P a g e
LEARNING UNIT 6
CHAPTER 20: ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
After completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:
Explain Alternating Current
Define Alternating Voltage, Alternating Current
Define Power and Average Power.
Define rms Voltage and Current.
Define Kirchoff’s Loop Rule and Junction Rule.
Explain the different connections of capacitors.
Explain what an RC circuit is.
Explain what happens to the charge in an RC circuit when the capacitor is charging and discharging.
Define the charge on the capacitor plates when the capacitor charges and discharges.
Define the time constant.
Apply the reasoning strategy in solving Kirchoff problems.
Solve Alternating Current, Kirchoff, equivalent capacitance and RC circuit problems.

Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:

20.5 Alternating current .................................................................. p 611 (p 585)
20.10 Kirchoff’s Rules ....................................................................... p 623 (p 596)
20.12 Capacitors in Series and Parallel ........................................... p 628 (p 601)
20.13 RC Circuits ............................................................................. p 630 (p 603)

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ When calculating the angle of the alternating voltage, the calculator should be set to Radian mode.
❖ The rms values are not the same as peak values. RMS values are smaller by a factor of 2.
❖ Outside a battery, conventional current is always directed from a higher potential (+) toward a lower
potential (-).
❖ In Kirchoff calculations, it is always helpful to mark the resistors with plus and minus signs to keep track of
the potential rises and drops in the circuit.
❖ All capacitors in series, regardless of their capacitances, contain charges of the same magnitude, +q and –
q, on their plates.

Alternating current
More electric circuit uses battery and involved Direct Current (dc).However, there are more circuits that operate with
Alternating Current (ac). In an AC circuit, the charge flow reverses direction periodically. The ac generators serve the
same purpose as the battery serves in a dc circuit that is they give energy to the moving charges. Electric outlets in a
house provide ac current, we all use ac circuit regularly.

29 | P a g e
Alternating current and Voltage

V = Vo sin(2ft)
I = I o sin(2ft)
P = I rmsVrms (Average power)
I V
I rms = o Vrms = o
2 2

Application of Kirchhoff’s rules

1. Name currents and choose direction of currents. The current can be in any direction and not necessary the
direction of the actual current in the circuit.
2. Go along each current in each branch. The head of the resistor will be “+” and the tail of the resistor “-“.

3. Set up equations (junction rule and loop rule).

Junction rule
The sum of the magnitude of the currents going into the junction equals the sum of the magnitude of the currents
going out of the junction: ∑ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑛 .

Loop rule

Around any closed circuit-loop, the sum of the potential drops equals the sum of the potential rises: ∑ 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = ∑ 𝑉𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 .

30 | P a g e
Reasoning and Strategy

Concept Question and Answers for Kirchhoff’s Rule Application:

1. Draw the current in each branch of the circuit. Choose any direction.

Question: The currents through the three resistors are labeled I1, I2, and I3. Does it matter which direction has been
chosen for each current?
Answer: No, it doesn’t matter. If we initially select the wrong direction for a current, there is no problem. The value
obtained for that particular current will turn out to be negative number, indicating that the actual current is in the
opposite direction.

2. Mark each resistor with + (positive) at one end and – (negative) at the other end in a way that is consistent with
your choice for current direction in step 1. Outside a battery, conventional current is always directed from a higher
potential (the end marked +) to a lower potential (the end marked –).

Question: When place the + and − signs at the ends of each resistor, does it matter which end is + and which − ?
Answer: Yes, it does matter. Once the direction of the current has been selected, the + and − signs must be chosen
so that the current goes from + end towards the − end of the resistor. Notice that this is the case for resistors in the
figure.

3. Notice that in one of the three loops in the circuit does not have battery on it.

Question: Does it matter that there is no battery in the loo (i.e. loop 1), but only resistors?
Answer: No, it doesn’t matter. A loop can have any number of batteries, including none at all.

4. When we evaluate the potential rises and drops around a closed loop,

Question: Does it matter which direction, clockwise and counter-clockwise, is chosen for the evaluation?
Answer: No, it doesn’t matter, the direction is arbitrary. If we choose a clockwise direction, for example, we will have
a certain number of potential drops and rises. If we choose a counter-clockwise direction, all the potential drops
becomes potential rises, and vice versa.

5. Apply the junction rule and the loop rule to the circuit, obtaining in the process as many independent equations as
there are unknown variables. Solve these equations simultaneously for the unknown variables.

Now use the circuit above to calculate the currents I1, I2, and I3.

31 | P a g e
Capacitance

Chaerge (q) q
Capacitance (C ) =  C = , S.I. Unit is Farad (F)
Voltage (V ) V
Capacitors in series and parallel
A capacitor is a device for storing charge, made up of two parallel plates with a space between them. The plates have
an equal and opposite charge on them, creating a potential difference between the plates. A capacitor can be made of
conductors of any shape, but the parallel-plate capacitor is the most common kind. In circuit diagrams, a capacitor is
represented by two equal parallel lines.

Series Parallel
1 1 1 1
= + + Ct = C1 + C2 + C3
CT C1 C 2 C 3
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 VT = V1 = V2 = V3
qT = q1 = q2 = q3 qT = q1 + q2 + q3

Energy of a capacitor
1 1 1 q2
E= qV = CV 2 =
2 2 2 C

Charging a Capacitor Discharging a Capacitor

40
40
35
35
30
30
25
25
20
20
15 15
10 10
5 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

−t −t
q = q 0 (1 − e RC ) q = q0 e RC
−t −t
V = V0 (1 − e RC
) V = V0 (1 − e RC
)
−t −t
I = I 0e RC I = I 0e RC

Time constant of capacitor

Time it takes a capacitor to charge to/lose 63.2% of its maximum charge.

 = RC

32 | P a g e
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

6.1 A light bulb is connected to a 120.0-V wall socket. The current in the bulb depends on the time t according to
the relation I = (0.707 A) sin [(314 Hz)t ].

a. What is the frequency of the alternating current? Ans.: 50 Hz

b. Determine the resistance of the bulb’s filament. Ans.: 240 Ω
c. What is the average power delivered to the light bulb? Ans.: 60 W

6.2 The figure shows variation of the current through the heating element with time in an iron when it is plugged
into a standard 120 V, 60 Hz outlet.

a. What is the peak voltage? Ans.: 169,71 V

b. What is the rms value of the current in this circuit? Ans.: 7,07 A

6.3 A portion of a circuit is shown, with the values of the currents given for some branches. What is the direction
and magnitude of the current I?

6.4. Find the currents I1, I2, and I3 in the circuit shown in Figure below. Ans.: 2 A, –3 A, –1A

33 | P a g e
6.5. A dead battery is charged by connecting it to the live battery of another car with jumper cables (Figure below).
Determine:
a. the current in the starter, in the live battery and in the dead battery, Ans.: 0,85 A down the starter;
0,46 A down the dead battery; 1,31 A up the live battery.
b. the power delivered to starter (8,00 Ω resistor). Ans.: 5,78 W

6.6. Under steady state conditions (situation in which no current present in any branch of the circuit containing a
capacitor). use below circuit to calculate the following:
a. the unknown currents in the multi loop circuit shown in the figure below. (Use the labels as given and the
currents as indicated in the figure) Ans.: 1,39 A; −0,37 A; 1,02 A
b. the charge on the capacitor. (Hint: Use the loop rule). Ans.: 66 µC

6.7 Determine the voltage across the 0,06 Ω resistor in the drawing, and which end of the 0,06 Ω resistor is at the
higher potential (x or y)? Ans.: 10,26 V

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6.8 Three resistors and two batteries are connected as shown in the circuit diagram. What are the magnitudes of
the currents I1, I2, I3? [Use loop ABCDEFA and CDEFC and the directions of the currents as indicated].
Ans.: 0,14 A; 0, 53 A; 0,67 A.

6.9. In the following circuit diagram calculate the following:

a. the resistance, R2 Ans.: 6,5 Ω

b. the current, I5 Ans.: 15 A
c. the resistance, R3. Ans.: 3,5 Ω

6.10 For the circuit shown in the drawing, find the current I through the 2,00 Ω resistor and the voltage V of the
battery to the left of this resistor. Ans.: 5,00 A; 46,0 V.

6.11. Find the equivalent capacitance between points A and B for the group of capacitors connected as shown in
Figure below. Take C1 = 5,00 µF, C2 = 10,0 µF, and C3 = 2,00 µF. Ans.: 6,05 µF

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6.12. For the system of capacitors shown in Figure below, find the following:

a. the equivalent capacitance of the system, Ans.: 3,33 µF

b. the charge on each capacitor, Ans.: 120 µC; 120 µC; 180 µC; 180 µC
c. the potential across each capacitor, Ans.: 60 V; 30 V; 60V; 30 V
d. the total energy stored by the group. Ans.: 0,0135 J
6.13. Four identical capacitors are connected with a resistor in two different ways. When they are connected as in part
(a) of the drawing, the time constant to charge up this circuit is 0,72 s. What is the time constant when they are
connected with the same resistor as in part (b)? Ans.: 0,29 s
C C C

R R C C
C C C

+ − + −

(a) (b)

6.14. An RC circuit consists of a resistor, R with resistance 1,0 k, a 120 V battery, and two capacitors, C1 and C2,
with capacitances of 20 µF and 60 µF, respectively. Initially, the capacitors are uncharged; and the switch is
closed at t = 0 s.

a. What is the current through the resistor a long time after the switch is closed? Explain your reasoning.
Ans.: 0A; Capacitors are fully charged
b. What is the time constant of the circuit? Ans.: 0,08 s
c. How much charge will be stored in each capacitor after a long time has elapsed? Ans.: 2,4 mC; 7,2 mC
d. Determine the total charge on both capacitors two time constants after the switch is closed.
Ans.: 8,3 mC (2,1 mC; 6,2 mC)

6.15 The figure shows a simple RC circuit consisting of a 100,0 V battery in series with a 10,0 µF capacitor and a
resistor. Initially, the switch S is open and the capacitor is uncharged. Two seconds after the switch is closed,
the voltage across the resistor is 37 V.

a. What is the voltage across the capacitor after 2 s? 63 V

b. Determine the numerical value of the resistance R. Ans.: 4,33 x 105 
c. How much charge is on each plate of the capacitor 2,0 s after the switch is closed? Ans.: 3,70 x 10−4 C

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LEARNING UNIT 7
CHAPTER 23: ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS
After completion of this learning unit you should be able to:
Explain what capacitive reactance is.
Define capacitive reactance.
Explain what inductive reactance is.
Define inductive reactance.
Explain what an LCR circuit is.
Explain what impedance is.
Define impedance.
Define phase angle.
Define power factor.
Solve LCR circuit problems.

Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:

23.1 Capacitors and Capacitive Reactance ................................... p 726 (p 697)
23.2 Inductors and Inductive Reactance ........................................ p 729 (p 699)
23.3 Circuits Containing Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance ...... (p 701)

Know the following concepts:

✓ Capacitive reactance
✓ Capacitive reactance against frequency graph
✓ Phasor diagrams
✓ Inductive reactance
✓ Inductive reactance against frequency graph
✓ LCR circuit
✓ RMS voltage
✓ Impedance
✓ Power factor

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ The average power used by a capacitor in an ac circuit is zero.
❖ The average power used by an inductor in an ac circuit is zero.
❖ On average, only the resistor uses power in an LCR circuit.
❖ In an LCR circuit, the rms voltages across the resistor, capacitor, and inductor do not add up to equal the
rms voltage across the power supply.
❖ The impedance against frequency graph, is a combination of the capacitive reactance and inductive
reactance graphs.

Summary

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 Resistor Capacitor Inductor
Resistance constant 1 X L = 2fL
Xc =
2fC
Inductive reactance indirectly Inductive reactance indirectly
proportional to frequency proportional to frequency
In alternating current circuit:

Current and voltage are in phase Current leads the voltage by 90o Current lags the voltage by 90o
Energy conversion Energy stored in electric field Energy stored in magnetic field
(Φ=-90o) (Φ=90o)

LRC Phasor Diagrams

These Phasors rotate anticlockwise at a frequency f.

In a series RLC circuit, the total opposition to the flow is called
the impedance.
VL − VC X L − X C
tan  = = Vrms = I rmsZ
VR R
Impedance
 = 0,  XL = XC,  > 0,  XL > XC,  < 0,  XL < XC
Resistors in series RCL circuit
RT = R 1 + R 2 + R3
Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )2
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
VT = V R + (V X L − V X C ) 2
2

IT = I1 = I2 = I3 IT = I1 = I2 = I3
In an inductor and a capacitor energy is stored and then released. Therefore, on average, the power is zero. It uses or
convert no energy in a circuit. The only energy conversion takes place in the resistor.

P = IVresistor = IVT cos . Where cos is called the power factor.

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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

7.1 An ac generator is connected across the terminals of a 3.25 µF capacitor. Determine the frequency at which
the capacitive reactance is 495 . Ans.: 98.93 Hz
7.2 A series RCL circuit operating at 60.0 Hz contains a 35  resistor and an 8.2 µF capacitor. If the power factor
of the circuit is +1.00, what is the inductance of the inductor in this circuit? Ans.: 0.86 H
7.3 The following table gives the reactance and rms voltage across the elements of a series RCL circuit:
Circuit element Reactance Voltage across element
resistor 200  86 V
capacitor 663  285 V
inductor 377  162 V
a. What is the rms current in the circuit? Ans.:0.43 A
b. What is the impedance of the circuit? Ans.: 348.99 
c. Determine the peak (not rms) voltage of the ac generator. Ans.: 212.22 V
d. What is the power factor for this circuit? Ans.:0.57
e. What is the average power consumed by the circuit? Ans.:36.78 W
7.4 A capacitor of 2,65 F is connected to a 110 V 60 Hz power supply.
a. What is the capacitive reactance? Ans.: 1 000.97 
b. When the capacitor is connected with 175  resistor, what is the circuit impedance? Ans.: 1 016.15 
c. What effective current flows? Ans.: 0.11 A
d. What is the phase angle? Ans.: -80.08°
e. Does the voltage lags the current or does the current lags the voltage? Ans.: Voltage lags current
7.5 An ac generator supplies a rms (not peak) voltage of 180 V at 60 Hz. It is connected in series with a 0.5 H
inductor, a 6,0 µF capacitor and an 300  resistor.
a. Determine the peak voltage of the generator. Ans.: 254.56 V
b. What is the impedance of the circuit? Ans.: 392.83 
c. What is the peak (not rms) current through the resistor? Ans.: 0.65 A
d. What is the phase angle for this circuit? Ans.: -40,21°
e. What is the average power supplied to the circuit? Ans.: 63.18 W
7.6 A series RCL circuit operating at 35 Hz contains a 45 Ω resistor and a 327 mH inductor. If the power factor of
the circuit is + 0.707, determine the capacitance of the capacitor in this circuit? Ans.: 168.97 µF
7.7 In a series RLC circuit, the applied voltage has a maximum value of 120 V and oscillates with a frequency of
60 Hz. The circuit contains an inductor whose inductance can be varied, R = 800 , and C = 4 F. Determine
the value of inductance, L such that the voltage across the inductor is out of phase with the applied voltage by
300, with Vmax leading VR, as in the phasor diagram below. Ans.: 5.43 H

7.8 The graph shows the voltage across and the current through a single circuit element connected to an ac
generator.

a. Determine the frequency of the generator. Ans.: 12.5 Hz

b. Determine the rms voltage across this element. Ans.: 70.004 V
c. Determine the rms current through this element Ans.: 1.98 A
d. Identify the circuit element. Explain your reasoning.
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LEARNING UNIT 8
CHAPTER 21: MAGNETIC FORCES AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
After completion of this learning unit you should be able to:
Explain what a magnetic field is.
Explain how a magnetic field exert a force on a charge.
Define the magnetic field.
Explain the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field.
Define the radius of the circular trajectory motion.
Explain the working of the mass spectrometer.
Explain the force acting on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field.
Define the force acting on the current carrying wire.
Explain the torque on a current carrying coil.
Define the torque on the current carrying coil.
Explain the working of a dc electric motor.
Explain how currents produce magnetic fields.
Define the magnetic field produced by a:
• long straight wire
• loop of wire
• solenoid
Solve Magnetic Force and Magnetic Field problems.

Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:

21.1 Magnetic Fields ..................................................................... p 647 (p 621)
21.2 The Force that a Magnetic Field exerts on a Moving Charge..p 649 (p 622)
21.3 The Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field ........... p 652 (p 626)
21.5 The Force on a Current in a Magnetic Field ........................... p 656 (p 630)
21.6 The Torque on a Current-Carrying Coil .................................. p 660 (p 634)
21.7 Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents ................................. P 662 (p 636)

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ The direction of the magnetic field at any point in space is the direction indicated by the north pole of a small
compass needle placed at that point.
❖ A charged particle will only experience a magnetic force if the charge is moving and it has a velocity
component perpendicular to the magnetic field.
❖ The magnetic force, velocity of the charge and the magnetic field are always perpendicular with each other.
❖ If the charge is negative, then the magnetic force acting on the charge is opposite to the direction of the
force acting on a positively charged particle.
❖ When a current carrying loop is placed in a magnetic field, the loop tends to rotate such that its normal
becomes aligned with the magnetic field.
❖ Do not confuse the formula for the magnetic field produced at the centre of a circular loop with that of a very
long straight wire. These equations are similar, but they are not the same.

❖ NB: When describing direction – use words like:

Out of the page
Into the page
To the top of the page
To the bottom of the page
To the left, Right of the page.
DO NOT USE UP or DOWN – UP OR DOWN DOES NOT REALLY SAY WHETHER YOU MEAN

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Summary
There is a single force—the electromagnetic force—that governs the behavior of both magnets and electric charges.

The Earth’s Magnetic Field

The Earth itself acts like a huge bar magnet. The presence of a magnetic field around the Earth allows us to use
compasses that point northward, and creates a spectacular aurora over the northern and southern skies.

Definition of the Magnetic Field

The magnitude of the magnetic field at any point in space is defined as
F
B=
qo (v sin  )
where the angle (0<θ<180o) is the angle between the velocity of the charge and the direction of the magnetic field.

SI Unit of Magnetic Field: Tesla

Magnetic Force on Charges

Magnetic field strength is measured in teslas (T).

Force on a positive charge in a magnetic field,  - angle between B and v F = qvB sin

Force on conventional current magnetic field,  - angle between B and L F = BIL sin

Right Hand Rule Number. 1

Extend the right hand so the fingers point along the direction of the
magnetic field and the thumb points along the velocity of the charge. The
palm of the hand then faces in the direction of the magnetic force that acts
on a positive charge.

If the moving charge is negative, the direction of the force is opposite to that
predicted by RHR-1.

Exercise1: Complete the following table (from (a) to (d)) for charged particles in a magnetic field:
Magnetic field Magnetic force Charge Velocity of Charged Particle
Into the page To the bottom of the page Negative (a)
(b) To the right of the page Positive To the top of the page
To the left of the page (c) Positive Out of the page
To the top of the page To the left of the page (d) Into the page

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As long as the particle’s velocity vector is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the force vector will be perpendicular
to both the velocity vector and the magnetic field. As we saw in the chapter on circular motion and gravitation, a force
that always acts perpendicular to the velocity of an object causes that object to move in circular motion with radius r.
2
v
Fc = m
r

v2
qvB = m
r

mv
r=
qB
(radius of charge in constant B)

Exercise 2: Two charged particles are traveling in circular orbits with the same speed in a region of uniform magnetic
field that is directed into the page, as shown. The magnitude of the charge on each particle is identical, but the signs of
the charges are opposite. Which one of the entries in the table below is correct?

x x x x x x x x

x x x x x x x x
Q1 R2 Q2
x x R1 x x x x x x

x x x x x x x x
Mass Relationship Sign of charge Q1 Sign of charge Q2
A. m1 = m2 – +
B. m1 < m2 – +
C. m1 > m2 – +
D. m1 > m2 + –
E. m1 < m2 + –

Torque on current-carrying coil

magnetic
 moment

 = NIA B sin 
Number of turns of wire

(Torque on N loops with area A in magnetic field B,

 - angle between perpendicular to area (normal) and B.

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Right-Hand Rule No. 2. Curl the fingers of the right hand into the shape of a half-circle. Point the thumb in the
direction of the conventional current, and the tips of the fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field.

Magnetic fields produced by currents

Straight conductor Loop of wires Solenoid

0 I 0 I N
B= B=N B = 0nI n =
2r 2R L

Force between 2 current carrying wires

F = BIL sin
 I
F = 0 IL sin
2r

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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

8.1 Two long, straight, parallel wires separated by a distance d carry currents in opposite directions as shown in the
figure. The bottom wire carries a current of 6 A. Point C is at the midpoint between the wires and point O is a
distance 0,5d below the 6 A wire as suggested in the figure. The total magnetic field at point O is zero tesla.

d C
6A

O
a. Determine the value of the current, I, in the top wire. Ans.: 18 A
b. Determine the magnitude of the magnetic field at point C if d = 0,10 m. Ans.: 9,6x10-5 T
8.2 The figure shows two concentric metal loops, each carrying a current. The larger loop carries a current of
8,0 A and has a radius of 0,06 m. The smaller loop has a radius of 0,04 m. What is the value of a current in the
smaller loop that will result in zero total magnetic field at the centre of the system? Ans.: 5,33 A
8,0A

0,04m

0,06m

8.3 A single circular loop of wire with radius 0,020 m carries a current of 8,0 A. It is placed at the centre of a solenoid
that has length 0,65 m, and 1400 turns, as in the diagram below. Calculate the value of the current in the solenoid
so that the magnetic field at the centre of the loop is zero tesla. Ans.: 9,29 x 10-2 A

8.4 The radius of a coil of wire with N turns is r = 0,22 m. A current Icoil = 2 A flows clockwise in the coil, as shown. A
long, straight wire carrying a current I wire = 31 A toward the left is located 0,05 m from the edge of the coil. The
magnetic field at the center of the coil is zero tesla. Determine N, the number of turns. Ans.: 4 turns

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8.5 A rectangular loop has sides of length 0,06 m and 0,08 m. The wire carries a current of 10 A in the direction
shown. The loop is in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0,2 T and directed in the positive x direction. What
is the magnitude of the torque on the loop? Ans.:8,31 x 10−3 N.m

8.6 Four long, straight wires are parallel to each other; and their cross-section forms a square. Each side of the
square is 0,02 m as shown in the figure. If each wire carries a current of 8,0 A in the direction shown in the figure,
determine the magnitude of the total magnetic field at P, the center of the square. Ans.: 2,26 x 10−4 T

8.7 A long, straight wire carries a 10,0 A current in the +y direction as shown in the figure.

Next to the wire is a square copper loop that carries a 2,0 A current as shown. The length of each side of the
square is 1,0 m.

a. What is the magnitude of the net magnetic force that acts on the loop? Ans.: 1.67 x 10−5 N
b. What is the direction of the net magnetic force that acts on the loop? Ans.: Towards the wire

8.8 A circular coil consists of 5 loops, each of diameter 1,0 m. The coil is placed in an external magnetic field of
0,5 T. When the coil carries a current of 4,0 A, a torque of magnitude 3,93 N.m acts on it. Determine the angle
between the normal to the plane of the coil and the direction of the magnetic field. Ans.: 30,02°

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LEARNING UNIT 9
CHAPTER 22: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
After completion of this learning unit you should be able to:
Explain what electromagnetic induction is.
Explain what Induced EMF and Induced current is.
Explain the 3 ways how induced current can be produced.
Explain what motional EMF is.
Define motional EMF.
Explain what magnetic flux is.
Explain Lenz’s Law.
Define Lenz’s Law.
Explain the working of an electric generator.
Explain what counter torque and Back EMF is.
Explain what a transformer is.
Solve Motional EMF, Faraday’s Law, electric generator, Back EMF and transformer problems.

Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:

22.1 Induced EMF and Induced Current ...................................... p 686 (p 660)
22.2 Motional EMF ........................................................................ p 688 (p 661)
22.3 Magnetic Flux ........................................................................ p 692 (p 664)
22.4 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction ........................ p 695 (p 667)
22.5 Lenz’s Law ............................................................................. p 698 (p 670)
22.7 The Electric Generator .......................................................... p 702 (p 674)
22.9 Transformers ......................................................................... p 711 (p 681)

Know the following concepts:

✓ Induced current/EMF
✓ Changing magnetic field
✓ Electromagnetic induction
✓ Motional EMF
✓ Magnetic flux
✓ Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction
✓ Induced magnetic field
✓ Lenz’s Law
✓ Counter torque
✓ Back EMF
✓ Two sources of emf for an electric motor.
✓ Transformer equation
✓ Step up/Step down transformer
✓ Power of transformer

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ The direction of the current induced is such that a magnetic force acts on the rod to oppose its motion, thereby
slowing it down.
❖ The minus in Faraday’s Law is a reminder that the polarity of the induced emf sends the induced current in
the proper direction to give rise to the opposing magnetic force.
❖ The magnetic flux is determined by the magnitude of B, A as well as the angle of the normal (of the coil) to
the magnetic field:  = BA cos
❖ In the equation E0 = NAB, the angular frequency  must be in rad.s-1.
❖ The current in an electric motor depends on both the applied EMF, V, and any back emf, E, developed
because the coil of the motor is rotating.
❖ A transformer that steps up the voltage simultaneously steps down the current and vice versa.

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 Summary
Faraday’s law for electromagnetic induction

 ( BA cos  )
 = −N = −N
t t

B cos  ( A2 − A1 )
A cos  ( B2 − B1 )  = −N
 = −N t
t BA(cos 2 − cos 1 )
 = −N
t
Lenz’s law
The induced emf resulting from a changing magnetic flux () has a polarity that leads to an induced current whose
direction is such that the induced magnetic field opposes the original flux change.

1. Direction of Bexisting (N→S or RHR2)

2. decrease or increase ( = BAcos)

3. Binduced same direction as Bexisting or opposite direction

4. RHR2 to determine the direction of induced current.

Motional emf


 = −N
t
( BA cos  )
 = −N
t
BA B(l  s )
 =− =−
t t
Bls
 == − = −vBL
t

Where does the electrical energy comes from?

Even if it is a frictionless track on which the bar moves, the hand must still move it because of the opposing magnetic
force. Lenz’s law: Existing magnetic field into the book, flux increase, induced magnetic field out of the book, induced
current CC. RHR1: Current to top of bar (top of page), existing magnetic field into book, F magnetic to the left.

47 | P a g e
 Electric motor (21.6) Electric generator (22.7) TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMERS EQUATIONS
I s Vp N p
= =
I p Vs N s
Electrical energy Mechanical energy converted to
A transformer that steps up the voltage simultaneously
converted to electrical energy
steps down the current, and a transformer that steps
mechanical energy
down the voltage steps up the current.
 = NIAB sin  = NAB sint
I=
V −
(Ohm’s law)  = 2ft Average Power P, delivered to the Primary is always
R the same as that delivered to the Secondary.
P = I sVs = I pVp

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

9.1 An emf is induced in a conducting loop of wire 1.12 m long and resistance 3 , as its shape is changed from a
square to a circle. The change in shape occurs in 4.25 s and the local 0.105 T magnetic field is perpendicular
to the plane of the loop. What is the average magnitude of the induced emf? Ans.: 0.000523 V
9.2 A circular coil of wire has 25 turns and has a radius of 0,075 m. The coil is located in a variable magnetic field
whose behavior is shown on the graph. At all times, the magnetic field is directed at an angle of 75° relative to
the normal to the plane of a loop. What is the average emf induced in the coil in the time interval from t = 5,00 s
to 7,50 s? Ans.: 0.018 V

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9.3 The area of a 333-turn conducting coil is 7,85 x 10−3 m2. The resistance of the coil is 10,4 . If the coil is oriented
as shown in a magnetic field B, at what rate in ∆B/∆t should the magnitude of B change to induce a current of
2,50 x 10-3 A in the coil? Ans.: 0.0155 T/s

9.4 A uniform magnetic field passes through two areas, A1 and A2. The angles between the magnetic field and the
normals of areas A1and A2 are 30,0° and 60,0°, respectively. If the magnetic flux through the two areas is the
same, what is the ratio A1/A2? Ans.: 0,58
9.5 A flexible, circular conducting loop of radius 0,15 m and resistance 4,0  lies in a uniform magnetic field of
0,25 T. The loop is pulled on opposite sides by equal forces and stretched until its enclosed area is essentially
zero m2, as suggested in the drawings. It takes 0,30 s to close the loop.

a. Determine the magnitude of the emf induced in the loop. Ans.: 5,89 x 10−2 V
b. At what rate is heat generated in the loop? Ans.: 8,67 x 10−4 W
c. What is the direction of the induced current and induced magnetic field while the loop is being stretched?
Ans.: B-Into page, I-Clockwise

9.6 A permanent magnet is moved away from a loop of wire as indicated in the diagram. The external circuit attached
to the loop consists of a resistance R.

a. What is the direction of the magnetic field lines through the loop due to the magnet? Ans.: To the right
b. What is the direction of the induced magnetic field lines (through the loop of wire)? Ans.: To the right
c. In which direction does the induced current flow through the resistor R, (A to B, or B to A)? Ans.: B to A
d. Which, A or B, is the positive of the induced emf? Ans.: B

9.7 A circuit is pulled with a 16 N force toward the right to maintain a constant speed v. At the instant shown, the
loop is partially in and partially out of a uniform magnetic field that is directed into the paper. As the circuit moves,
a 6.0 A current flows through a 4.0 Ω resistor.

x x x x x x

x x x x x
R
x x x x x v

x x x x x x

a. In which direction is the induced current flows around the circuit?

b. Calculate the magnitude of speed v? Ans: 9.0 m/s

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9.8 In two situations below, a metal ring is dropped from rest below a bar magnet that is fixed in position as suggested
in the figure A and B. In figure A an observer views the ring from above, while in figure B an observer views the
ring from below. In each of the situations below, determine which direction does the induced current flow through
the loop of the metal ring?

Figure A Figure A

9.9 A five-sided object, whose dimensions are show in the drawing, is placed in a uniform magnetic field. The magnetic
field has a magnitude of 0.25 T and points along the positive y –direction. Calculate the flux through each of the
five sides. Ans: 0 Wb, 0 Wb, 0 Wb, 0.090 Wb, 0.090Wb.

9.10 A power plant produces a voltage of 6 kV and 150 A. The voltage is stepped up to 240 kV by a transformer
before it is transmitted to a substation. The resistance of the transmission line between the power plant and the
substation is 75 . What is the current in the transmission line from the plant to substation? Ans: 3,75 A

9.11 A transformer is used to increase the line voltage of 120 V to the 24 000 V accelerating potential required by a
colour television picture tube. The primary coil has 100 turns. How many turns does the secondary coil have?
Ans.:20 000 turns

9.12 A transformer has 10 turns and 100 turns, respectively, in its primary and secondary coils.
a. When 5,0 A flows in the secondary circuit, what minimum current must exist in the primary coil?
Ans.: 50 A
b. Is this a step up or a step down transformer? Give a reason for your answer. Ans.: Step up; Ns > Np

9.13 The coil of an ac motor has a resistance of 4.1 ohms. The motor is plugged into an outlet where the voltage is
120 volts (rms), and the coil develops a back emf of 118 volts (rms) when rotating at normal speed. The motor is
turning a wheel. Find (a) the current when the motor first starts up and (b) the current when the motor is operating
at normal speed. Ans: 29 A, 0.49 A

9.14 A motor is designed to operate on 117 V and draws a current of 12.2 A when it first starts up. At its normal
operating speed, the motor draws a current of 2.30 A. Obtain (a) the resistance of the armature coil, (b) the back
emf developed at normal speed, and (c) the current drawn by the motor at one-third normal speed.
Ans: 9.59 A, 95 V, 8.90 A

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LEARNING UNIT 10
CHAPTER 30 & 32: THE NATURE OF THE ATOM, IONISING
RADIATION, NUCLEAR ENERGY, AND ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
After completion of this learning unit you should be able to:
Explain the different types of X-rays.
Explain how X-rays are produced.
Explain what the LASER is.
Explain how a LASER works.
Explain what Ionising Radiation is.
Explain the effects of Ionising Radiation on humans.
Explain what Induced Nuclear Reactions is.
Explain what Nuclear Fission is.
Explain the different types of Chain Reactions.
Explain what Nuclear Reactors are.
Explain the 3 types of Nuclear Reactors.
Explain the working of a Nuclear Power station (with the aid of a sketch).
Explain what Nuclear Fusion is.
Explain the difficulties of building a Nuclear Fusion reactor.
Solve LCR circuit problems.

Study the following paragraphs in the textbook:

30.7 X-Rays .................................................................................... p 955 (p 919)
30.8 The Laser .............................................................................. p 959 (p 923)
32.1 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation ............................... p 1004 (p 967)
32.2 Induced Nuclear Reactions ................................................. p 1008 (p 969)
32.3 Nuclear Fission .................................................................... p 1010 (p 971)
32.4 Nuclear Reactors ................................................................. p 1012 (p 973)
32.5 Nuclear Fusion .................................................................... p 1014 (p 975)

Know the following concepts:

✓ Characteristic X-rays
✓ Bremsstrahlung
✓ Spontaneous emission and Stimulated emission
✓ Population inversion
✓ Metastable
✓ Ionising radiation
✓ Exposure
✓ Short and Long term effects
✓ Radiation sickness
✓ Induced nuclear transmutation
✓ Nuclear fission
✓ Chain reaction (2 types)
✓ Fuel elements
✓ Reactor core
✓ Moderator
✓ Control rods
✓ Reactor (3 types)
✓ Nuclear Power Station
✓ Nuclear Fusion
✓ Thermonuclear reactions
X-rays
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A Draw a named sketch of a x-ray tube and explain how X rays are formed.
X rays are formed when electrons from a heated filament is accelerated through a large potential difference.
The electrons collide with a target metal contained in a vacuum. If the electron has enough energy, it knocks
out an electron from the K shell of the target metal.
An electron from a higher energy level fills the empty space and releases an X ray photon

B. Name three types of X-rays that are formed and explain how each one is formed
K X rays: X rays formed when an electron from the n = 2 energy level fill the empty space.
K X rays: X rays formed when an electron from the n = 3 energy level fill the empty space.
Bremsstrahlung: X rays formed when, an electron, decelerates when hitting the target metal.

The laser
A. What does the word “laser” mean?
Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

B. When does emission occur?

When an electron makes a transition from a higher energy state to a lower energy state and emits a photon
C. Name the two types of emission processes and explain how each happens.
Spontaneous emission: A photon is emitted spontaneously in random direction.
Stimulated emission: An incoming photon stimulates the electron to change energy levels.
D. Name a condition for stimulated emission to occur.
The incoming photon must have an energy that exactly matches the difference in energy between the two
energy levels.
E. State the three important features of stimulated emission
One photon goes in and two photons come out.
The emitted photon travels in the same direction as the incoming photon.
The emitted photon has the same phase as the incoming photon.

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F. Explain population inversion
When more electrons are exited to a higher energy state than remain in the lower energy state.

G. Define a metastable state

A higher energy state in which electrons remain for a longer period than in an ordinary exited state.

H. Draw a named sketch and explain the working of the helium/neon laser
A high voltage is discharged across a low pressure mixture of 15% helium and 85% neon in a cylindrical tube.
An atom spontaneously emits a photon parallel to the axis of the tube.
This photon stimulates another atom to emit two photons parallel to the tube axis.
These two stimulate the emission of four others and so on.
The ends of the tube are silvered to form mirror that reflects the photons back and forth through the mixture to
ensure continuous stimulation.
One end is only partially silvered so that some photons escape to form the laser beam.

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Biological effects of ionising radiation

A Define each of the following:

i Ionising radiation:
Radiation that consists of photons that have sufficient energy to knock an electron from an atom to form
an ion.

ii Exposure:
Measure of ionisation produced in air. Defined as the total charge per unit mass of air:
q
Exposure = in C/kg
m

B Name the two categories that the effects of radiation can be divided into and explain each.
Short term effects: effect that appear within minutes, day or weeks
Long term effects: effect that appear years, decades or centuries later

C What is radiation sickness and give at least three examples.

The acute effects of radiation. Examples: nausea, vomiting, fever, diarrhoea, loss of hair

Induced nuclear reactions

A Define each of the following:

i Nuclear reaction:
When an incident particle induces a change in the nucleus of the target material
ii Induced nuclear transmutation:
When the incident particle induces a transmutation from one element into another element
iii Thermal neutrons:
Neutrons with a kinetic energy of 0,04 eV or less

Nuclear fission

A Define each of the following:

i. Nuclear fission and give one example:
The splitting of a massive nucleus into two smaller nuclei.
Example:
1
0 n + 235
92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr +3 0 n
141 92 1

ii Chain reaction:
A series of nuclear fissions whereby the neutrons produced causes additional fissions.

iii Controlled chain reaction

By limiting the number of neutrons in the environment the fissions can be controlled so that only one
neutron fissions another nucleus. By doing this the chain reaction and the rate of production are
controlled.

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Nuclear reactors
A What is a nuclear reactor?
A type of furnace in which energy is generated by a controlled fission chain reaction.
B Name and discuss the three basic components of a nuclear reactor
Fuel elements: Contain the fissile, fuel such as Uranium
May be in the shape of thin rods about 1 cm in diameter.
In a large power reactor there may be thousands of fuel elements placed together- it is then
called the reactor core
Moderator Material that slows down or moderates the speed of the neutrons so that they can fission
additional nuclei.
Commonly used moderator is water.
Energetic neutrons collide with the water molecules and losses energy with each collision.
Control rods Can be moved into or out of the reactor core.
Contains an element such as boron or cadmium that absorbs neutrons without fissioning.
C Define the following:
i. Critical reactor
When each fission leads to one additional fission and the reactor produces, a steady output of energy it
is called a critical reactor.
ii Sub critical reactor
When on average each fission leads to less than one additional fission and the reactor eventually dies
out it is called a sub critical reactor
iii Super critical reactor
When each fission leads to more than one additional fission and the energy released by the reactor
increases, it is called a super critical reactor.

D Discuss (with the aid of a sketch) the working of a pressurized water reactor

The heat generated in the fuel rods is given to the water around the rods.
The temperature of the water is allowed to rise to 300°C to remove as much energy from the rods as possible.
To prevent vaporization the -water is pressurized to more than 150- atmospheres.
The hot water is pumped through a heat exchanger where the heat is transferred to water flowing in a second
closed system.
The heat transferred to the second system produces steam that drives a turbine coupled to an electric
generator producing electrical power.
After leaving the turbine the steam is condensed and returned to the heat exchanger.

Nuclear fusion
A Define nuclear fusion
Two very low mass nuclei with small binding energy combine to form a larger nucleus
B Why is it difficult to build a fusion reactor?
The two nuclei must be brought very close to each other so that the strong nuclear force can pull them
together, leading to fusion.
The nuclei on the other hand repel each other since they are both positively charged.
A large kinetic energy is therefore needed for die charges to come sufficiently close. This is obtained by
working at a very high temperature
When these high temperatures are used the atoms are ionized to form a plasma.
This plasma cannot easily be confined for a long time so that collision among the ions can lead to fusion.
C Define thermonuclear reaction
Nuclear reaction that occur at very high temperatures, (about 4 x 108 K)

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EXAMINATION FORMULAE SHEET AND CONSTANTS
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.80 m/s2
Density of water water = 1 000 kg/m3
Boltzmann’s constant k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K1
Universal gas constant R = 8.314 J./(K.mol)
Permeability of free space 0 = 4 x 10-7 T/(m.A)

I = I o sin wt v = u + at w f = wi +  t N
n=
NA
V0 I0 v 2 = u 2 + 2as w f = wi + 2
2 2
V RMS = ; I RMS =
m
2 2 1 n=
V2 s = ut + at 1
2 = wi t + t 2
2
Mr
P = IV = I 2 R = 2 vA
F=
 = (wi + w f )t
R 1 1
s = (u + v )t y
 −
t
 2 2
q = q 0 1 − e RC  R 4 P
  s = r v = rw a = rw Q=
8L
−
t
2r v2
q = q0 e RC
v= ac = 1
KE = mv rms
2
T r
F = IBL sin  Fc = ma c  = I
2
KE = 32 kT
mv  er 2   = Fl L = Iw
r= m =  B 2 U = 32 NkT = 32 nRT
qB  2V  1
 = 2f f= PV = nRT
 = NIAB sin  T DACt
I I m=
B= 0 B= 0 k g L
= =
2R 2R m L U = W − Q
B = n 0 I 1 Vf 
W R =  KE R = Iw 2 W = nRT ln 
E = vBL 2  Vi 
E = NAB sin ωt 1 W = PV = nRT
Fspring = kx PE elasti = kx 2
V −E 2 Q = nCT
I= x = a cos t
R QP = 52 nRT
N S VS I P v = − A sin t
= = QV = 32 nRT
N P VP I S a = − A cos t 2
PiVi  = Pf V f
1  L 
XC = X L = 2fL F = Y   A e=
QH
2fC  Lo  W
Z = R 2 + (X L − X c )  x 
2
Q H TH
F = S   A =
XL − XC QC TC
 Lo 
tan  = QH QC
R  V  COP = COP =
P = IV cos  P = − B  W W
 Vo 

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 PERIODIC TABLE

1A 0

1 1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 2
H He
1,008 4,003
KEY / SLEUTEL

2 3 4 17 Atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Cl Symbol B C N O F Ne
6,941 9,012 35,45 Atomic mass 10,81 12,01 14,01 16,00 19,00 20,18

3 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22,99 24,31 26,98 28,09 30,97 32,06 35,45 39,95

4 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39,10 40,08 44,96 47,90 50,94 52,00 54,94 55,85 58,93 58,70 63,55 65,38 69,72 72,59 74,59 78,96 79,90 83,80

5 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85,47 87,62 88,91 91,22 92,91 95,94 98,91 101,1 102,9 106,4 107,9 112,4 114,8 118,7 121,8 127,6 126,9 131,3

6 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132,9 137,3 138,9 178,5 180,9 183,9 186,2 190,2 192,2 195,1 197,0 200,6 204,4 207,2 209,0 209,0 210,0 222,0

7 87 88 89 104 105 106 107

Fr Ra Ac Unq Unp Unh Uns
223,0 226,0 227,0 261,1 262,1 263,1 262,1

LANTHANIDES / 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
LANTANIEDE Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140,1 140,9 144,2 144,9 150,4 152,0 157,3 158,9 162,5 164,9 187,3 168,9 173,0 175,0

ACTINIDES / 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

AKTINIEDE Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232,0 231,0 238,0 237,0 244,1 243,1 247,1 247,1 242,1 252,1 257,1 258,1 259,1 260,1

57 | P a g e