Final Revision for biology Chapter one: Nutrition

Points Properties
Autotrophic Make their own food by themselves. They can manufacture the high energy food out of simple and low-energy by photosynthesis
Heterotrophic Obtain food from bodies of other organisms where obtain high-energy food materials either from green plants or from animals
Length Structure Age Adaptation Function
a) They have thin walls a) To allow the passage of water and
b) They are large in number and salts
The epidermis consists of a Not exist
Tubular protruding to the outside b) To increase the area of the absorbing
single row of root hairs. It is for more
Root hair outgrowth may c) The solution inside the root surface
lined internally with a thin layer than few
reach 4mm hair vacuole is more c) To help water to pass from the soil to
of cytoplasm that contains large days or
long concentrated than that of soil the root hair
cell vacuole weeks
d) Root hair secrete a viscous d) To help these root hairs to move
substance easily and to fix the plant to the soil
Points Mechanism of water and salt diffusion
Diffusion Is the movement of molecules or ions from a highly concentrated medium to a low concentrated one due to the continuous free motion
Diffusion of water molecules from a medium with a high concentration of water to another with low concentration of water through a semi-
Osmosis
permeable membrane (Osmotic pressure: is the pressure that causes the diffusion of water through semi-permeable membrane)
Cellulosic cell walls: permeable as they allow both water and ions to pass
Permeability Cell walls covered with lignin, suberin or cutin: impermeable to water and salts
Plasma membranes: allow the passage of water and control the permeability of many salts but it prevents sugars and amino acids
Imbibition Solid particles as colloidal have the ability to absorb liquids, swell and increase in volume
Ions move from the salt solution where the concentration is low to the inside of the cell where the concentration is high, energy is needed to move
Active transport
against the concentration gradient
How does absorption of water take place by the root?
1) Root hairs are covered with a colloidal layer, so the outer surface of root hairs will imbibe water from the salt solution
2) The imbibed water is then withdrawn to the inside by osmosis due to the difference between the higher concentration of sugar solution in the cell sap
3) Absorption and movement of water contains from one cell to another until it reaches the xylem vessels in the center of the root
Points Properties
Macro Are needed by the plant in considerable quantities: Nitrogen – Phosphorus – Sulphur – Potassium – Calcium – Magnesium – Iron
Micro Trace elements. They are needed in very small quantities: Manganese – Zinc – Aluminum – Copper – Chlorine – Iodine – Boron
Raw materials Products
1) Water 1) The main product of photosynthesis is a monosaccharide
2) Carbon dioxide: the only source to obtain Carbon A. Building up of proteins needed for growth
3) Mineral salt: B. The production of energy
A. Nitrates, Phosphates and sulphates: convert C. Formation of starch
Photosynthesis carbohydrates into proteins 2) Bi-product of photosynthesis is oxygen
B. Phosphorus: element in the (ATP) that carry energy
during photosynthesis
C. Magnesium: element in the synthesis of chlorophyll
D. Iron: element in building up some enzymes
Label Function
Thin membrane Enclosed it (about 10 nanometer thick)
Stroma Matrix which is a colorless protein substance
Chloroplast Starch grains Minute in its size change back to soluble sugar in order to be translocated to organs of the plant
- Is a pile of 15 or more discs, each disc is hollow
Grana - Grana are arranged as clusters as they are linked together by (Grana lamellae)
- Are responsible for carrying the pigments that absorb light energy
Chlorophyll Absorb light energy required for plants to carry out photosynthesis, magnesium atom occupies the center of the molecule
- Composed of one row of adjacent, barrel-shaped parenchyma cells with no chlorophyll to allow sunlight to pass
Upper and lower
- Stomata spread between them in higher concentration in lower surface
epidermis
- The outer walls of these cells are covered with cutin to protect and decrease the loss of water vapor
Lies below the upper epidermis consists of one row of elongated cylindrical cells arranged perpendicular to
The plant leaf Palisade
the leaf possess many chloroplasts that are arranged at the upper parts
Mesophyll
Lies below the palisade layer irregularly shaped and loosely arranged cells with large intercellular spaces
Sponge
contain less chloroplasts then the palisade cells
Vascular tissue Inside the vascular bundle there are Xylem and Phloem lies towards the lower epidermis
- Light acts as the limiting factor of the process
- Light reactions take place in grana
a) Light falls grana inside the chloroplast, electrons in the chlorophyll gain light energy
Light reaction b) Electrons move up from to higher level. So energy is stored as chemical energy. And is called an excited state
c) Part of the energy stored is used in splitting up water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
d) Hydrogen from the decomposition of water combines with a co-enzyme NADP which is a hydrogen receptor to give NADPH2 and
Oxygen releases as a bi-product for the decomposition of water
- Temperature is the limiting factor for the process (enzymatic reaction)
- Dark reactions take place in stroma
Dark reaction a) Hydrogen carried on NADPH2 is used to fix CO2 gas into carbohydrates with the help of the energy in ATP molecules
b) PGAL (phosphoglyceraldehyde) is first stable compound (3 Carbon atoms) produced in photosynthesis
c) From PGAL all other products in plant cells can be produced
1) Are protein in nature (consists of amino acids linked together by peptide chain)
2) Act like a catalyst as it combines with the reactants and decrease the activation energy. They are specific in function
Enzymes 3) They accelerate the rate of reaction without affecting the end products. They have reversible effect
4) Some enzymes are secreted inactive form and need Co-enzyme to inds to active site of the enzyme as pepsinogen and trypsinogen

Dr Marina Sameh BIODIVA 01225819949

 Points Labels Description Function

- Incisors: at the front of the jaw - To cut food

Teeth - Canines: one at each side of the incisors - To tear food
Buccal - 4 premolars and 6 molars - To crush and grind food
digestion
Tongue Acts as the taste organ, mixing it with saliva
Saliva contains mucous and amylase (ptyalin) Amylase enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch to the maltose
Saliva enzyme that acts in a weak alkaline medium disaccharide
It is a common passage for food and air Swallowing process is an organized reflex action where top of the trachea
Pharynx together with the larynx are elevated, so the epiglottis closes over the glottis
entrance to the air passage
Tube of 25 cm long, lined with glands secreting Food is carried by a series of rhythmical muscular contractions and relaxations
Esophagus mucous is called peristalsis (is used for pushing the food mixing it with the digestive
juice)
The gastric juice: a colorless acidic liquid that contains:

1- Water: 90%

The stomach is joined to the lower part of the 2- Hydrochloric acid: acidic (PH 2.5 – 1.5) that stops the action of ptyalin
Gastric esophagus by the cardiac sphincter, the stomach enzyme and kills the harmful bacteria and activates the gastric enzyme
Stomach is joined to the small intestine by the pyloric Pepsinogen into active Pepsin
digestion
sphincter
3- Pepsin enzyme: which is secreted in an inactive form as pepsinogen, that is
activated by HCl acid into active pepsin. Pepsin catalyzes the hydrolysis of
proteins to polypeptides

The small intestine has 8 meter long. Coils and loops of the small intestine are connected by mesenteric membrane, the small intestine is
differentiated into two parts: the duodenum and ileum
Bile is secreted from the liver during its passage in the Bile emulsifies fats to facilitate and accelerate the enzymatic action
Bile duodenum
1) Sodium bicarbonate That neutralizes HCl acid and renders the duodenum alkaline
2) Pancreatic amylase Catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen into a disaccharide
3) Trypsinogen enzyme: It catalyzes the hydrolysis of proteins into polypeptides
Is an inactive enzyme that is activated by the
Pancreatic action of a co-enzyme called enterokinase into
juice active trypsin
Intestinal
4) Lipases Catalyzes the hydrolysis of fatty emulsion into fatty acids and glycerol
digestion

1) Peptidases Hydrolyze a peptide linkage between amino acids in the polypeptide

chains (Complete the digestion of protein fragments to amino acids)
2) Enzymes that hydrolyze disaccharides to Maltase: Hydrolyze maltose sugar to two molecules of glucose
Intestinal
monosaccharaides: Sucrase: Hydrolyze sucrose sugar to glucose and fructose
juice Lactase: Hydrolyzes lactose sugar to glucose and galactose
3) Enterokinase It is a co-enzyme that activates trypsinogen enzyme into active
trypsin
- Single-celled layer of epithelial cells that There are two roots for absorption of the digested substance:
enclose a lacteal vessel surrounded by blood 1. The blood route:
capillaries a) Blood carries: water, mineral salts, monosaccharide, amino acids,
- Tiny projections from the epithelial cells are and soluble vitamins (B,C)
called micro-villi. To increase the area of the b) These substances are carried to the hepatic portal vein, then to the
absorbing surface liver, then to inferior vena cava of the heart
- Products of the digestive process are 2. The lymphatic route:
Absorption Villi a) Fatty acids and glycerol pass to lacteals with the dissolved vitamins
transferred to the blood and the lymph by
diffusion and active transport (A, D, E and K)
b) Fatty acids and glycerol may recombine to form fats again
c) Some of the emulsified fats are absorbed by engulfing
d) Pass to the lacteals inside the Villi, then to the lymphatic system
which carries them slowly to the superior vena cava then to the
heart
- Undigested food passes to the large intestine where water and some salts are absorbed from these residues
- They decay due to the presence of some species of bacteria
Large
Defecation - Waste remains are expelled as feces through the anus by muscular contractions of the rectum accompanied with
intestine relaxation of the two muscles of the anal sphincter at the two sides of the anus
- The large intestine secretes mucus that facilitates the passage of the wastes out.

Dr Marina Sameh BIODIVA 01225819949

 Final Revision for biology Chapter two: Transport
In primitive plants as algae: In higher plants:
Plants - By diffusion and active transport - Gases are by diffusion and water, salts by vascular
tissues
In small animals as Protozoa and Hydra: In bigger and more complicated animals:
Animals - Respiratory gases and food substances - The presence of a specialized transport system is in
move by diffusion these animals
Points Organ Structure Structure properties
1) Epidermis - One row of barrel-shaped parenchyma cells. Outer walls are covered by cutin
- Is composed of collenchyma cells which their corners thickened by cellulose and
contain plastids (Have supporting and photosynthesis function)
T.s of a young 2) The cortex
- These cells are followed by parenchyma cells
stem in a
- Innermost row is the starch sheath for the storage of the starch grains
Dicotyledonous
plant a) The Pericyclic: - Parenchyma cells that are alternated with sclerenchyma
3) The vascular - Fibers next to a cells (fibers)
cylinder vascular - It supports the stem and to make it erect and flexible
externally
- Is the outer tissue
- It consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem
b)Vascular parenchyma
bundle - Function is to transport the organic food substances
Sieve tubes
- Each is a - Elongated cells arranged end to end
triangular - They contain cytoplasm without a nucleus
1. Phloem
in its - The sieve tubes are separated from each other
shape that by (sieve plates)
its base is Companion cells:
directed - Each sieve tube has a nucleated companion cell
outward - Functions of the sieve tube are controlled by the
companion cells
And phloem
2-
- Cambium divide to secondary phloem
Cambium
outwards and secondary xylem
- Is the inner tissue in the vascular bundle
- Function is to transport water and salts. It supports
the stem as well
vessels
- Is a chain of elongated cylindrical cells that the
transverse walls dissolved
- The walls have thickened with lignin
- The protoplasmic content have died leaving a hollow
3- Xylem tube
- Many pits are scattered all over the wall
- Strands of lignin taking various forms (spiral-shaped or
annular)
Tracheids:
- They appear in the T.S as pentagonal or hexagonal
- They have pointed sharp ends which are pitted Xylem
parenchyma:
- Cells that is present between xylem vessels
- At the center of the stem. It is composed of parenchyma
c) Pith
cells for storage
- Extend between the vascular bundles; connect the cortex
d) Medulla ray
with pith

Mechanism of transport in the phloem (Cytoplasmic streaming). It is explained by Thain and Canny
a) Cytoplasmic streaming is the cytoplasmic circular movement inside sieve tubes and companion cell
b) It is an inactive transport (need more ATP which exist in the companion cells)
c) Food stuffs are translocated through Plasmodesmata from one sieve tube to another one
d) It is delayed with the decreases of temperature or decrease in oxygen in the cells

Dr Marina Sameh BIODIVA 01225819949

 Mechanism of transport in the xylem
1- Root pressure theory:
• Exudation of water from the stump occurs is called exudation
• Due to the root pressure from the osmotic pressure that exists in the root tissues
Disadvantages of root pressure theory:
a) Pressure doesn’t exceed 2 atmospheres
b) Pinus and conifers have no pressure
c) The force of pressure is affected quickly by external factors
2- Imbibition theory:
• The colloidal nature of the walls of xylem vessels to imbibe water
Disadvantages of imbibition theory:
It has a very limited effect in sap ascent
Because water ascends through the cavities of xylem vessels not their walls
3- Capillary theory:
• Xylem is capillary tubes with diameter of 0.02 to 0.5 mm
Disadvantages of capillary theory:
Capillary has a weak effect in ascent
Because the capillary tube doesn’t allow the rise of water more than 150 cm
4- Transpiration pulls, cohesion and adhesion theory
a) Cohesive force:
- The strong mutual attraction between water molecules inside xylem
- It shows a continuous column of water
b) Adhesive force:
- It exists between water molecules and the walls of xylem vessels
- The water column to be held against gravity
c) Transpiration pull:
- It attracts the water column upwards due to the continuous process of loss of water in the leaves
- The heart is a hollow muscular organ enclosed in the pericardium that protects the heart
- The heart is divided into four chambers:
a) The 2 atria (auricles): the upper 2 chambers with thin walls. Those receive blood from
veins
b) The 2 ventricles: the lower 2 chambers with thick walls. Those pump blood through
arteries
1) Heart
- Atrium is connected to its ventricle through an opening which is guarded by means of a
valve,
- The right valve (the tricuspid valve), while the left valve (the bicuspid valve or the mitral
Circulatory
valve)
system
- There are also semi-lunar valve at the connection of the heart with both Aorta and
pulmonary artery
a)Arteries: - It carries oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery
- From the heart to the body and pulsate no valves
- Deep in tissues, buried in muscles and end with capillaries
2) The blood - Formed of 3 layers fibers:
vessels The outer layer: A coat of connective tissue
The middle layer: consists of involuntary muscles which contract and
relax
The inner layer: consists of one row of epithelial cells with elastic fibers
b) Veins: - Carries deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins
- From the body to the heart and doesn’t pulsate
- Superficial (under the skin) and begins with capillaries
- Have valves
- Formed of 3 layers without elastic fibers:
The outer layer: A coat of connective tissue
The middle layer: is less thick and doesn’t pulsate
The inner layer: which consists of one row of tiny epithelial cells
c) Blood - The diameter of capillaries ranges between 7-10 microns
capillaries - Their walls are very thin and consists of one row of epithelial cells
with pores.
- Capillaries reach all the body cells and supply them with their
requirements

Dr Marina Sameh BIODIVA 01225819949

 - Plasma is about 54% of blood volume. It contains:
a) 90% water
b) 1% inorganic salts as Ca++, Na+, (HCO3)-
a) Plasma
c) 7% proteins as albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen
d) 2% other components as: Absorbed food as (sugar, amino acids), Hormones,
Enzymes, Antibiotics. And wastes as urea
- Red blood cells are the most abundant blood cells. They are: 4-5 million cells/mm3
- They are produced in bone marrow of backbones
b) Red blood - Each is destroyed after 120 days. Red blood cells are destroyed in the liver, the
spleen and bone marrow; the proteins in the hemoglobin are used in the formation of
cells
bile
3) The Blood (RBCs)
- They are round, biconcave and contain hemoglobin (Protein + Iron)
- The hemoglobin combines with oxygen to form pale red oxyhemoglobin and unites
with carbon dioxide to form dark red Carboxyhemoglobin which is darker
c) White - They are about 7000 cells/mm3 and increase during diseases
- They are colorless and nucleated. There are different types of leucocytes
blood
- They live for 13 up to 20 days and continuously formed in the bone marrow, spleen
cells
and lymphatic system
(WBCs)
- The main function of WBCs is the protection of the body against the disease.
- They are very small in size, enucleated and live for about 10 days
d) Blood
- They are about 250000 cells/mm3. They are produced in bone marrow
platelets
- They play a role in blood clotting
Heart beats - The heart beats are spontaneous as they originate from the cardiac tissue.
- A bundle is called the sino-atrial node which is considered as the pace maker of the heart at
the wall of right atrium
- The sino-atrial node sends impulses over the two atria which are stimulated to contract
- When the electrical impulses reach the atrio-ventricular node the impulses will spread
rapidly to the walls of both ventricles whom their muscles are stimulated to contract
- The sino-atrial node (the pace maker) beats at regular rate of 70 beats/minute
- It is connected to two nerves:
a) One lowers down its rate (the vagus nerve)
b) The other accelerates it (the sympathetic nerve)

- The maximum blood pressure is measured as the ventricles contract and the minimum as the ventricles relax
- The blood pressure is measured by mercuric instruments, sphygmomanometers
- Its reading consists of two numbers, for example 120/80 mmHg
- As the ventricles contract, the doctor can listen to the heart beat, while as the ventricles relax the
sound disappears
Blood pressure - When the skeletal muscles near the veins contract, they put pressure on the wall of the vein and the
blood contained in these vessels. Veins, however, have valves that prevent backward flow, and
therefore pressure from muscle contraction is sufficient to move blood through veins towards the
heart

Pulmonary circulation Systemic circulation Hepatic circulation

It starts from the right ventricle and ends at the It starts from the left ventricle and ends at 1) Both glucose and amino acids are
left atrium the right atrium transported to the blood capillaries inside
1) When the right ventricle contracts, the valve 1)
When the left ventricle contracts these villi after being absorbed
closes the opening of the atrium 2)
Blood rushes from the left ventricle to 2) These blood capillaries aggregate into
2) The deoxygenated blood will rushes the Aorta the hepatic portal vein
through the pulmonary artery 3) The aorta gives rise to several 3) When it enters the liver, the hepatic portal
3) The pulmonary artery goes to a lung, where arteries, some of which move upwards vein end with blood capillaries
it branches to form blood capillaries while others go downwards 4) Excess food substances filter through the
4) Blood capillaries spread around the alveoli, 4) Arteries then branch to form blood capillary walls cells and passes to the
where exchange of gases takes place capillaries liver
5) Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs 5) These capillaries spread through the 5) Blood capillaries unite into the hepatic
through 4 pulmonary veins to open into the tissues transporting oxygen, water, vein, which leaves the liver to pour its
left atrium and dissolved food substances to contents into the inferior vena cava.
them.
6) On the other hand Carbon dioxide
diffuse through the walls of blood
capillaries and reach the blood which
changes in color from right red to
dark red
7) Blood capillaries collect to give rise to
veins, which pour the deoxygenated
blood into the superior and the
inferior vena cava which carry blood
to the right atrium
The mechanism of blood clotting is illustrated by the following simplified presentation
𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐝 𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠
1. Blood platelets + Destroyed cell → Thromboplastin
𝐓𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐨𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐧 / 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐝 𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 / 𝐂𝐚++
2. Prothrombin → Thrombin
𝐓𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧
3. Fibrinogen → Fibrin

Dr Marina Sameh BIODIVA 01225819949

 Final Revision for biology Chapter three: Respiration
Points Organ Properties Structure Structure properties
- Air enters the body 1. Nose - It’s preferable for the air to enter
through the nose or 2. Mouth through the nose because:
1) Buccal the mouth a) This passage is warm, as it is lined
cavity with numerous blood capillaries
(air b) This passage is moist, as it secretes
entrance) mucous
c) This passage serves as a filter, as it
contains hairs that act as a filter
2) Pharynx - Pharynx is a common passage for both air and food
3) Larynx - Larynx is also known as the voice box
4) Trachea - Air enters the 1. Wall contains - Air enters the trachea through the
trachea through the series of ¾ larynx
larynx cartilage rings - The wall contains a series of rings
2. The inner of which prevent the trachea wall from
trachea with collapsing, thus maintaining an open
cilia passageway for the air
- The inner surface is lined with cilia
which beat upwards to create air
and mucous currents; this impedes
the entry of small foreign bodies
Respiratory system in - The trachea is divided at its lower
end into two bronchi
human 5) The two - Bronchus enters a - Each bronchiole finally opens into one of the many
bronchi lung, where it alveoli (air sacs), of which there are about 600 million per
divides into lung
bronchioles
6) Alveoli - Are respiratory - Blood receives oxygen from the alveolar air and carries it
surfaces, as they are to the whole of the body
surrounded with a - Blood gives out CO2 to the alveoli in return, so that it may
network of get rid of it
capillaries

- At the end of expiration, part of air is always left in lungs to

Note: warm the new air and prevent the adhesion of alveoli
- Man usually loses daily about 500 cm3 of water through his
lungs that moistens the alveoli membrane
- Water is necessary for dissolving oxygen and carbon dioxide, so
that the exchange of gases occurs easily

Dr Marina Sameh BIODIVA 01225819949

 - The given plant absorbs light energy from the sun and transforms it into chemical
energy through photosynthesis process
- When it needs energy, it releases this energy by breaking down of carbon bonds of
the organic substances (Respiration in plants)
- If oxygen is present, aerobic respiration occurs, but if oxygen is absent, it is
called anaerobic respiration
- Each cell is in direct contact with the environment
Gas exchange in
- Oxygen gas diffuses inside, while carbon dioxide is released
most of plants
outside the cell
Oxygen reaches the cells through various passage ways:
Respiration in plants - Through the stomata of leaves, air enters to the air
chambers to the intercellular spaces through the cell
membrane and dissolves in the water and carried to the
phloem passage way, finally reaches the tissues of the stem
Gas exchange in and the root
vascular plants - Oxygen enters the roots, soluble in water when it is
absorbed by the root hairs
- Through the stomata that spread on the surface of the stems
of some plants
- Through the lenticels or any cracks in the bark of woody
stems
- Is the process by which energy is extracted from bonds of food molecules where
released energy used in generating ATP molecules
ATP molecule is built up of 3 subunits:
- Adenine: which is nitrogenous base (has the properties of base)
Cellular respiration Adenosine - Ribose: this is a 5-Carbon sugar (pentose)
Tri-phosphate - Three phosphate groups: Those are linked together by two high
(ATP) energy bonds
Adenosine Tri-phosphate → Adenosine di-phosphate + phosphate
group + E
Glycolysis Krebs cycle Electron transport
Takes place in the non-organ part of the Takes place both inside the mitochondria, where respiratory enzymes
cytoplasm (cytosol) exist
- Hydrogen with high-energy
electrons carried by NADH and
FADH2 are transported by a
sequence of cytochrome at the
inner membrane of mitochondria
- These high-energy electrons
descend from higher energy to
lower ones where energy is
released to form ATP
- Each NADH releases energy to
form 3 ATP molecules, while each
FADH2 releases energy to form 2
ATP
2.2.4.6
-

Non-cellular respiration
In case of animal cells, muscle:
The muscles exert efforts or exercises, consume most of the oxygen in their cells and convert pyruvic acid into lactic acid
(Muscular fatigue)
In case of Bacteria, Pyruvic acid converts into Lactic acid: Acidic fermentation
C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + 2ATP
In case of Yeast fungus: Alcoholic fermentation
Pyruvic acid is reduced into Ethyl alcohol and Carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP

Dr Marina Sameh BIODIVA 01225819949

Gam3tlko al arkam aly f al manha

Name of the compound or stage ATP NADH FADH2 Total

1. Glucose 4 3 x 10 2x2 38
2. PGAL 3 3x5 2x1 20
3. PGAL through electron transport 5x3 2x1 17
4. 2 PGAL 6 3 x 10 2x2 40
5. Pyruvic acid 1 3x4 2x1 15
6. Acetyl group 1 3x3 2x1 12
7. Citric acid 1 3x3 2x1 12
8. Ketoglutaric acid 1 3x2 2x1 9
9. Succinic acid 1 3x1 2x1 6
10. Malic acid 0 3x1 0 3
11. Krebs cycle 1 3x3 2x1 12
12. 2 cycles of Krebs 2 3x6 2x2 24
13. 2 pyruvic acid 2 3x8 2x2 30
14. Cytoplasm 2 2 0 2
15. Mitochondria 2 3 x 10 2x2 26
16. Lactic acid 1 3x5 2x1 18

Name of the stage ATP NADH FADH2 CO2

1. Glycolysis 2 2 0 0
2. Pyruvic into acetyl 0 2 0 2
3. Two Krebs cycle 2 6 2 4
4. Total 4 10 2 6
5. Oxidative phosphorylation 4 3 x 10 = 30 2x2=4 0
6. Total ATP and CO2 6 CO2 + 38 ATP

Dr Marina Sameh BIODIVA 01225819949

 Name of the compound or stage Number
1. Number of ATP from Krebs directly from one cycle 1
2. Number of ATP in complete oxidation of glucose in one cycle of Krebs cycle 12
3. Number of ATP through electron transport in aerobic respiration of glucose 34
4. Number of ATP from glycolysis of 3 molecules of glucose 6
5. Number of ATP from glycolysis of maltose molecule 4
6. Number of ATP from oxidation of 2 glucose molecules inside mitochondria 72
7. Number of ATP in complete oxidation of one molecule of PGAL completely 20
8. Number of ATP from oxidation of 2 molecules of glucose in bacterial cell anaerobically 4
9. Number of ATP produced indirectly from conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl 3
10. Number of ATP from aerobic respiration of glucose in cytosol 2
11. Number of ATP from aerobic respiration of pyruvic acid 15
12. Number of ATP from electron transport of FADH2 result from one glucose molecule 4
13. Number of ATP from complete oxidation of lactic acid aerobically 18
14. Number of ATP from electron transport of 3 glucose molecules in aerobic respiration 102
15. Number of ATP from electron transport of one lactic acid in aerobic respiration 17
16. Number of ATP produced directly from oxidation of two glucose molecules inside 4
mitochondria in Krebs cycle
17. Number of ATP from complete oxidation of citric acid 12
18. Number of ATP from complete oxidation of acetyl group 12
19. Number of ATP from complete oxidation of ketoglutric acid aerobically 9
20. Number of NADH from acidic fermentation of glucose 0
21. Number of NADH in oxidation of glucose in anaerobic respiration 0
22. Number of NADH from glucose through Krebs cycle 6
23. Number of NADH of glycolysis of 11 glucose molecule 22
24. Number of NADH from complete oxidation of glucose 10
25. Number of NADH of alcoholic fermentation of glucose 0
26. Number of NADH from 2 cycles of citric acid molecules 6
27. Number of CO2 from complete oxidation of 2 maltose 24
28. Number of CO2 from glycolysis of 5 glucose molecules 0
29. Number of CO2 from complete oxidation of pyruvic acid 3
30. Number of FADH2 from oxidation of 3 maltose molecules till the end of citric acid cycle 12
31. Ratio between NADH : FADH2 from complete oxidation of glucose respectively 5:1
Number of water molecules from complete oxidation of three molecules of glucose 18
aerobically
32. Number of hydrogen atoms in the compound that accumulate during vigorous effort 6
in muscles
33. Least number of CO-A needed in oxidation of glucose 2

Dr Marina Sameh BIODIVA 01225819949