Chapter 20

The Lymphatic System

Overview
• Consists of lymph, a network of lymphatic vessels, lymphoid tissues and
lymphoid organs
• Lymph – interstitial fluid once it enters lymphatic vessels
• Lymph vessels include: Microscopic, permeable, blind-ended lymphatic
capillaries; lymphatic collecting vessels; lymphatic trunks and lymphatic
ducts
• Lymphatic system is closely associated with the cardiovascular system
• Has 3 main functions
o Lymphatic capillaries take up excess tissue fluid and return it to
blood stream
o Lymphatic capillaries (lacteals) absorb fat molecules in the gut and
transport them to blood stream
o Lymphatic system helps to defend the body against disease
• This is a one-way transport system
• This system begins with the lymphatic capillaries and ends with
lymphatic ducts that drain into subclavian veins
• Lymphatic capillaries → Lymphatic afferent vessels → Lymph nodes →
Lymphatic efferent vessels → lymphatic collecting vessels → Lymphatic
trunks → lymphatic ducts
• The lymphatic ducts drain lymph into the circulatory system at the
junction of the subclavian and internal jugular veins
Lymphatic Capillaries
• Lymphatic capillaries are similar to blood capillaries; with modifications
• These capillaries are remarkably permeable as endothelial cells are
loosely connected
• These endothelial cells allow interstitial fluid to enter lymph capillaries
but don’t allow lymph to escape from the capillaries
• Capillaries contain endothelial mini-valves
• The mini-valves function as one-way gates
• During inflammation, lymph capillaries can absorb cell debris,
pathogens, cancer cells etc.
• Lymphatic capillaries take up excess tissue fluid
• Once the fluid enters the lymphatic vessels, it is called lymph
• Lacteals are specialized lymph capillaries present in intestinal mucosa
that absorb digested fat and deliver to the blood
Lymphatic Collecting Vessels
• Lymphatic capillaries join to form lymphatic collecting vessels
• Vessels have the same three tunics as veins
• Vessels have thinner walls than the veins with more internal valves
• Collecting vessels in the skin travel with superficial veins
• Deep vessels travel with arteries
• Skeletal muscle contraction assists in the movement of lymph through
lymphatic vessels
• Nutrients are supplied through vasa vasorum

Lymphatic Trunks
• Lymphatic trunks are formed by the union of the large collecting ducts
• Major trunks include lumbar (paired), bronchomediastinal (paired),
subclavian (paired), jugular trunks(paired) and intestinal trunk (single)

Lymphatic Ducts
• Lymphatic trunks join to form two lymphatic ducts: Right Lymphatic
Duct and Thoracic Duct
• Right lymphatic duct – drains the right arm and the right side of the head,
neck and thorax
• Thoracic duct – is much larger than the Rt. lymphatic duct. It serves the
Lt. arm, Lt. side of head and neck, abdomen and lower extremities
• Lymphatic ducts drain lymph into the circulatory system at the junction
of the subclavian and internal jugular veins
Cells Associated with Lymphatic System (Lymphoid Cells)
Lymphocytes
• Lymphocytes are the main cells involved in the immune response
• These are T cells B cells
• T cells are active against bacteria, virus, fungi, cancer cells, transplanted
cells, toxins and various antigens
• B cells are transformed into plasma cells, which secrete antibodies
• Antibodies immobilize antigens
Macrophages
• They derive from monocytes and phagocytize foreign substances and
help activate T cells
Dendritic cells
• These are spiny-looking cells with functions similar to macrophage cells
Reticular cells
• These are fibroblast like cells that produce a fibrous network to support
other cell types in lymphoid organs

Lymphoid Tissue
• Reticular lymphatic tissue elements are scattered in body organs
• Larger collections appear in the lamina propria of mucous membranes
and lymphoid organs
 • The lamina propria is a thin layer of areolar (loose connective) tissue,
that lies beneath the epithelium and together with the epithelium and
basement membrane constitutes the mucosa

Lymphoid Organs
• Lymphoid organs are encapsulated collections of lymphoid tissues
• These organs produce, process, or contain lymphocytes
• These are: Bone Marrow, Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Thymus, and Tonsils

Bone Marrow
• Contains hematopoietic stem cells
• Stem cells produce blood cells including lymphocytes

Lymph Nodes
• Lymph nodes cleanse lymph
• Nodes are bean shaped and surrounded by a fibrous capsule
• Nodes are imbedded in connective tissue and clustered along lymphatic
vessels
• Aggregations of these nodes occur near the body surface in inguinal,
axillary, and cervical regions of the body
• Their two basic functions are:
o Filtration – macrophages destroy microorganisms and debris
o Immune system activation – T cell monitors antigens and mount an
attack against them
• Nodes have two histologically distinct regions: a cortex and a medulla
• The cortex contains follicles with germinal centers,
• Germinal centers contain dividing B cells
• Dendritic cells encapsulate the follicles
• The deep cortex houses T cells that are in transit
• T cells circulate continuously among the blood, lymph nodes, and
lymphatic stream
• Medulla contain B cells, T cells, and plasma cells
• Throughout the node, there are lymph sinuses with reticular fibers
• Macrophages reside on these fibers and phagocytize foreign matters
• Lymph enters these nodes via afferent lymphatic vessels
• It then enters a large sinus and then into several smaller sinuses
• Lymph leaves the node at the hilus via efferent lymphatic vessels
 • Because there are fewer efferent vessels than the afferent vessels, lymph
stagnates inside the nodes
• This allows lymphocytes and macrophage cells time to carry out their
protective functions
• If lymph nodes are overwhelmed by large numbers of antigens, they
become inflamed and tender - such nodes are called buboes (swollen
glands)
• Nodes can also become secondary cancer sites
• Such nodes are swollen, but are not painful - this distinguishes cancerous
nodes from infected ones

Spleen
• The largest lymphoid organ located on the left side of the abdominal
cavity beneath the diaphragm
 • It is served by the splenic artery and vein, which enter and exit at the
hilus
• It is a site of lymphocyte proliferation, immune surveillance and response
• Spleen cleanses blood and stores breakdown products of RBCs
• Spleen macrophages store iron for later use by bone marrow
• Spleen is a site of fetal erythrocyte production (normally ceases after
birth)
• It stores blood platelets
• Spleen is surrounded by a fibrous capsule, it has partitions called
trabeculae that extend inward and contains lymphocytes, macrophages,
and huge numbers of erythrocytes
• White pulp – area containing mostly lymphocytes on reticular fibers and
involved in immune functions
• Red pulp – splenic tissue concerned with disposing of worn-out RBCs
and blood-borne pathogens

Thymus
• A bilobed organ that secrets hormones (Thymosin and Thymopoietin)
that help mature T-lymphocytes to become immunocompetent cells
• The size of the thymus varies with age
• It is large and most active during childhood
• It stops growing following puberty and then gradually atrophies (shrinks)
• Thymic lobes contain a cortex and a medulla
• The cortex contains densely packed lymphocytes and scattered
macrophages
• The medulla contains fewer lymphocytes and Thymic (Hassall’s)
Corpuscles
• Thymus functions primarily to help T lymphocyte maturation, it does not
directly fight antigens
• The supportive tissue (stroma) of the thymus contains of star-shaped
epithelial cells (not reticular fibers)
• These star-shaped thymocytes secret thymosins and thymopoietins that
stimulate lymphocytes to become immunocompetent
Tonsils
• Tonsils are formed by the aggregation of lymph nodes
• Functionally, tonsils may be associated with the production of
lymphocytes and antibodies
• Pharyngeal tonsil (single) – in the nasopharynx
• Palatine tonsils (paired) – at the base of the palate – commonly removed
• Lingual tonsils (paired) – at the base of the tongue – may also be
removed
• Tonsil masses are not fully encapsulated
• Epithelial tissue overlying tonsil masses form blind-ended crypts (folds)
• Crypts trap and destroy bacteria

Aggregates of Lymphoid Follicles similar to tonsils

Peyer’s patches
• These are isolated clusters of lymphoid tissues
• Found in the wall of the distal portion of the small intestine
• Similar structures are also found in the appendix
• Peyer’s patches and the appendix destroy bacteria, prevent them from
invading the intestinal wall
• Generate “memory” lymphocytes for long-term immunity

MALT
• Mucosa Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT),
 • Composed of Peyer’s patches, tonsils, and the appendix (digestive tract)
and lymphoid nodules in the wall of the bronchi (respiratory tract)
• MALT protects the digestive and respiratory systems from microbes

Developmental Aspects
• The lymphatic vessels and main clusters of lymph nodes begin to develop
by the fifth week of embryonic development
• Lymphatic organs (except the thymus) arise from mesoderm
• The thymus develops from the endoderm as an outgrowth of the pharynx
• Except for the spleen and tonsils, lymphoid organs are poorly developed
at birth