Network Analysis

Agenda Page 2

– Transmission Lines

– S-Parameters

– The Smith Chart

– Network Analyzer Block Diagram

– Network Analysis Measurements

– Calibration and Error Correction

RF Energy Transmission

Incident
Transmitted

Reflected
Lightwave

DUT

RF

Page 3
Transmission Line Basics
_
+
Low frequencies I
– Wavelengths >> wire length
– Current (I) travels down wires easily for efficient power transmission
– Measured voltage and current not dependent on position along wire

High frequencies
– Wavelength » or << length of transmission medium
– Need transmission lines for efficient power transmission
– Matching to characteristic impedance (Zo) is very important for low reflection
and maximum power transfer
– Measured envelope voltage dependent on position along line

Page 4
Transmission line Zo
– Zo determines relationship between voltage and current waves

– Zo is a function of physical dimensions and r

– Zo is usually a real impedance (e.g. 50 or 75 ohms)

Page 5
 Power Transfer Efficiency
RS
For complex impedances, maximum
RL power transfer occurs when ZL = ZS*
(conjugate match)
Rs +jX

1.2
1 -jX
(normalized)
Load Power

0.8
0.6 RL
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

RL / RS

Maximum power is transferred when RL = RS

Page 6
Transmission Line Terminated with Zo
Zo = characteristic impedance
Zs = Zo of transmission line

Zo

V inc

Vreflect = 0! (all the incident power

is transferred to and
absorbed in the load)

For reflection, a transmission line terminated in Zo behaves

like an infinitely long transmission line

Page 7
 Transmission Line Terminated with Short, Open

Zs = Zo

V inc

o
Vreflect In-phase (0 ) for open,
o
out-of-phase (180 ) for short

For reflection, a transmission line terminated in a short or

open reflects all power back to source

Page 8
Transmission Line Terminated with 25 Ohms

Zs = Zo

ZL = 25 W

V inc

Vreflect

Standing wave pattern does not

go to zero as with short or open

Page 9
 Reflection Parameters
Vreflected Z L - Zo
Reflection Coefficient [S11] = G =
Vincident
= r F =
ZL + Zo
Return loss = -20 log(r ), r = G
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
Vmax
Vmin Vmax 1+r
VSWR = =
Vmin 1-r
No reflection Full reflection
(ZL = Zo) (ZL = open, short)

0 r 1
 dB RL 0 dB
1 VSWR 

Page 10
 Transmission Parameters
V Incident V Transmitted
Port 1 DUT Port 2

V Transmitted
Transmission Coefficient [S21] = T = = 
V Incident
VTrans
Insertion Loss (dB) = -20 Log = -20 Log()
V Inc

V Trans
Gain (dB) = 20 Log = 20 Log()
V Inc

Page 11
Demonstration:

Page 12
Agenda Page 13

– Transmission Lines

– S-Parameters

– The Smith Chart

– Network Analyzer Block Diagram

– Network Analysis Measurements

– Calibration and Error Correction

 High-Frequency Device Characterization

Incident Transmitted
R
B
Reflected
A

REFLECTION TRANSMISSION

Reflected A Transmitted B
= =
Incident R Incident R

VSWR Return Loss Group Delay

Gain / Loss
S-Parameters Impedance, Insertion
S11, S22 Reflection Admittance S-Parameters Phase
Coefficient R+jX, G+jB S21, S12 Transmission
Coefficient
G, r
T,t

Page 14
Characterizing Unknown Devices
Using parameters (H, Y, Z, S) to characterize devices:
– Gives linear behavioral model of our device
– Measure parameters (e.g. voltage and current) versus frequency under
various source and load conditions (e.g. short and open circuits)
– Compute device parameters from measured data
– Predict circuit performance under any source and load conditions

H-parameters Y-parameters Z-parameters

V1 = h11I1 + h12V2 I1 = y11V1 + y12V2 V1 = z11I1 + z12I2
I2 = h21I1 + h22V2 I2 = y21V1 + y22V2 V2 = z21I1 + z22I2

h11 = V1
I1 V2=0 (requires short circuit)
h12 = V1
V2 I1=0 (requires open circuit)

Page 15
Why Use Scattering, S-Parameters?

– Relatively easy to obtain at high frequencies

• Measure voltage traveling waves with a vector network analyzer
• Don't need shorts/opens (can cause active devices to oscillate or self-destruct)
– Relate to familiar measurements (gain, loss, reflection coefficient ...)
– Can cascade S-parameters of multiple devices to predict system performance
– Can compute H-, Y-, or Z-parameters from S-parameters if desired
– Can easily import and use S-parameter files in electronic-simulation tools

Incident S 21 Transmitted
a1
S 11 b2
Reflected DUT
S 22
Port 1 Port 2 Reflected
b1
a2
Transmitted S 12 Incident

b1 = S 11 a 1 + S 12 a 2
b 2 = S 21 a 1 + S 22 a 2 Page 16
 Measuring S-Parameters

S b2
Incident 21 Transmitted
a1
Z0
S 11
Forward Reflected DUT Load
b1 a2 = 0

Reflected b1 Reflected b2
S 11 = = a S 22 = = a
Incident 1 a2 = 0 Incident 2 a1 = 0
Transmitted b Transmitted b
2 S 1
S 21 = = a 12 = = a
Incident 1 a2 = 0 Incident 2 a1 = 0

a1 = 0 b2
Z0 S 22
DUT
Load Reflected Reverse
a2
b1 Transmitted S 12 Incident

Page 17
Equating S-Parameters With Common Measurement
Terms

Port 1 DUT Port 2

S11 = forward reflection coefficient (input match)

S22 = reverse reflection coefficient (output match)
S21 = forward transmission coefficient (gain or loss)
S12 = reverse transmission coefficient (isolation)

Page 18
Demonstration
4 S-Parameters with Correction Off

Page 19
Demonstration
4 S-Parameters with Correction On

Page 20
Agenda Page 21

– Transmission Lines

– S-Parameters

– The Smith Chart

– Network Analyzer Block Diagram

– Network Analysis Measurements

– Calibration and Error Correction

 Smith Chart Review
o
Polar plane 90
+jX
1.0
.8
.6
.4

0 +R   + 180 o .2
0
o
-

0 
-jX
-90 o
Rectilinear impedance plane Inductive
Constant X

Z L= Zo Constant R

G= 0
Smith Chart maps rectilinear
Z L= 0 (short) Z L= (open)
impedance plane onto
polar plane G= 1 ±180
O
G =1 0
O

Capacitive
Smith Chart

Page 22
Demonstration: Smith Chart
Short, and Open, and a Matched Impedance

Page 23
Agenda Page 24

– Transmission Lines

– S-Parameters

– The Smith Chart

– Network Analyzer Block Diagram

– Network Analysis Measurements

– Calibration and Error Correction

Generalized Network Analyzer Block Diagram
(Forward Measurements Shown)
Incident Transmitted

DUT
Reflected
SOURCE

SIGNAL
SEPARATION

INCIDENT REFLECTED TRANSMITTED

(R) (A) (B)

RECEIVER / DETECTOR

PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

Page 25
Source
Incident Transmitted

DUT

Reflected
SOURCE

SIGNAL
SEPARATION

REFLECTED TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT (R) (A) (B)

RECEIVER / DETECTOR

– Supplies stimulus for system PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

– Can sweep frequency or power

– Traditionally NAs had one signal source
– Modern NAs have the option for a second
internal source and/or the ability to control
external source
Can control an external source as a local
oscillator (LO) signal for mixers and
converters
Useful for mixer measurements like
conversion loss, group delay

Page 26
Signal Separation
Incident Transmitted

DUT

Reflected

– Measure incident signal for reference SOURCE

SIGNAL
SEPARATION

– Separate incident and reflected signals INCIDENT (R)

REFLECTED
(A)
TRANSMITTED
(B)

RECEIVER / DETECTOR

PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

splitter
bridge

Detector
directional
coupler Test Port

Page 27
Directional Coupler

undesired reverse leakage

desired coupled
signal

desired through signal

Page 28
Directivity
Directivity is a measure of how well a directional coupler or bridge can separate
signals moving in opposite directions

(undesired leakage (desired reflected

signal) signal)
leakage
I C desired
result
Test port
L
Directional Coupler

Directivity = Isolation (I) - Fwd Coupling (C) - Main Arm Loss (L)

Page 29
 Interaction of Directivity with the DUT (Without Error
Correction)
0
Data max
DUT RL = 40 dB

Directivity Add in-phase

Return Loss

30 Device

60
Frequency
Directivity
Data min

Device
Data = vector sum
Device
Directivity

Add out-of-phase
(cancellation)

Page 30
 Detector
Incident Transmitted

DUT

Reflected
SOURCE

SIGNAL

Tuned Receiver SEPARATION

REFLECTED TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT (R) (A) (B)

RF IF = F LO  F RF
RECEIVER / DETECTOR

ADC / DSP PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

IF Filter

LO

Vector narrowband
(magnitude and phase)

Page 31
 Detector:
Narrowband Detection - Tuned Receiver
RF
ADC / DSP

IF Filter
– Best sensitivity / dynamic range
– Provides harmonic / spurious signal rejection
LO
– Improve dynamic range by increasing power,
decreasing IF bandwidth, or averaging
– Trade off noise floor and measurement speed

10 MHz 26.5 GHz

Page 32
 Dynamic Range and Accuracy
Error Due to Interfering Signal
100

10 -

+
phase error
Error (dB, deg)

1 Dynamic range is
very important for
magn error measurement
0.1
accuracy!

0.01

0.001
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60 -65 -70

Interfering signal or noise (dB)

RF Back to Basics Page 33

Demonstration
VNA - 2 port Block Diagram

Page
VNA Block Diagrams Page 34
 Processor / Display
Incident Transmitted

DUT

Reflected
SOURCE

SIGNAL
SEPARATION

REFLECTED TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT (R) (A) (B)

RECEIVER / DETECTOR

PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

– Markers
– Limit lines
– Pass/fail indicators
– Linear/log formats
– Grid/polar/Smith charts
– Time-domain transform
– Trace math

Page 35
Agenda Page 36

– Transmission Lines

– S-Parameters

– The Smith Chart

– Network Analyzer Block Diagram

– Network Analysis Measurements

– Calibration and Error Correction

Why Do We Need to Test Components?
– Verify specifications of “building blocks”
for more complex RF systems

– Ensure distortion-free transmission

of communications signals
• Linear: constant amplitude, linear phase / constant group delay
• Nonlinear: harmonics, intermodulation, compression, X-parameters

– Ensure good match when absorbing

power (e.g., an antenna)

KPWR FM 97

Page 37
 The Need for Both Magnitude and Phase
S21
1. Complete characterization S11 S22
of linear networks
S12 4. Time-domain characterization
2. Complex impedance
needed to design Mag
matching circuits
Time
3. Complex values
5. Vector-error correction
needed for device
Error
modeling
Measured
Actual

6. X-parameter (nonlinear) characterization

Page 38
Linear Versus Nonlinear Behavior
A * Sin 360o * f (t - to)
A

Linear behavior:
to
Time Input and output frequencies are the
same (no additional frequencies
Sin 360o * f * t
A
phase shift = created)
to * 360o * f Output frequency only undergoes
Time
f
1
Frequency magnitude and phase change
Input DUT Output

Nonlinear behavior:
f
1
Frequency Output frequency may
Time
undergo frequency shift (e.g.
with mixers)
Additional frequencies created
(harmonics, intermodulation)
f Frequency
1

Page 39
Phase Variation with Frequency

F(t) = sin wt + 1 /3 sin 3wt + 1 /5 sin 5wt

Linear Network
Time Time

Magnitude

Frequency
0°
Frequency Frequency
-180 °
-360 °

Page 40
 Deviation from Linear Phase
Use electrical delay to remove linear
portion of phase response

Linear electrical
Deviation from linear
RF filter response length added
phase
(Electrical delay function)
Phase 45 /Div

Phase 1 /Div
o

o
+ =

Frequency Frequency Frequency

Low resolution High resolution

Page 41
 Group Delay
Group delay ripple
Frequency (w) tg

Dw
Phase 
to

Average delay
D

Group Delay =(tg) Frequency

-d  -1 d
=
dw 360 o
* df Group-delay ripple indicates phase distortion
 in radians Average delay indicates electrical length of DUT
w in radians/sec Aperture (Dw) of measurement is very important
 in degrees
f in Hertz (w = 2 p f)

Page 42
 Why Measure Group Delay?
Phase

Phase
f f
-d  -d 
dw dw

Group
Delay
Group
Delay

f f

Same peak-peak phase ripple can result in different group delay

Page 43
 Why the Time Domain?

RF Back to Basics Page 44

44
 Frequency Domain S11 Response of Semirigid
Coax Cable

r Upper
Limit

Frequency

RF Back to Basics Page 45

45
 Time Domain S11 Response of Semirigid Coax Cable

Time

RF Back to Basics Page 46

46
 Gain Compression
DUT
− Parameter to define the transition between the linear and nonlinear region of an
active device.
− The compression point is observed as x dB drop in the gain with VNA’s power sweep.
Output Power (dBm) Gain (S21)

Sufficient power
level to drive DUT
Linear region Power is not high enough
Compression to compress DUT.
(nonlinear) region

Input Power (dBm) Input Power (dBm)

Enough margin of source power capability

is needed for analyzers.

Page 48
Gain Compression Measurement Example

Ch 1 (vs. Input power):

Tr 1: Gain Compresssion vs. Pin
Tr 2: Pout vs. Pin

Ch 2 (vs. Frequency):
Tr 1: Pin @ P1dB vs. Freq
Tr 2: Pout @ P1dB vs. Freq

RF Back to Basics Page 49

Multiport Measurement
Application Examples Tx Antenna Rx Antenna
SW

• RF front end modules / antenna

switch modules SW hmn
: :
• Channel measurements of MIMO
antennas
• Interconnects (ex. cables,
connectors)
• General-purpose multiport devices

Page 50
Agenda Page 51

– Transmission Lines

– S-Parameters

– The Smith Chart

– Network Analysis Measurements

– Calibration and Error Correction

The Need For Calibration
– Why do we have to calibrate?
• It is impossible to make perfect hardware
• It would be extremely difficult and expensive to make hardware good
enough to entirely eliminate the need for error correction

– How do we get accuracy?

• With vector-error-corrected calibration
• Not the same as the yearly instrument calibration

– What does calibration do for us?

• Removes the largest contributor to measurement
uncertainty: systematic errors
Systematic error
• Provides best picture of true performance of DUT

Page 52
Measurement Error Modeling
– Systematic errors
• Due to imperfections in the analyzer and test setup
• Assumed to be time invariant (predictable)
• Generally, are largest sources or error
– Random errors
• Vary with time in random fashion (unpredictable)
• Main contributors: instrument noise, switch and connector
repeatability
– Drift errors
• Due to system performance changing
after a calibration has been done Errors:

• Primarily caused by SYSTEMATIC

Measured Unknown
temperature variation Data RANDOM Device

DRIFT

Page 53
 Systematic Measurement Errors

R A B
Directivity Crosstalk

DUT

Frequency response
Reflection tracking (A/R) Source Load
Transmission tracking (B/R) Mismatch Mismatch

Six forward and six reverse error terms yields 12

error terms for two-port devices

Page 54
Types of Error Correction
– Response (normalization)
• Simple to perform thru

• Only corrects for tracking (frequency response) errors

• Stores reference trace in memory, then does data divided by memory
– Vector
• Requires more calibration standards
• Requires an analyzer that can measure phase
• Accounts for all major sources of systematic error

SHORT

OPEN
S11 a thru
LOAD
S 11 m

Page 55
What is Vector-Error Correction? Errors

– Vector-error correction… Measured

• Is a process for characterizing systematic error terms Actual
• Measures known electrical standards
• Removes effects of error terms from subsequent
measurements

– Electrical standards…
• Can be mechanical or electronic
• Are often an open, short, load, and thru,
but can be arbitrary impedances as well

Page 56
Using Known Standards to Correct
for Systematic Errors

– 1-port calibration (reflection measurements)

Only three systematic error terms measured
Directivity, source match, and reflection tracking

– Full two-port calibration (reflection and transmission measurements)

Twelve systematic error terms measured
Usually requires 12 measurements on four known standards (SOLT)

– Standards defined in cal kit definition file

Network analyzer contains standard cal kit definitions
CAL KIT DEFINITION MUST MATCH ACTUAL CAL KIT USED!
User-built standards must be characterized and entered into user cal-kit

Page 57
 Reflection: One-Port Model
Error Adapter
RF in Ideal
RF in 1
ED = Directivity

S11A ERT = Reflection tracking

ED ES S11A
ES = Source Match
S11M S11M
S11M = Measured
ERT
S11A = Actual
To solve for error terms, we
measure 3 standards to generate S11A
3 equations and 3 unknowns S11M = ED + ERT
1 - ES S11A

– Assumes good termination at port two if testing two-port devices

– If using port two of NA and DUT reverse isolation is low (e.g., filter passband):
Assumption of good termination is not valid
Two-port error correction yields better results

RF Back to Basics Page 58

58
Before and After A One-Port Calibration

Data after 1-port calibration

Data before 1-port calibration

Page 59
 Two-Port Error Correction
Reverse model
Forward model Port 1 Port 2
E RT'

Port 1 EX Port 2 S 21
a1 A b2
E L' S 11 S 22 E D'
A A E S' a2
S 21 A E TT b2 b1
a1 ES
ED S 11A S 22 a2 S 12 A
A E TT'
b1 EL
E X'
E RT S 12
A
S - ED S - ED ' S - E X S12 m - E X '
( 11m )(1  22m E S ' ) - E L ( 21m )( )
E RT E RT ' E TT E TT '
S11a =
E D = fwd directivity E L = fwd load match S - E D' S - ED ' S - E X S12m - E X '
(1  11m E S )(1  22m E S ' ) - E L ' E L ( 21m )( )
E S = fwd source match E TT = fwd transmission tracking E RT E RT ' E TT ETT '
E RT = fwd reflection tracking E X = fwd isolation
S21m - E X S22 m - E D '
E D' = rev directivity E L' = rev load match ( )(1  ( E S '- E L ))
E TT E RT '
E S' = rev source match E TT' = rev transmission tracking S21a =
S - ED S - ED' S - E X S12 m - E X '
E X' = rev isolation (1  11m E S )(1  22m E S ' ) - E L ' E L ( 21m )( )
E RT' = rev reflection tracking E RT E RT ' E TT ETT '

S - EX ' S - ED
Each actual S-parameter is a function of ( 12m )(1  11m ( E S - E L ' ))
E TT ' E RT
S12a =
all four measured S-parameters S
(1  11m
- ED S
E S )(1  22m
- ED' S
E S ' ) - E L ' E L ( 21m
- E X S12m - E X '
)( )
E RT E RT ' E TT E TT '
Analyzer must make forward and reverse
sweep to update any one S-parameter S 22m - E D '
( )( 1 
S11m - E D
ES ) - E L ' (
S 21m - E X S12m - E X '
)( )
E RT ' E RT E TT E TT '
Luckily, you don't need to know these S22a =
S - ED S - ED' S - E X S12m - E X '
(1  11m E S )(1  22m E S ' ) - E L ' E L ( 21m )( )
equations to use a network analyzers!!! E RT E RT ' E TT ETT '

Page 60
ECal: Electronic Calibration
– Variety of two- and four-port modules cover 300 kHz to 67 GHz
– Nine connector types available, 50 and 75 ohms
– Single-connection calibration
dramatically reduces calibration time
makes calibrations easy to perform
minimizes wear on cables and standards
eliminates operator errors
– Highly repeatable temperature-compensated
characterized terminations provide excellent accuracy
USB Controlled

Microwave modules use a

transmission line shunted
by PIN-diode switches in
various combinations

Page 61
 Errors and Calibration Standards
UNCORRECTED RESPONSE 1-PORT
FULL 2-PORT
SHORT
SHORT SHORT

DUT OPEN
OPEN OPEN
thru
Convenient LOAD
LOAD LOAD
Generally not accurate
DUT
No errors removed
DUT
Easy to perform thru
Use when highest For reflection measurements
accuracy is not Need good termination for DUT
required high accuracy with two-port
Removes frequency Highest accuracy
devices Removes these
response error Removes these errors: errors:
Directivity Directivity
Source match
ENHANCED-RESPONSE Reflection tracking
Source, load match
Reflection tracking
Combines response and 1-port Transmission
Corrects source match for transmission tracking
measurements Crosstalk
Page 62
Demonstration
VNA showing Band Pass Filter
Uncalibrated, Response Cal and Full 2 port calibration

Page 63
Wrap-Up Page 64

– Transmission Lines

– S-Parameters

– The Smith Chart

– Network Analysis Measurements

– Calibration and Error Correction

For more information,
www.keysight.com/find/na

Page 65