CPU Organization Unit 4

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

4. Fill the blanks-

(i) The routine executed in response to an interrupt request is

known as ___________________.

(ii) Methods for handling multiple interrupts are

_____________ and _________________.

(iii)The module that can handle the interrupt requests from

various devices and allow one by one to the processor and
is known as ______________________.

(iv) The processing required for executing a single instruction is

known as ___________________.

(v) Reading the instruction from the memory to Instruction

register, called __________, and executing the instruction
from the instruction register, called _____________.

4.9 HARDWIRED AND MICRO PROGRAMMED

CONTROL

We know that the execution of a program is nothing but the

execution of a sequence of instruction cycles, with one machine
instruction per cycle. Again, each instruction cycle is made up of
some small cycles and those are fetch cycle, indirect cycle,
execute cycle and interrupt cycle, with only fetch and execute
cycles always occurring. Now, each of the smaller cycles i.e. fetch
cycle, indirect cycle, execute cycle and interrupt cycle, involves a
series of steps, each of which involves the processor registers and
these steps are called Micro-Operations. Therefore, a micro-
operation is an elementary CPU operation, performed during one
clock pulse and an instruction consists of a sequence of micro-
operations.

Now, we will try to see the instruction cycle as a sequence

of Micro-Operations. For that, first we have to take the fetch cycle,
a sub-cycle of the instruction cycle. In the fetch cycle, the Micro-
Operations are as follows-

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CPU Organization Unit 4

µOp1- Move the content of Program Counter to Memory

Address Register.
i.e. MAR  (PC)

µOp2- Move the content of memory location specified by

Memory Address register to Memory Buffer
Register.
i.e., MBR  Memory

µOp3- Increment the Program Counter by the length of

instruction.
i.e., PC  PC + I, where I is the instruction size.

µOp4- Move the content of the Memory Buffer Register to

the Instruction Register.
i.e., IR  (MBR)

Therefore, it is found that four Micro-Operations are needed for the

fetch sub-cycle. Here, µOp1 will be done in time T1, µOp2 and
µOp3 will be done in time T2 and µOp4 will be done in T3. Or,
µOp1 will be done in time T1, µOp2 will be done in time T2 and
µOp3 and µOp4 will be done in T3.

T1: MAR(PC) T1: MAR(PC)

Or,
T2: MBR  Memory T2: MBR  Memory
PC  (PC) + I
T3: PC  (PC) + I
T3: IR  (MBR) IR  (MBR)

Next, Micro-Operations for the Indirect Cycle are as

follows-

T1: MAR  (IR (Address)) // Move the address field of

instruction to MAR
T2: MBR  Memory

T3: IR (Address)  (MBR (Address)) // Address field of IR is

updated from the MBR
Next, Micro-Operations for the Interrupt Cycle are as
follows-

T1: MBR  (PC)

T2: MAR  Save_address

PC  Routine_ Address

T3: Memory  (MBR)

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CPU Organization Unit 4

In the above interrupt Cycle, first the content of PC is

moved to the MBR, so that it can be saved, as it will be needed
after returning from the interrupt service routine. Then MAR is
loaded with the address of the location where PC content is to be
saved and PC will be loaded with the base address of the interrupt
service routine. Finally, store the content of MBR into the memory
as MBR is holding the old value of the PC.

Finally, for gaining the knowledge of Micro-Operations for

the execute cycle, let us take an example of an ADD instruction for
adding the content of location X with register R1, as follows-

ADD R1, X

So, for the execution of the above instruction, the following

Micro-Operations may occurs-

T1: MAR  (IR (Address))

T2: MBR  Memory

T3: R1  (R1) + (MBR)

//add the content of R1 with MBR content.

At this point we are familiar with Micro-Operations and the

two basic tasks of the control unit as follows-

 Sequencing: The control unit causes the processor to

step through a series of Micro-Operation in a proper
sequence, based on the program being executed.
 Execution: The control unit causes each Micro-
Operation to be performed.

Now, come to the topic Control Unit Implementation. There

are several implementation techniques and most of them fall into
the following two categories-

 Hardwired Control
 Micro programmed Control

4.9.1 HARDWIRED CONTROL

In this technique, the control unit is a combinational circuit, where

the input logic signals are transformed into a set of output logic
signals.

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CPU Organization Unit 4

Figure- 4.7

Control unit takes instruction register, the clock, flags and control
bus signals as input. Actually control unit does the use of opcode
and will perform different actions for different instructions. Here, as
shown in the figure-4.7, the opcode of the instructions available in
the Instruction Register will be the input to the decoder and will be
decoded by the decoder. So, the decoded output will be the input
to the control unit and hence there would be a unique logic input
for each opcode.

The clock is also input to the control unit that issues a

repetitive sequence of pulses for measuring the duration of micro-
operations. The control unit produces outputs which are control
signals at different time units within a single instruction cycle that
drives various components in the computer. These control signals
are the sequence of events to be executed under the control of a
system clock.

4.9.2 MICRO PROGRAMMED CONTROL

This technique do not use the interconnection of the basic logic

elements to implement a control unit, because there should have a
logic for sequencing through micro operations, for executing micro
operations, for interpreting opcodes and for making decisions
based on the ALU flags, but it is not easy task. So, micro
programmed control technique uses a different way based on
micro programming language.

We know that for any micro operation (termed as micro

instruction), each control line output from the control unit is either 1
or 0. So, it is possible to construct a control word in which each bit
represents one control line. Now, suppose we put together a
sequence of control words to represents the sequence of micro
operations performed by the control unit. Then, place the control
words in a memory (known as control memory), with each word

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CPU Organization Unit 4

having a unique address. Now, add an address field to each

control word, indicating the location of the next word to be
executed if a certain condition is true. For specifying the condition,
add some other bits in each control word, and add one bit for each
Internal CPU control signals, one bit for each system bus control
signals. The representation of the control word after adding this
address field and some other bits as mentioned is known as
Horizontal Microinstruction and it will be executed in the following
fashion-

1. For executing this microinstruction, turn on all the control

lines indicated by a 1 bit; and leave all other control lines off
indicated by a 0 bit. The resulting control signals will cause
one or more micro-operations to be performed.
2. If the condition indicated by the condition bits is false, then
execute the next microinstruction in sequence, else next
instruction to be executed is indicated in the address field.

Now, let us examine the Functioning of Micro programmed

Control Unit in the following figure- 4.8.

Figure- 4.8

In the figure, the set of micro instructions is stored in the Control

Memory. The Control Address Register is for storing the address of
the control memory, generated by the micro program sequencer,
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CPU Organization Unit 4

or for storing the address of the next micro instruction to be read.

Then Control Buffer Register is for holding the micro instruction
transferred from the control memory after reading it.

Now, these are the steps in the following that happens

during one clock pulse, as the functioning of micro programmed
control unit-

1. For executing an instruction, the sequencing logic issues a

READ control signal to the control memory.
2. The micro instruction or the control word, whose address is
specified by the control address register, is then transferred
to the control buffer register.
3. The content of the control buffer register generates control
signals and next address information for the sequencing
logic unit.
4. The sequencing logic unit loads a new address into the
control address register based on the next control word
address field from the control buffer register and the ALU
flags. The new address may be next instruction address or
may be a jump to a new routine based on a jump micro
instruction or may be jump to a machine instruction routine.

4.9.3 HARDWIRED vs. MICRO PROGRAMMED

Both the techniques are having advantages and disadvantages

over each other.

1. In micro programmed scheme, implementing control

operation is through micro programmed organization where
the control unit is implemented through programming.

But, in hardwired scheme, implementing the control

operation is through sequential circuits.

2. In micro programmed, speed of operation is low as it

involves memory access

But, in hardwired, speed of operation is high.

3. In micro programmed, changes in the control behavior are

easy by modifying the micro instructions in control memory.

But, in hardwired scheme, it is possible if the entire unit

gets redesigned.

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