Chapter 2 – Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Leading Questions:
 What is an amu?
 Are molecules the particles described by any chemical formula?
 What is an empirical formula?
 What is a molecular formula?
 Can polyatomic ions dissociate into smaller ions?
 Can you skip learning the names and formulas of common ions –
monoatomic and polyatomic?
 Can you determine the charge on an ion by position on the periodic
table?

2.1 The Atomic Theory of Matter

 Democritus (460-370 BC) – proposed all matter consisted of small,

indivisible particles he named atomos. Atomos means uncuttable or
indivisible.
 Plato (427-327 BC), Aristolte (384-322 BC) – would not accept his
idea

Dalton (1803-1807): 2000 year gap

Beginning of modern chemistry
 Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
 All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size,
mass and chemical properties.
 Atoms of one element are different from atom of another element.
 Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element.
 In any given compound, the same types of atoms are always present
in the same relative numbers.
 A chemical reaction rearranges atoms in chemical compounds; it
does not create or destroy them.

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Law of constant composition (definite proportions): the relative kinds and
numbers of atoms are constant for a given compound.
H2O: 11% H, 89% O

Sample Mass of O(g) Mass of C (g) Ratio (g O: g C)

123 g carbon dioxide 89.4 33.6 2.66:1
50.5 g carbon dioxide 36.7 13.8 2.66:1
88.6 g carbon dioxide 64.4 24.2 2.66:1

Law of multiple proportions: if two elements combine to form more than one
compound, the mass of A that combines with the mass of B is a ratio of
small whole numbers. AB A2B AB2
Sample Mass of O(g) Mass of C (g) Ratio (g O: g C)

123 g carbon monoxide 9.31 6.99 1.33:1

50.5 g carbon monoxide 14.8 11.1 1.33:1
88.6 g carbon monoxide 50.5 37.9 1.33:1

Ratio of O to C in carbon dioxide = 2.66 = 2:1

Ratio of O to C in carbon monoxide 1.33

Law of conservation of mass: during a chemical reaction, the total mass

before reaction is equal to the total mass after reaction.

DEMO: Co(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  CoCO3(s) + 2 NO3-(aq) + 2 Na+(aq)

pink colorless lavender
183 106 119 124 64
289 289

Co(NO3)2 59 + 2(14) + 6(16) = 59 + 28 + 96 = 183

Na2CO3 2(23) + 12 + 3(16) = 46 + 12 + 48 = 106
CoCO3 59 + 12 + 3(16) = 59 + 12 + 48 = 119
-
NO3 14 + 3(16) = 62 62 x 2 = 124
+
Na 23 23 x 2 = 46

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2.2 Discovery of Atomic Structure

By 1850, scientists knew that atoms were composed of charged particles.

Cathode Rays and Electrons: mid-1800s (Figures 2.3 and 2.4)

 Radiation is produced when high voltage is applied across an
evacuated tube (CRT, VDT)
 The voltage causes the negative particles to move from the negative
electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode).
 The path of the electrons can be altered by a magnetic field.

DEMO: standard cathode ray tube with ZnS screen – deflect the beam of
electrons with a magnet.
 Consider cathode rays leaving a positive electrode through a small
hole.
 Deflection depends upon applied magnetic field and electric field and
the charge to mass ratio of the electron.
 Thompson (1897) determined charge to mass ratio of 1.76 x 108 C/g

Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment: charge of an electron (Figure 2.5)

 Goal: find the charge of an electron to determine its mass.
 Oil drops are sprayed above a positively charged plate containing a
small hole.
 As oil drops fall through the hole they acquire a negative charge
 Gravity forces the drops downward. The applied electric field forces
the drops upward.
 When perfectly balanced, the weight of the drop equals the
electrostatic attraction between the force and the positive plate.
 Determined charges are multiples of 1.6 x 10-19 C.

Mass = 1.6 x 10-19 C = 9.10 x 10-28 g

1.76 x 108 C/g
Radioactivity:
 Spontaneous emission of radiation
 Radiation is passed between two electrically charged plates
 Three spots were observed on the detector (Figure 2.8)
1. deflection in the direction of the positive plate: negatively charged
particles of a low mass - β particles (electrons)

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 2. not affected: neutral – γ (electromagnetic radiation, X-rays)
3. deflection in the direction of the negative plate: positively charged
particles of a high mass – α particles (He)
(+) charged plate β particles (electron)

Radioactive no deflection γ rays

Substance

(-) charged plate α particles (He)

Trying to understand the nuclear atom:

 Thompson: proposed sphere with small electrons embedded in a
positively charged nucleus – plum pudding (Figure 2.9)
 Rutherford: proved this was wrong (Figure 2.10). Most of the alpha
particles (He) shot through a piece of Au foil were not deflected. If
nucleus consisted of positively charged particles, deflection of the α
particles should have occurred.
 Rutherford modified Thompson’s model: assume atom is spherical
with positive charge at the center. For the particles not to deflect,
majority of the atom must be empty space where the electrons are
found. This was called the nucleus.
 Chadwick: bombarded a thin sheet of beryllium with alpha particles.
High energy radiation emitted that was not deflected but similar to
gamma rays. Later experiments showed particles were electrically
neutral but mass slightly greater than protons – neutron

Particle Mass (g) Charge (C) Charge Unit

Electron 9.10938 x 10-28 -1.6022 x 10-19 -1
Proton 1.67262 x 10-24 +1.6022 x 10-19 +1
Neutron 1.67493 x 10-24 0 0

2.3 Modern View of Atomic Structure

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  The atom consists of positive, negative and neutral entities (protons,
electrons and neutrons)
 Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus which is small.
 Most of the mass of atoms is due to the nucleus.
 Electrons are located outside the nucleus
 Most of the volume of the atom is the space where the
electrons are found.

Atom size: ~10-10 m e- (1 Angstrom = 10-10 m)

Nucleus size: ~ 10-14 m p, n

Atomic number (Z)

number of protons (p)
number of electrons (e-)

Mass number (A) – total number of neutrons (n) and protons

A
X
Z

Protons, neutrons, electrons:

H : 1p, 0n, 1e A=1
C : 6p, 6n, 6e A = 12
Cl : 17p, 18n, 17e A = 35

Isotopes: same Z, different A

hydrogen, deuterium, tritium 1H, 2H, 3H n = 0, 1, 2
uranium 235 Z = 92 n = 143
uranium 238 n = 146
37Cl: 17p, 20n, 17e
41K: 19p, 22n, 19e
Carbon-14: 6p, 8n, 6e

 Note this modifies Dalton’s Theory that “atoms of an element are

identical to each other”.

Mass spectrometer: used to determine atomic mass

1920s English physicist F. W. Aston 90.48% 20Ne, 9.25% 22Ne
More sophisticated – found 3rd isotope 0.27% 21Ne

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As the course proceeds you will see that the chemical properties of an
element are almost entirely determined by the number and distribution of
electrons. Isotopes have the same number of electrons and thus will have
the same chemical properties.

Know how to find the number of protons, neutrons and electrons

for neutral atoms and ions.

 Why doesn’t the nucleus of positive charge spontaneously

disintegrate? Strong nuclear forces hold the nucleus together.

The basic forces are gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear and

weak nuclear.
1. Gravitational: attractive forces between all objects based on their
mass. Not significant for atoms or subatomic particles.

2. Electromagnetic: attractive or repulsive forces between electrically

charged or magnetic objects. Explain chemical behavior.
Coulomb’s Law F = k Q1Q2
d2
3. Strong nuclear force: between subatomic particles in the nucleus

4. Weak nuclear force: weaker than electromagnetic but stronger than

gravity

2.4 Atomic Weights

 Atoms of different elements have different atomic masses
 100.0 g of water had 11.1 g of H and 88.9 g of O. 88.9/11.1 = 8 times
as much O, by mass, as H.
 Then found water contained two H for each O and concluded O must
have 2 x 8 = 16 times as much mass as H
 H was arbitrarily assigned a relative mass of 1 (no units) and atomic
masses of all other atoms were assigned relative to H, i.e. O = 16.

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Today masses of individual masses are determined with a high degree of
accuracy:
1
H atom: 1.6735 x 10-24 g
16
O atom: 2.6560 x 10-23 g

1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g by definition and

1 g = 6.02214 x 1023 amu
 amu precisely defined by assigning a mass of exactly 12 to 12C.
 1H is 1.0078 amu
 16O is 15.9949 amu

Average Atomic Masses

 masses of various isotopes and their relative abundance
 98.93% 12C and 1.07% 13C gives 12.011
 average atomic mass is also known as the atomic weight

(0.9893)12 + (0.0107)13 = 11.8716 + 0.139 = 12.01

2.5 Periodic Table

 In the early 1800s knowledge grew.
 1869: implemented to organize and remember chemical facts (62 elements)
 Mendelev arranged order of elements in order of increasing atomic
weight and noted that elements with similar chemical and physical
properties occurred periodically.
 Those elements were placed under each other in columns.
 In 1914, Moseley determined the true arrangement was in order of increasing
atomic number.

Atomic number: 6
Element Symbol: C
Atomic mass: 12.0107
 Group: column 1A-8A are s2p6 main group
B are transition metals North American Convention.
1-18 is the European, IUPAC convention
1A alkali metals
2A alkaline metals
7A halogens
8A noble gases

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 Cu, Ag Au – coinage metals
 Row: period 1-7, lanthanide and actinide are inner transition
elements

Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids

 Metals – left
 Nonmetals – right plus H
 Metalloids – elements written

| B__
| Si__
metal Ge | As__ nonmetal
Sb | Te__
|At

Metals Nonmetals
All solids (except Hg) gases or solids (except Br2)
Metallic luster variety of color, appearance
Malleable and ductile solids are brittle
Good conductors insulators
Later in the course:
Form cations form anions
Ionic compounds with nonmetals molecular compounds with other
nonmetals

 Metalloids are all solids. Properties fall between metals and

nonmetals. Many have more than one structure, one of
which is metallic and the other nonmetallic. Some are
semiconductors.
 Hydrogen is far out of place on the far left as it is a nonmetal.

 Before 1940 periodic table ended at element 92. Glenn Seaborg had
a large role with elements 95-102. All are radioactive and are not
founding nature. They can be synthesized only by nuclear reactions.

2.6 Molecules and Molecular Compounds

 Molecule: two or more atoms bound together

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  The smallest particle of a substance which can exist and have the characteristic
properties of that substance.

 The chemical formula indicates

1. which atoms are found in the molecule
2. In what proportion they are found

 Look at Figures 19 and 20. Be able to draw the structural and

perspective formulas
N2; O2, O3; H2O, H2O2; CO, CO2; CH4

 Diatomic: molecule made up of only two atoms (Figure 2.19)

 Subscript to the right indicates the number of atoms
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
 If “oxygen” is given in an equation as a reactant or product, you must know it is
written as O2 and not O. If oxygen atoms are involved in a reaction, you must
specify “oxygen atom”.
 Two other elements which exist in molecular form are phosphorous and sulfur
P4 and S8

 Allotropes: different forms of elements which have different chemical

formulas. i.e. oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3).

H2O: the formula for water tells us that one molecule of water contains 2 H atoms
and one O atom. A subscript of 1 is not written. Water does not contain an H2
molecule.

CO2: Carbon dioxide contains one C atom and 2 O atoms. The subscripts refer
only to the atom preceding it. If both atoms are to be multiplied, that must be shown.

Know: H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, H2O2, O2, O3, C2H4

 Empirical formula: simplest ratio of the atoms in a molecule

 Molecular formula: actual ratio of the atoms in the molecule
i.e. CH: C2H2, C6H6 CH2: C2H4, C3H6, C4H8
 If you know the molecular formula, you can determine the empirical formula.
H2O2, HO C2H4, CH2 N2H4, NH2 C6H6, CH
Peroxide ethylene hydrazine benzene
 The molecular formula is always some multiple of the empirical formula
 The empirical formula is the result of chemical analysis in the laboratory, To
obtain the molecular formula, additional information must be known,

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Structural Formulas for Molecular Compounds (nonmetals)
 Shows how the atoms are attached but not the geometry
Ethanol:
C2H6O ethanol contains 2 C atoms, 6 H atoms and 1 O atom
This is both the empirical formula and the molecular formula
C2H5OH shows one hydrogen is different from the other five and gives you a
hint of structure (-OH is a functional group – organic chemistry)
H H
| | In a structural formula, the lines represent bonds
H–C–C–O–H and show which atoms are connected.
| |
H H Contrast to ionic compounds (ions of metal and nonmetal)
 Perspective Drawing (2D), ball and stick (3D bonds but no size), space filling
(3D, relative size of atoms but hard to see bonds)

2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds

 If electrons are added or removed from a neutral atom, an ion is formed.
 Cation: loses electrons, have a positive charge, i.e. Na to Na+ (metals,
left side)
 Anion: gains electrons, have a negative charge, i.e. Cl to Cl-
(nonmetals, right side)
 Predicting charge – look at atom position in the periodic table

 Ionic compounds: form between a metal and a nonmetal, i.e. NaCl

Zero charge on the molecule +1, -1

Na (atomic number 11) has 11 protons and 11 electrons

Na+ (atomic number 11) has 11 protons and 10 electrons
Na is in Group I – form +1 ions
metal atoms tend to lose electrons to form cations

Cl (atomic number 17) has 17 protons and 17 electrons

Cl- (atomic number 17) has 17 protons and 18 electrons
Cl is in Group 7 – form -1 ions Figure 2.23
nonmetal atoms tend to gain electrons to form anions

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 Recognize patterns – find trends – do not memorize, think through
i.e. Group I - +1 cations, Group 7 - -1 anions
 Come to lecture to see things explained – read ahead of time so it
makes sense…. not a good teacher because you cannot understand
what is said – no, you need to be prepared to understand.

 The charge is indicated by number and sign written by a superscript to the right.
 Ionic Componds, i.e. NaCl, NaNO3, Na3(PO4)

Simple ions: Na+, Cl-

Complex ions: NO3-, SO42-
 Polyatomic ions, i.e. SO42-: the charge on the total group of atoms is written as a
superscript to the right. A subscript still only refers to the element immediately
preceding it. The sulfate ion contains one sulfur atom, four oxygen atoms and
two more electrons than the combined neutral atoms would have.

Mg3N2: work backwards as subscripts are charge of ions

Write the formula for the compound formed from Ca2+ and CO32- ions.
 Each of the ions has a charge of two. For the compound to be
electrically neutral, the positive charge on each Ca2+ must be
baqblanced by the negative charge of one CO32-. The formula of the
ionic compound is written CaCO3
 The order is always cation then anion. The charge on the individual
ions is not shown, but you must know the charges to determine the
formula.
 CaCO3 is NOT a molecule. It is a 3D arrangement of Ca2+ and CO32-
ions.

Write the formula for the compound formed from NH4+ and S2- ions.
 The 2- charge on sulfide must be balanced by two ammonium ions,
each having a charge of +1. (NH4)2S
 Parenthesis enclose the ammonium ion so that the 2 that follows
indicates the number of ammonium ions. Each atom within the
parenthesis is multiplied by two

Write the formula for the compound formed from Al3+ and SO42- ions.

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  In order to have a net charge of zero for the compound, note the
lowest common multiple of 3 and 2 is 6. The charge on one ion
becomes the subscript on the other.
2 x (+3) = +6 3 x (-2) = -6 Al2(SO4)3
 Parenthesis must be used to enclose the sulfate ion.

2.8 Naming Inorganic Compounds

 Be able to name any compound covered in lecture and in your text

 Now more than 19 million compounds

 Compounds can be classified as organic (molecules) and inorganic
(ionic)
 Organic contain carbon, hydrogen and a few other elements (Chem
251-253)
 Inorganic are composed of the remaining elements.
 Some have common names: H2O, NH3

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

 The formula of an ionic compound is written cation then anion and
the name is given in the same order.
ZnCl2 zinc chloride Mg3N2 magnesium nitride
K2S potassium sulfide CaO calcium oxide
 The cation is named using the name of the element.
 Monoatomic anions use the stem name for the element and the
suffice –ide
H- hydride O2- oxide N3- nitride
OH- hydroxide CN- cyanide O22- peroxide
 It is fairly easy to write the name of an ionic compound from its
formula.
 It is a little more difficult to write a formula from the name. You need
to know the atomic symbol and the charges on the ions so the
formula of the ionic compound is neutral,.i.e. zinc chloride does not
tell you that you need two chloride ions

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A number of metals have more than one possible charge. You must
distinguish between the possibilities. FeO and Fe2O3 CuCl and CuCl2
SnCl2 and SnCl4
Fe2+ iron(II) ion, ferrous Cu+ copper (I) ion, cuprous
Fe3+ iron(III) ion, ferric Cu2+ copper (II) ion, cupric

The preferred system of naming uses the English name of the metal
followed by parenthesis giving the charge of the metal. Use the Roman
numerals for all metal ions except Groups 1A, 2A, Al3+, Zn2+ and Ag+.
Iron (II) oxide and iron (III) oxide Copper (II) and copper (III) chloride

The older system uses the suffixes –ic and –ous to designate the higher
and lower charges of the metal
Ferrous and ferric oxide Cuprous and cupric chloride

There are problems with this system. It is limited to two charges and
you must know the possible oxidation states.

Polyatomic ions
 There are two common polyatomic cations:
NH4+ ammonium H3O+ hydronium

 Polyatomic anions are named in a systematic way. For oxyanions or

oxygen containing anions: the naming system is based on –ate.
Anions whose names begin with the stem of the element other than
oxygen and end in –ate:
CO32- NO3- PO43- SO42- ClO3-
carbon nitr phosph sulf chlor -ate

 An ion with one more oxygen atom has a prefix of per- :

ClO4- perchlorate

 An ion with one less oxygen atom has a ending of -ite :

NO2- SO3- ClO2- chlorite
nitrite sulfite

 An ion with one less oxygen atom than the –ite ion has prefix of
hypo: ClO - hypochlorite

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  Think about the series of halide ions: (and how to predict Br and I)
ClO4- perchlorate
ClO3- chlorate
ClO2- chlorite
ClO- hypochlorite
 Addition of H to any 2- or 3- ion is named by either adding bi- or
+

hydrogen to the name

CO32- carbonate
-
HCO3 hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate

PO43- phosphate
H2PO42- dihydrogen phosphate

 Acetate ion: text as C2H3O2-, CH3CO2-

Names and Formulas of Acids

 Compounds in which hydrogen is combined with a simple or polyatomic

anion to produce a neutral compound are called acids.
 These compounds are not ionic but produce H+ in aqueous solution.
 The aqueous solution is named as an acid and the name is related to
the anion present.
 The formula of an acid will have a leading hydrogen:
 -ide or –ate is replaced by –ic

Cl- chloride HCl hydrochloric acid

Br- bromide HBr hydrobromic acid
S2- sulfide H2S hydrosulfuric acid

NO3- nitrate HNO3 nitric acid

SO42- sulfate H2SO4 sulfuric acid
ClO4- perchlorate HClO4 perchloric acid

NO2- nitrite HNO3 nitrous acid

SO32- sulfite H2SO4 sulfurous acid
ClO- hypochlorite HClO hypochlorous acid

Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds

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 Two nonmetals of a metalloid and a nonmetal.
 You often cannot predict the name as with the ionics.
 The element given first in the formula and named first is determined
according to the following sequence:
 B Si C As P N H Se S I Br Cl O F
 (B) (Si, C) (As, P, N) H (Se, S) (I, Br,Cl) O F (lower in
group
3A 4A 5A 6A 7A is named
first)

SiC silicon carbide

NiO nitrogen oxide
NH3 ammonia
H2S hydrogen sulfide
(name of the second element is given an –ide ending)

 Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each

element.
Mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca

N2O dinitrogen oxide SO3 sulfur trioxide

Cl2O dichlorine monoxide NF3 nitrogen trifluoride
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide P4S10 tetraphosphorous decasulfide
SF6 sulfur hexafluoride IF5 iodine pentafluoride
IF7 iodine heptafluoride

The first thing you need to notice in naming is what kind of compound it is –
so that you know whether to use rules for ionic compounds, acids or binary
molecular compounds.

DEMO- nitrogen containing compounds

NO2 molecular nitrogen dioxide
NaNO2 ionic, polyatomic anion sodium nitrite
Ni(NO2)2 ionic, polyatomic anion nickel(II) nitrate
HNO3oxyacid nitric acid

2.9 Some Simple Organic Compounds

 Organic Chemistry: the study of carbon compounds

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  Hydrocarbons: contain only C and H
 Know names and be able to draw structural formulas

Alkanes: each carbon is bonded to four other carbons

CH4, C2H6, C3H8 (colorless gases)
Methane, ethane, propane

Derivatives of alkanes:
 Hydrogen atoms are replaced with functional groups
 Alcohols:
CH3OH, CH3CH2OH, CH3CH2CH2OH (colorless liquids)
1-Propanol, 2-Propanol

 Multiple bonds:

CH4 methane

CH3CH3 ethane

CH2CH2 ethylene

HCCH acetylene

 Carboxylic acids (acetic acid), ketones (acetone)

 Amines

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