UNIT 1 CHAPTER 3

SOCIETY AND CULTURE ACCORDING TO UNIT 1 CHAPTER 3

THE THREE DISCIPLINES GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF
SOCIETIES
-​ Anthropology - considers culture as
Among the most interesting and important
the central focus of its discipline.
questions that social scientists delve into is the
-​ Relativistic Approach - considers
origin and nature of society. In explaining the
cultures as equal. This view holds that
basis of the origins of societies, anthropologist
there are no “superior” and “inferior”
have focused on the following questions:
cultures, and each is unique in its own
way. What is the relationship between biological
-​ Ethnocentric Approach- beliefs that factors and cultural behavior?
one’s native culture is superior to other
Meanwhile, other social scientists, particularly
cultures. Tend to have a negative view
political scientists and sociologists, inquire about
of other countries.
society and its various institutions and how
-​ Ethnocentrism - diminishes or
these affect human relationship and interaction.
invalidates other ways of life and creates
a distorted view of one’s own
Anthropologist cite three types of Societal
-​ Xenocentrism- have the tendency to
Evolution: BIOLOGICAL, CULTURAL, AND
consider their culture as inferior to
TECHNOLOGICAL
others.
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
-​ Sociology- relates culture with overall
context of social order
1.Biological evolution
-​ Structural functionalism- operates
-​ refers to the process whereby organisms
on the assumption that society is a
undergo various genetic and physical
stable and orderly system.
changes that pave the way for biological
-​ Conflict theory- assumes that there is
diversity.
a constant power struggle among the
-​ It refers to the changes, modifications,
various social groups and institution
and variations in the genetics and
within society
inherited traits of biological populations
-​ Symbolic Interactions- views of
from one generation to another
individual and group behavior and social
-​ Scientists study changes in the physical
interactions as defining features of
body of humans, the changes in the
society.
shape and size of their bones.
-​ Political Science- examines culture as
a vital aspect of society.
CHARLES DARWIN
-​ Multiculturalism- ideology that
acknowledges and promotes cultural
-​ The evolution of Species happens
diversity within society .
through the process of Natural Selection
-​ Cultural sensitivity- advances
-​ The reason for occurrence of Evolution
awareness and acceptance of cultural
-​ The outcome process that affects the
differences but encourages a critical
frequencies of truths in a particular
stance in dealing with issues regarding
environment. Traits that enhance
diversity.
survival and reproductive success
increase in frequency over time.
 -​ Suggested that organisms best adjusted -​ It had both apelike and humanlike
to their environment are the most characteristic:
successful in surviving and reproducing -​ A skull similar to Australopithecus and
modern humans.
NATURAL SELECTION -​ Height almost similar with chimpanzee
-Is a process that results in change within a -​ Brain size: 320-380 cc
species over time. -​ Small teeth
-the process whereby organisms better adapted -​ Had the ability to walk upright
to their environment tend to survive and . Ardipithecus “Ape on the ground”
produce more offspring. -​ 5.6 million years ago
-​ Ardipithecus Kadabba
3 PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL SELECTION -​ Ardipithecus Ramidus
1.Variations -​ Height about 4 feet
Every species is made up of a variety of -​ Weight about 120 pounds
individuals wherein some are adopted to their -​ Skull size similar to ape
environment compared to other -​ Small brain
2.Heritability -​ Bipedal
Organism produce progeny with different set of -​ Lived in jungles and forest like
traits that can inherited chimpanzees
3. Differential reproductive success Australopithecus ‘ The Southern Ape “
Organisms that have traits most suitable to their -​ (5 million-1 million years ago)
environment will survive and transfer these -​ Brain size: 500 cc or almost 1/3 size of
variations to their offspring in subsequent modern human brain
generation. -​ Upright
-​ Bipedal
Origins and Development of Modern -​ Tool users not tool makers
Humans -​ Food scavengers
AUSTRALOPITHECUS TWO MAJOR
How did modern Humans evolved? CATEGORIES:
-​ Gracile Australopithecus
EVOLUTION -​ Robus
-A Gradual development of something
Australopithecus
HOMINIDS
The general term used to categorize the group
Gracile Australopithecus
of early Humans and other humanlike creatures
1.Australopithecus africanus
that can walk erect during the prehistoric period. 2.Australopithecus anamensis
3.Australopithecus afarensis-Fossil
FOUR CATEGORIES OF HOMINIDS named LUCY(an Australopithecus Afarensis)
1.​ SAHELANTHROPUS was considered as one of modern humans
2.​ ARDIPITHECUS earliest ancestors and remains as the most
3.​ AUSTRALOPITHECUS famous homonid fossil
4.​ HOMO Robust Australopithecus
1.Australopithecus aethiopicus
Sahelanthropus Tchadensis 2. Australopithecus Robustus
-​ 6-7 million years ago 3. Australopithecus boisei
Four Categories of Hominids homo sapiens neanderthalensis, they
-​ They are classified as humans and not became smaller in size and the brain
humanlike creatures because they had size reduced to 1300 cc. There was also
bigger brains and were bipedal a reduction in the size of the jaw,
a.​ Homo habilis (handyman) rounding of the skull and chin. Cro-
-​ 3-4 feet Magnon was the earliest of the Homo
-​ Brain size: 700 cc half size of the sapiens. They spread wider from
modern human Europe , Australia, and the Americans.
-​ Made tool called Oldowan They were omnivores, had skilful hands,
-​ Used tool for hunting and food gathering and developed the power of thinking,
b. Homo erectus producing art, more sophisticated tools
-​ Large Brain size: 1,000 cc and sentiments
-​ Lived in shelters
FRANCISCO JOSE AYALA
-​ Food gatherers
-​ According to Francisco Jose Ayala, a
-​ Crafted Material
noted Spanish-American biologist, the
-​ Skilful hunters
theory of evolution in biology suggests
-​ Walk upright
that “the various types of plants,
-​ First homo species to use fire and live animals, and other living things on earth
in cave have their origins in other pre-existing
c. Homo sapiens types and the distinguishable
-​ Homo sapiens is the only extant human differences are due to modifications in
species. The name Latin for “wise man” successive generations.”
and was introduced in 1758 by Carl -​ Lineages of organisms change through
Linnaeus (who is himself the original generations; diversity arises because
specimen) the lineages that descend from common
-​ Homo sapiens evolved in Africa like ancestors diverge through time.​
other early humans that were living at -​ -In simple terms, biological evolution
this time, they gathered and hunted food continues to influence how people live
, and evolved behaviors that helped and interact with other members of
them respond to the challenges of society.
survival in unstable environments.
1.They lived a nomadic lifestyle and engaged
2 Types of Homo Sapiens in hunting and gathering for their livelihood.
Eventually, they learned to settle in specific
1.Homo sapiens neanderthalensis areas, particularly in areas that were in close
-​ They had a brain size larger than proximity to rivers, and acquired knowledge in
modern man and were gigantic in size. producing their food through agriculture
Also, they had a large head and jaw and
were very powerful and muscular. They 2. Technological evolution
were carnivores and the tools from the as they learned to create various tools and
era indicate they were hunters. They equipment for their daily tasks such as planting
were also cave dwellers but their caves crops, domesticating animals, and trade.
were more comfortable and they lived in
groups and hunted for food gathering. Examples
-​ The change from stone tools to metal
2. Homo sapiens sapiens tools
-​ Also known as “modern-day man” is
what we are today. Compared to the
 -​ The development of industrial -​ Morgan’s studies were read and used by
technologies (steam and electric power) Friedrich Engels in developing a theory
-​ Agricultural and medicinal procedures on the origin of private property and the
-​ Communication resources (internet) state. Taking a close look at early
human history, Engels postulated that
3. Meanwhile, anthropologists introduced the the accumulation of private property
concept of Biocultural evolution sometime in paved the way for the collapse of
the 1970s. primitive communities and the
They refer to biocultural evolution as “the mutual establishment of a class-based society.
interactive evolution of human biology and Engels later collaborated with Karl Marx
culture.” and they came up with the perspective
The concept focused on the idea that “biology that social institutions evolve primarily
makes culture possible and that developing due to the struggle between social
culture further influences the direction of classes over the means of production
biological evolution.” It is also considered as “ such as wealth and private property.
basic concept in understanding the unique
components of human evolution THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL AND
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
The Evolution of Social and Political
Institutions ​ -​ FRIEDRICH ENGELS
-​ KARL MARX
Social scientists assert that human beings are
social beings. People are naturally inclined to FRIEDRICH ENGELS
live together and learn from continuous
interaction with one another -​ Developed a theory on the origin of
private property and state
LEWIS HENRY MORGAN -​ Collaborated with Karl Marx
-​ Social institutions evolve primarily due
-​ In the 19th century, the anthropologist to the struggle between social classes
Lewis Henry Morgan came up with an over the means of production such as
evolutionary scheme that divided history wealth and private property.
into three stages of development:
savagery, barbarism, and civilization. Capitalism: Marx believed that capitalism is not
He stated that the savage stage is the only an economic system but it is also a political
stage of development which is system.
exemplified by the nomadic and
hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Lowest stage Capitalism is an economic system that is based
of development on private ownership and motivation by profit.
-​ Barbarians- the middle stage of Marx criticized capitalism for its tendency to
development where people began abuse the working man, or “the proletariat.
learning agricultural techniques and the
domestication of animals. KARL MARX AND FRIEDRICH ENGELS
-​ -Horticulturalists
-​ Civilization- citizens of modern, Capitalist society divided into two classes:
stratified states, the civilized stage. The -​ Bourgeoisie: the name given by Marx
highest stage of development where to the owners of the means of
people learned writing production in society (wealthier ones)
 -​ Proletariat: (poor ones) workers in -​ He saw social evolution as “a set of
society stages through which all the societies
moved from simple to the complex and
TYPES OF MARXISM from the homogenous to the
heterogeneous
-​ Communism- is the end state of having -​ For Spencer, this law of evolution was
key means of production owned in universal in character for it was
common (communally) without class. applicable to the physical, organic and
First developed by Karl Marx and the social world.
Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century, -​ “While Spencer believed that social part
it has been the foremost ideology of the exists for the social whole, today, society
communist movement. a political theory is believed to exist for the welfare of the
derived from Karl Marx, advocating individuals.
class war and leading to a society in -​ Individual members within societies
which all property is publicly owned and engage in a competition for survival
each person works and is paid whereby the superior ones dominate
according to their abilities and needs. those who are of the inferior type.
-​ This perspective believes that societies
-​ Socialism: is an intermediate transition cannot be classified according to
state where a social revolution (that is, definite stages of development and that
of the workers, the vast majority of one society cannot claim to be more
society) is required to get to “advanced” than other societies.
communism. Additionally, each society and culture
-​ must be analyzed and evaluated
In 1848, Marx and fellow German thinker according to its own specific context and
Friedrich Engels published “The Communist the influence of outside factors.
Manifesto,” which introduced their concept of
socialism as a natural result of the conflicts FRANZ BOAS
inherent in the capitalist system.
-​ Such perspective came to be known as
-​ MARXISM theorizes that in order to cultural relativism or the notion that
remove the proletariat from its poor an individual’s attitudes, beliefs, and
economic situation, a socialist revolution ideas are based on the cultural context
must occur to remove the unconcerned of his or her society.
ruling class from government. -​ The main proponent of this perspective,
-​ Following the revolution, a new, socialist Franz Boas, argued that human
government is created that behavior is not rooted in biology but
subsequently becomes communist in socially constructed.
nature. -​ Promoted the idea of cultural relativism,
-​ In the early 20th century, Herbert stating that an anthropologist cannot
Spencer applied Charles Darwin’s compare two cultures because each
principles of biological evolution to culture has its own internal rules that
social evolution. For Spencer, individual must be accepted. Everyone sees other
members within societies engage in a cultures through the lens of their own
competition for survival whereby the culture.
superior ones dominate those who are -​ Believed that anthropologists must live
of the inferior type. among the people they studied, learn
their language, observe their culture,
and participate in it.
 transformed leadership roles and gave
-​ The evolution of human beings has the chief more complex responsibilities
given rise to the development of social
organization from hunting-gathering INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
groups of agricultural communities and
industrial societies. -​ Over time, as societies evolve, social
and political institutions developed along
-​ These groups had an example social with the ideas of law, political
structure, and social roles were largely leadership, governance, and citizenship.
defined by age, sex, and the division of Beginning in the mid-1700s until the
labor. For instance, most hunting and 1800s, many societies in the world,
gathering societies assigned the task of particularly in Western Europe, were
hunting to the men, while women were transformed by the Industrial Revolution.
employed in gathering. This event introduced significant social,
cultural, and political changes in the
-​ The earliest societies were the lives of the people of Europe
hunters-gatherers, and were referred to -​ Europe was changing from agriculture to
as band-level societies or simply factory production
“bands.” They were basically small and -​ Masses of people moved to the cities in
nomadic family groups and were plainly search of work
organized. These groups were believed -​ Industrial Revolution challenged the
to be highly egalitarian and traditional order an opened the door for
non-hierarchical since distinctions were democratic changes
based on age and sex, and division of -​ Social Changes undermined the
labor was natural (the men hunted and traditional explanations of human
the women gathered). existence

-​ These changes brought about the Laissez-Faire (let be)

establishment of the tribe. This was a -​ The principle of nonintervention of
more formal social organization made government in economic affairs. It is the
up of several bands and groups that heart of the doctrine that the economy
were connected through a clan structure works best when left alone by the
or kinship. government.
-​ This is usually explained by theory
-​ Additionally, the leader of the tribe or “perfect competition” where prices of
headman was a more formal and goods and services not dependent on
established leader. He had significant government policies and are set freely
influence among the members of the based on the interaction between supply
tribe and was recognized as a person of and demand
great importance. -​ Type of style of leadership style in which
leaders allow group members to make
-​ Resolving Conflict the decisions. Researchers have found
-​ Took advantage kinship that this is generally the leadership style
-​ The chiefdom consisted of tribes united that leads to the lowest productivity
under one leader or chief. among group members.
-​ The more complicated interactions THEORIES ON SOCIETY AND CULTURE
among member tribes as well as the -​ The discussion on the evolution of
large populations and territories further societies has given rise to various ideas
regarding the origin and nature of
 society and the state. The following are categories- rule by one, rule by few and rule by
the major ideas about the origin and many.
nature of society, the formation of the
state, and the views about law, SOCIETY AS A PRODUCT OF A SOCIAL
governance, and citizenship. CONTRACT

Society as Natural Institution -​ Another view regarding the nature and

-​ Aristotle considered the polis or origin of the society and state looks at
city-state as the highest form of these institutions as a product of a
interaction which fulfills the highest need social contract-an agreement made by
of man which is self-sufficiency. For him, the members of society that defines and
the polis is the reflection of the natural influences their interactions, particularly
order, as the city-state is composed of with those in authority. However, there
people who govern and those who are are different ideas regarding the nature
governed. of the social contract. The English
philosopher, Thomas Hobbes, thought
-​ According to Aristotle, it is the polis that that the agreement was necessitated by
is completely natural and enables us to the need to guarantee the security of the
meet the needs of human beings in their people.
entirety. These needs are not
necessarily material or economic needs, -​ A social contract is an act by which
but also moral needs. individuals agree to form government
-​ According to social contract theory,
4 Functions of the Polis as Started by governments established by the people
Aristotle who combine to achieve some goal.
-​ A social contract is an act by which
1. Firstly, the polis provides economic individuals agree to form government
prerequisites of morality as economic and moral -​ According to social contract theory,
needs are intertwined. In a polis, people can governments established by the people
engage in an economic activity only to such an who combine to achieve some goal.
extent necessary to meet our needs. -​ Moral and legal rules to help everyone
flourish
2. Secondly, the polis provides educational -​ Create Property rights- farms flourish
conditions upon which the cultivation as well as -​ Create rules against stealing-
realization of moral virtue depends. For Aristotle, investment and industry blossom
education is a matter of acquiring habituated -​ Create militaries and police to enforce
modes of behavior through training and rules the fearful natural state dissipates
repetition. Education is a virtuous act that
enables us to learn. Historical Materialism
-​ Central to Marx’s thought is his
3. Thirdly, the polis provides social preconditions theory of historical materialism, which
for our ethical good. This is because it is not in argued that human societies and their
our nature to be solitary, nor is it in our nature to cultural institutions (like religion, law,
find satisfaction or happi­ness solely for morality, etc.) were the outgrowth of
ourselves and our own interests. collective economic activity. Marx’s
theory was heavily influenced by
4. Finally, based on his comparative study, Hegel’s dialectical method. But while
Aristotle classified constitutions into three broad Marx agreed with Hegel’s basic
dialectical thesis of social change, he
 disagreed with the notion that abstract administration of any large institution.
ideas were the engine. Rather, Marx Max Weber considered bureaucracy as
turned Hegel on his head and argued characterized by rationality,
that it was material, economic rule-governed behavior, and impersonal
forces—or our relationship to the authority.
natural, biological, and physical -​ Bureaucracy refers to a specialized
world—that drove the dialectic of system and process of maintaining
change. More specifically, the engine of uniformity or authority within an
history rests in the internal organization.
contradictions in the system of material
production (or, the things we do in order Six Principles of Bureaucratic Management
to produce what we need for survival).
-​ 1. Proper division of Labor- balance
MODERNIZATION THEORIES between power and responsibility
-​ The historical-materialist perspective -​ 2. Chain of Command- organizational
hierarchy, information, decision and
What is Historical Materialism? work flows effectively from top to bottom
-​ The way in which societies provide for -​ 3. Separation of personal and official
their material needs conditions the property
totality of social relations, institutions, -​ 4. Application of consistent and
and ideas complete rules
-​ Human labor is the foundation of society -​ 5. Selection and Promotion based on
-​ We must focus on the material activity of qualification
humans -​ 6. Training in job requirements and skills

Dialectic Materialism EMILE DURKHEIM

-​ Also known as the dialectical method,
is a discourse between two or more -​ Distinguished archaic, traditional
people holding different points of view societies from traditional societies
about a subject but wishing to establish -​ If you really want to change society
the truth through reasoned arguments. apply it through EDUCATION
-​ Dialectical Materialism is not only a from modern societies.
philosophy but also a complete way of -​ Durkheim described traditional societies
thinking to explain reality. to be bound by what he called
-​ mechanical solidarity- sense of
MAX WEBER BUREAUCRACY bonding within the community based on
-​ Bureaucratic organization is based upon similar beliefs, values, and activities as
a well-defined hierarchy. well as kinship
-​ Hierarchy based on authority. -​ Organic solidarity- where division of
-​ Every employee in the organization has labor is more specialized
a well defined power and authority, -​ For Durkheim, division of labor
based upon employee’s specialization increases the productive capacity and
and expertise. skill of the workman. The Division of
-​ The term bureaucracy is a fusion of two Labor also creates a feeling of solidarity
words, the French bureau meaning between people. It goes beyond
“office” and the Greek word kratos economic interests and establishes
meaning “hierarchy”. Literally, social and moral order within society
bureaucracy means “rule by officials”.
Today, the term refers to the system of