SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS

Lecturer :
Emeliya Sukma Dara Damanik, M.Hum

Compiled by :
Putri Ramadhani (0304182129)
TBI-5 / Semester VI

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF TARBIYAH DAN TEACHER TRAINING
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATERA
MEDAN
2021
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, the author want to express thanks to Allah SWT, because of
His bless and grace, the author given the opportunity to be able to complete this
paper entilted “Semantics and Pragmatics” properly and correctly, and on time.
This paper is a requirement to fulfill the final task from Ma’am. Emeliya
Sukma Dara Damanik, M.Hum. The lecturer of Semantics and Pragmatics subject.
The author also thanks to her for all the guidance to complete it. In completing
this paper, the author faced many problems, but with the help of many people, all
the problems could be passed.
Finally, the author like to thank to everyone who was important to the
successful realization of this paper. This paper is far from perfect, but it is
expected that it will be useful for the readers. For this reason, constructive
thoughtfull suggestion and critics are welcomed.

Medan, June 2021

Putri Ramadhani

i
 TABLE OF CONTENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………...i

TABLE OF CONTENT…………………………………………………...ii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS ……………………1

A. Definition of Semantics………………………………………... 1
B. Scope of Semantics…………………………………….............. 2
C. Approaches to Study of Semantics…………………………….. 4
D. Conclusion................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER II STUDY OF MEANING………………………………….. 7

A. Types of Meaning ……………………....................................... 7

B. Conclusion................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER III WORD AND SENTENCE…………………………….... 10

A. Sense Relation…………………………………………………..10
B. Semantic and The Nature of Lexicon (Ord Formation)...............11
C. Sentential Meaning...................................................................... 13

D. Conclusion……………………………………………………... 16

CHAPTER IV SEMANTICS AND LITERATURE……………….........17

A. The Nature of Literary Language…………………………….... 17

B. Aspect of Literary Language....................................................... 17
C. The Relationship Between Semantic and Literature....................19

D. Conclusion……………………………………………………... 19

CHAPTER III INTRODUCTION TO PRAGMATICS……………...... 20

A. Definition of Pragmatics……………………………………….. 20
B. Deixis........................................................................................... 20
C. Speech Act Theory.......................................................................21
D. Politeness..................................................................................... 21
E. Impoliteness.................................................................................23

ii
 F. Conclusion................................................................................... 24

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………….25

iii
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

A. DEFINITION OF SEMANTICS
Semantics is a branch of linguistics. Semantics is defined as the study of
meaning. Where in the discussion, semantics focuses on the relationship between
words, sentences and also certain symbols and objects. 1 Semantics is defined as
the study of both the meaning of words and the meaning of sentences. Semantics
discusses the nature of a language's meaning and also knowledge about the
meaning of a language.2
Semantics is the study of the relationship between language and meaning. In
linguistics, semantics has its own relations and rules. Human must combine the
components and rules that exist in linguistics in order to achieve the goal of what
he wants to convey. For example, by combining the lexicon and then into a syntax
form to use logic in order to understand what is being conveyed. So semantics is
defined as a study that deals with the meaning of either the meaning of the word
or the meaning of the sentence.3
The term Semantic was first used in 1897. Breal was the first to introduce and
use the term Semantic. At the beginning, the focus of semantics is the study of
meaning. Philosophers also introduce philosophical semantics as their study
which also examines the conditions under which these linguistic expressions and
the phenomena they refer to are true or false. Besides philosophical semantics,
there are also linguistic semantics which focus more on the properties of natural
language. In addition, there are also pure or logical semantics which discuss the
study of the meaning of expressions using thought or logic.4

1
Hilman Pardede, Semantics: A View to Logic of Language, (Pematang Siantar: FKIP UHN,
2016), p. 11.
2
Patrick Griffiths, An Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 2006), p. 15.
3
Paul R, Kroeger, Analyzing meaning: An introduction to semantics and pragmatics, (Berlin:
Language Science Press, 2018), p. 4.
4
Charles Ogbulogo, et al, Introduction to Semantics, (Abuja:National Open University of Nigeria,
2012), p. 2.

1
B. SCOPE OF SEMANTICS
1. The Nature of Semantics
Semantics examines the relationship between words and sentences in
language. In the communication process, the meaning or purpose to be conveyed
from the communication is sometimes not always static. This is because most of
the ideas about meaning still depend on the context or content and purpose of
what is to be conveyed and also the participants or people who convey
information in the communication. In a communication process, meaning has a
strong relationship with communication. Humans use language in the
communication process to convey information. Therefore, language is declared as
a system because language uses a set of symbols agreed upon by a group. These
symbols can be verbal and nonverbal. Human language is regulated from four
main levels, namely Phonetics and Phonology which studies sound. Morphology
is the study of words. Syntax which examines sentences and Semantics which
studies meaning. In the communication process, the ability and understanding of
the components in the grammar are cognitive abilities. Where the ability to
interpret or understand a meaning is included in the study of semantics and is an
innate aspect.5

2. Semantics and other Related Disciplines

Semantics can be related to philosophy. Philosophy is the study of thought.
This logical system related to thinking is considered to be a coherent and
consistent model for evaluating thinking. In addition, semantics is also related to
sociology and anthropology because the use of certain words can be symbolized
by groups of speakers. In addition, semantics is also associated with psychology.
In semantics, the process of being able to understand or interpret meaning is a
cognitive aspect that is discussed in psychology. Communication theory is also a
study of semantics, this is because information is carried and processed in a
communication system through channels and media that are included in the
communication system.6

5
Ibid., p. 6-7.
6
Ibid., p. 7-8.

2
3. Major Concerns of Semantics

Semantics is also related to naming, concept, feeling and also reference:7

Naming is often identified in the semantic process, this comes from the
understanding that naming or giving words and labels to something. However,
there is controversy regarding this naming. This is because the view of naming is
only found in nouns and nominal sentences because it can be analyzed
semantically. But this naming cannot be related to abstract nouns or nouns that
cannot be analyzed for their meanings, such as the words love, hate and truth
because they are not living beings or nouns.

Concepts in semantic studies include the construction of thoughts and objects

that exist in the real world. As according to the theory initiated by Saussure,
Ogden and also Richards regarding the semantic triangle derived from the
semantic conceptual approach. Where the approach focuses on the power of the
mind to be able to remember and also associate images or symbols with certain
objects and ideas. In this concept that emphasizes the power of the mind, it uses
the ability of association.

Sense is also related to semantics. This is because reason is the part that
explains the relationship of linguistics in the form of lexical items with other
people which is a contractual relationship. In addition, paradigms relating to
synonyms, antonyms and others. But besides that there is a syntagmatic associated
with collocation.

References related to something, whether it is a thing, person or an event.

Reference is the relationship between language expressions such as boy, where
the expression refers to a human being called boy.

7
Ibid., p. 8-9.

3
C. APPROACHES TO STUDY OF SEMANTICS
1. Transitional Semantics
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are philosophers whose works are often
associated with traditional semantics. Where traditional semantics focuses on the
nature of human language itself. They share two views on the nature of human
language, namely naturalists and nurturists. Naturalists in their view state that
language is a gift from God so that there is almost nothing anyone can do,
including humans, to understand language. So humans can only observe and
describe the rules of language. In addition, there is an assumption that Greek is the
language of choice which is the basis of other languages. Latin language is used as
the focus of philosophical research. While in Nurturist, philosophers view that
language is a social tool that is commonly used in speech communities and that
language was created by humans as a tool to communicate. The view of
naturalists as well as nurturists is essentially that language is used as a tool to
communicate. In addition, there is another view of traditional semantics which
states that the meaning of a word can be encoded from its form or sound.
References, concepts, conditions and truths are the main ideas in traditional
semantics.8
2. Behavioural Semantics
Behavioral semantics is influenced by the works of Bloomfield and Skinner.
Traditional rheumatism views meaning as something that is embedded in the mind
of the listener or speaker and usually there is a process in the form of thoughts,
concepts and feelings that are non-physical which produce opportunities for
mental experiences from the listener or speaker. In this behavioral approach, it is
closely related to science and theory. The psychological dimension is considered
as a high result of this theory, both including behavior and experiences that come
through the senses are considered as the main source of knowledge. Stimulus-
response scenarios are identical with cause and effect relationships in most natural
situations and therefore the external environment is considered to be the primary
stimulus for all human speech. Because this behavioral approach is closely related

8
Ibid., p. 12.

4
to theory and experimental explanations, there is an assumption that not
everything in language can be physically observed.9
3. Structural Semantics
The next approach is the structural semantic approach. In the selection of
features in the process of segmentation and classification of the characteristics of
speech. The famous figure in structuralism is Ferdinand de Saussure.
Structuralism considers structures and systems in a language. Structuralism is also
the analysis of understanding relationships that connect words and their meanings.
Where Sense is an expression of a given word's semantic relationship system with
other expressions in a particular language. Then there is a study that discusses the
similarity of words or synonyms and also the dissimilarity of words or antonyms.
On lexical relations in the study of words this construction process is very
useful.10
4. Generative Semantics
The theory of generative semantics discusses transformational generative
grammar, language knowledge is generated in the mind. The figure in this theory
is Noam Chomsky. In his view a language user has an infinite set of rules from
which he can produce an infinite number of words. This ability is supported by
the power of a set of transformational rules, namely changing the type of sentence
structure into another form through transformation. This generative semantics is
concerned with the meaning and interpretation of sentences. This is because there
is a direct problem in explaining the meaning of several paraphrases from a single
deep structure. In addition, there is a syntactic component in the form of a
generative source of grammar which is the output of the syntax and forms the
input to the semantic component. There is an assumption that the semantic
component operates on the structural description of the sentence to provide a
representation of the meaning of the sentence. So the grammar used here is the
totality of the mechanisms and rules of language organization including
meaning.11

9
Ibid., p. 12-13.
10
Ibid., p. 13.
11
Ibid., p. 13-14.

5
D. CONCLUSION
Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. Semantics focuses on the
relationship between words, sentences and also certain symbols and objects.
Semantics also related to interpretation of words and sentences. The scope of
semantics related to another discipline. Semantics examines the relationship
between words and sentences in language. In the communication process, the
meaning or purpose to be conveyed from the communication is sometimes not
always static. Semantics can be related to philosophy. Philosophy is the study of
thought. This logical system related to thinking is considered to be a coherent and
consistent model for evaluating thinking. Semantics is also associated with
psychology this is because process of being able to understand or interpret
meaning is a cognitive aspect that is discussed in psychology. Semantics is also
related to naming, concept, feeling and also reference. There are several
approaches to study of semantics include transitional semantics, behavioural
semantics, structural semantics and generative semantics. In all that approaches
there are some theory according to each expert. The relation between semantics
and other discipline. The focus semantics is how human can interpretation a
sentence and how human can communication with a language.

6
 CHAPTER II
STUDY OF MEANING

A. TYPES OF MEANING
There are several types of meaning. Here are seven types of meaning
according to Leech;
1. Conceptual Meaning
Conceptual meaning is often referred to as denotative or connotative
meaning.12 Conceptual meaning emphasizes the logical (denotative) and
conceptual (cognitive) meaning. According to Leech conceptual meaning is the
center of linguistic communication.13
Here are the examples of Conceptual meaning:

Man Woman
+ Human + Human
+ Male + Male
+ Adult + Adult
So the conceptual meaning is based on the meaning according to the concept.
There are possible differences in the conceptual meaning of each language use.
The use of language in si si communication is described as component analysis.14

2. Connotative Meaning
In the connotative meaning there are elements of the conceptual meaning of
the word and the individual's personal interpretation of what is communicated. So
the interpretation of a word or sentence is based on the personal experience of the
listener.15 Experience is associated with expressions when someone uses or hears
them. Connotative meaning is often considered unstable, it is based on culture,
historical period, and also based on someone's experience. In addition, the

12
Hilman Pardede, Semantics: A View to Logic of Language, (Pematang Siantar: FKIP UHN,
2016), p. 22.
13
Nikola Zdravkovic, The Meaning of Meaning: Leech’s Seven Types of Meaning in Comparison
to Palmer’s and Lyons’ Approaches. (Erlangen: Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 2018). p. 5.
14
Charles Ogbulogo, et al, Introduction to Semantics, (Abuja:National Open University of
Nigeria, 2012), p. 18.
15
Ibid., p. 19.

7
connotative meaning is also considered uncertain and open. This is in contrast to
the conceptual meaning that is considered certain.16
3. Social Meaning
Social meaning related to various social groups who are parts the social
circumstances regarding the use of a piece of language and here a classification of
socio-stylistic variations;17
a. Dialect (The language of a geographical region or social class)
b. Time (e.g. The language of the 18th century)
c. Province (Language of law, science, advertising, etc.)
d. Status (Polite, colloquial, slang, etc.)
e. Modality (Language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.)
f. Singularity (The style of Dickens, Hemingway, etc

In social meaning includes illocutionary force of an utterance, whether it is

interpreted as a request, an assertion, an apology.18

4. Affective Meaning
Affective meaning relates to individual feelings or attitudes felt by the speaker
towards the subject or pair of speeches. This meaning is related to the choice of
words. In the choice of words certain words indicate positive feelings such as
love, happiness and also attraction and so on. There are also certain words that
express negative feelings such as hate, disappointment, and others. There are also
words that indicate the emotional state of the mind such as the word then. In
addition, there are also words that give the impression of affection such as love
and family.19
5. Reflective Meaning
Reflected meaning is related to many meanings. Where reflected meaning
relates to words consisting of several meanings or polysemous words that have

16
Hilman Pardede, op.cit, p. 25.
17
Nikola Zdravkovic, op.cit, p. 7.
18
Hilman Pardede, op.cit, p. 26.
19
Charles Ogbulogo, op.cit. p.20.

8
reflected meaning.20 This sort of meaning arises in cases of multiple conceptual
meaning. A sense of a word makes our reference to another sense.21
6. Collocative Meaning
Collocative meaning is a meaning that refers to a pair of words that only
match other words that are considered commensurate or certain words. The
collocative meaning of lexical items in a language is based on related semantic
fields. For instance, job, employment, engagement, and work are all related.22
7. Thematic Meaning
The last meaning is the thematic meaning which is the meaning of the word
that appears due to the emphasis or focus of conversation in a sentence or
statement. In thematic meaning, there is a choice between expressions that have
the same meaning but differ in communicative values.23

B. CONCLUSION
There are several types of meaning. Here are seven types of meaning
according to Leech include; conceptual meaning (logical, cognitive and denotative
content), connotative meaning (communicative value an expression has by The
communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers virtue of what it
refers to, over and above its to, over and above its purely conceptual conten),
social meaning (related to a piece of language conveys about the social
circumstance of its use), affective meaning (relates to individual feelings or
attitudes felt by the speaker towards the subject or pair of speeches), reflective
meaning (Reflected meaning is related to many meanings), collocative meaning
(refers to a pair of words that only match other words that are considered
commensurate or certain words) and thematic meaning (the meaning of the word
that appears due to the emphasis or focus of conversation in a sentence or
statement).

20
Ibid., p. 21.
21
Hilman Pardede, op.cit, p. 27.
22
Charles Ogbulogo, op.cit. p.20.
23
Hilman Pardede, op.cit, p. 28.

9
 CHAPTER III
WORD AND SENTENCE

A. SENSE RELATION
1. Synonym
Synonym is a relationship between two words that have the same or similar
meaning as another word. In synonyms, if we replace one word with another, it
does not change the meaning of a sentence. Here are two example of synonym;
(i) John frightened the children.
(ii) John scared the children

In two sentences above we can change John frightened the children into
sentence John scared the children by replacing frightened with scared. The two
sentences are semantically or have similar meaning or each entails the other. This
shows that frightened is a synonym of scared.24

2. Antonym
Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning of another word. Two
words are considered antonyms based on most of their components of meaning
and differ only in the value of one particular feature. In addition, antonyms
actually also include several different understanding relationships. Here are some
examples of antonyms big is the opposite of small, dead is the opposite of alive.25
3. Hyponymy
A hyponym is a word or phrase whose meaning is included in another word or
phrase that is more general, namely hypernym and hyperonym. 26 For example,
For instance, included in animals are dogs, elephants, goat, and so on. Hyponymy
can also relate to professions to include law, medicine, teaching, banking, and
etc.27
4. Homonym

24
Paul R, Kroeger, op.cit, p. 108.
25
Ibid., p. 109.
26
Ibid., p. 113.
27
Charles Ogbulogo, op.cit, p. 29.

10
 Homonyms are words that have the same pronunciation or spelling as other
words but have different meanings. Homonyms can create ambiguity because
words that have the same sound or pronunciation can sometimes be confused.
Consider the example below ; 28
- Bank (of a river)
- Bank (financial institution)
- Fly (an insect)
- Fly (to move in the air)
- Lead (verb to guide)
- Lead (an element used in making pencil)
5. Polysemy
Polysemy is a word that has more than one meaning or has many meanings
which are related by extension. Here are numbers that suggest the list of possible
meanings; 29

foot - of a person
2 - of a bed
3 - of a mountain

B. SEMANTIC AND THE NATURE OF LEXICON (ORD FORMATION)

1. The Nature of the Lexicon and the Feature of Words
Lexicon is a word that has meaning. The lexicon can be externalized and
generalized into a dictionary. Phonological, morphological, syntactic, and
semantic characteristics are the information given in the lexicon. Where
phonology focuses on the way sound or pronunciation. Morphology focuses on
word formation. Syntax focuses on sentences and semantics focuses on meaning.
When we focus on the features of a particular word we try to group the word into
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and so on.
Then the words are classified as content and form words. There are new words
that can refer to or have independent meanings that can be linked and understood.
For example, the word laptop, or Facebook, which is a social media that is
28
Ibid., p. 30.
29
Ibid.

11
developing in the current era of technology and communication so that it can be
added to the English dictionary. These words are used to signify syntactic or
language relationships in a larger structure. Form words belong to a closed system
because they cannot be expanded. They are also very few in number. They include
pronouns, auxiliaries, conjunctions, prepositions, determines and particles.30
2. Subcategorising English Words
Subcategories is the process of highlighting the properties of individual words.
For example, nouns can be categorized into precise or general, concrete or
abstract. Another example is count or mass, human or non-human. In subcategory
we should be able to provide some generalisations about contextsensitive
characteristics of some words. For example, the verb “discuss” must take an
object, which is a noun or a noun phrase. Each lexical thing sets up a few
limitations on syntactic categories with which it partners. Context-sensitive
speculations are portion of what we depict as strict subcategorisation.31
3. Role Relations of Lexical Item
Role relations of lexical items serves to highlight the function of lexical items
called arguments including agents, instruments, experiences, sources, destinations,
paths, locations, owners, patients, and so on. Words such as noun verbs have an
important role in determining semantic meaning. The role relates to the
circumstances associated with the participants in a sentence including processes
and events.32
4. The Nature of Empty Categories
Sentence varieties involve transformations which also involve the movement
of some items such as rearrangement, deletion, addition, and substitution of
linguistic items. As a result of this transformation an empty category is formed.33
Empty categories are of the following types:
- The non-anaphoric null pronominal (PRO)
- Anaphors
- Traces

30
Ibid., p. 33.
31
Ibid., p. 34.
32
Ibid., p. 36.
33
Ibid., p. 36.

12
C. SENTENTIAL MEANING
1. Paraphrase
Paraphrase is a sentence that has the same meaning or proposition as another
sentence.34 Paraphrasing is when two or more sentences have the same meaning.
Paraphrasing is when two or more sentences have the same meaning. Paraphrase
divided into two types; lexical paraphrase dan structural paraphrase.35
a. Lexical paraphrase is when two or more sentences have the same meaning
even though there is an exchange or change of words or phrases. 36
Example: Bachelors prefer redhaired girls is a paraphrase of Girls with red
hair are preferred by unmarried men.37
b. Structural paraphrasing is when two or more sentences have the same
meaning even though there is an exchange or change in the sentence
structure. Example:38
(i) They bought a new apartment (Basic –subject + Verb+ object)
(ii) It was a new apartment that they bought (Cleft)

Both example sentences given above are examples of structural

paraphrasing. These sentences still have the same interpretation or
meaning even though the sentence structure is different or there is an
exchange of sentence pattern transformations.

2. Ambiguity
Ambiguity is when a word has one interpretation or multiple meanings. There
are two types of ambiguity; lexical ambiguity and structural ambiguity.39
a. Lexical ambiguity is any ambiguity resulting from the ambiguity of a
word. Example; The captain corrected the list is lexically ambiguous.40

34
James R. Hurford., et.al, Semantics: A Coursebook Second Edition, (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2017), p. 108-109.
35
Charles Ogbulogo, op.cit, p. 39.
36
Ibid.
37
James R. Hurford., et.al, loc.cit.
38
Charles Ogbulogo, op.cit. p. 40.
39
Paul R, Kroeger, op.cit, p. 22.
40
James R. Hurford., et.al, op.cit, p. 136.

13
 b. Structural ambiguity is achieved by the organisation of the elements of the
sentence.41 Example; One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How
he got into my pajamas I’ll never know.42
(i) One morning I [shot an elephant] [in my pajamas].
(ii) One morning I shot [an elephant in my pajama

3. Vagueness
Vagueness is when a sentence becomes unclear when the sentence has an
uncertain meaning. The ambiguity here can occur because there is a mismatch of
the semantic properties of some words. But sometimes, the expression or sentence
that is not clear may be well formed grammatically but maybe only the meaning
doesn't make sense. Example;43
(i) Colourless green ideas sleep furiously together
(ii) The stones consoled her

4. Tautology
Tautology is when in a sentence there is repetition of the same word. This
tautology arises when there is an unnecessary repetition of a word in a sentence
from an element in communication. Example;44
(i) This bachelor has not been married
(ii) The congregation are members of a church

5. Presupposition
Pressupposition is a situation where the speaker and the interlocutor already
know or assume the meaning or information conveyed. Example;45
(i) John: Are you able to bring Harry along?
(ii) Peter: That will be splendid. On our way, we shall pick up the drinks.

6. Entailment
41
Charles ogbulogo, loc.cit.
42
Paul R, Kroeger, op.cit, p. 22.
43
Charles ogbulogo, loc.cit.
44
Ibid., p. 41.
45
Ibid.

14
 Entailment is a meaning relation between propositions or sentences, not
words. The meaning relation between two words creates an entailment relation
between sentences that contain those words Example;46
(i) Fido is a dog.
(ii) Fido is an animal.

7. Anomaly
Anomaly is an oddity. This occurs when two combinations of meaning
produce incompatible results in explaining a phenomenon. 47 For example, in the
naming of vertical and horizontal nouns. Vertical describes tall, while horizontal
describes long. The use of tall and long words is only applied to a few words that
match. Anomalies will arise if the word long is used for a long man and the word
a tall snake.48

8. Contradiction
Contradiction is a situation where two sentences or statements cannot be true
and false at the same time. Example;49
(i) That circular house is rectangular
(ii) The drains are flooded because there are no rains

9. Analyticity
Subcategories is the process of highlighting the properties of individual words.
For example, nouns can be categorized into precise or general, concrete or
abstract. Another example is count or mass, human or non-human. Examples;50
(i) Churches are usually attended by Christians
(ii) Unmarried ladies are spinsters

D. CONCLUSION

46
Paul R, Kroeger, op.cit, p. 120.
47
James R. Hurford., et.al, op.cit, p. 209.
48
Charles Ogbulogo, op.cit. p. 42.
49
Ibid.
50
Ibid.

15
 Sense relation is the relation between lexical unit like words, predicate or
sentence that can be replaced and suitable with other similar units. There are five
of sense relation; synonym (words have similar meaning), antonym (words have
opposite meaning), hyponym (words have meaning is included in another word),
homonym (words that have the same pronunciation or spelling as other words but
have different meaning) and polsemy (word that has more than one meaning or
has many meanings which are related by extension). While semanntics and the
nature of lexion include; the nature of the lexicon and the futre of words,
subcategorising english words, role relation of lexical item and the nature of
empty categories which all of those knowledge of semantics by analysis of words
in their combination in sentences. In sentential meaning there are nine; paraphrase
(sentence that has the same meaning or proposition as another sentence),
ambiguity (word has one interpretation or multiple meanings), vagueness
(sentence becomes unclear when the sentence has an uncertain meaning),
tautology (sentence there is repetition of the same word), presupposition (a
situation where the speaker and the interlocutor already know or assume the
meaning or information conveyed), entailment (a meaning relation between
propositions or sentences, not words), anomaly (two combinations of meaning
produce incompatible results in explaining a phenomeno), contradiction (a
situation where two sentences or statements cannot be true and false at the same
time) and analycity (a situation where a sentence is considered true because there
is a grammatical form and lexical meaning of the proposition).

CHAPTER IV
SEMANTICS AND LITERATURE:
LITERAL AND FIGUTARIVE MEANING

16
A. THE NATURE OF LITERARY LANGUAGE
Creativity is one aspect in the literature. Literature is an art form that comes
from the creative use of language. The expansion of the semantics of words as
well as structures beyond the typical cognitive interpretation is a creativity in the
use of language. There is an exchange in interpreting a meaning or understanding.
In literary language there are several structures that are not necessarily well
formed in meaning or semantics. There are also irregularities in the form of rule
violations. However, it does not always occur in the form of a rule violation. But
it can occur in the form of excessive regularity of the structure to produce
repetition. In addition, it can also be in the form of rearranging certain structures
to achieve predetermined goals. Figurative words come from structural
construction, sound effects, similarity, contrast, association, and indirectness and
analogy so the purpose of this figurative language is to be able to cause and
confuse a person in a certain direction.51

B. ASPECT OF LITERARY LANGUAGE

Literary language is the language used in writing literary works. The language
used in literature or literary language is different from the language used in
general. The following are aspects of literary language;52

1. Formal Language
Literary language is words that have a special meaning which focuses on the
beauty of language. This is because literary language is used for works related
to literature.

2. Eloquence

51
Ibid., p. 69.
52
StudyPoints.com, What is meant by Literary language and Write down its qualities, Access on
June 29,, 2021, https://studypoints.blogspot.com/2015/01/what-is-meant-by-literary-language-
and.html.

17
 Usage of words on time and on a proper place is known as eloquence. It is
kept in mind while producing a literary piece of writing. Such words are tried
to be used which need not editing.
3. Rhetoric
Rhetoric is an important characteristic of literary language. Such words are
chosen which have vast meanings. A short writing should have such effect
which can be spread through many pages,
4. Imagination
Instead of realism. imagination is more important in literature. Unnatural and
fake events are told in literature by using imagination.
5. Area of Communication
Literary language communicates with a specific class like educated and
intellectuals. Common people cannot understand such a difficult language.
6. Source of Creation
Literary language is a source of creation. It is a source of sending a literary
piece of writing to people having literary taste.
7. Objective
Objective of a writing is expression instead of communication. Beauty of
language is more important than demonstration of meaning.
8. Emotions
Emotions are involved in literary language. It has capability to impress a
reader through emotional style.
9. Consistency
Consistency is also an important characteristic of literary language. Events are
said in a specific manner.
10. Conclusion
Conclusion of writing is given at the end. Events are told from less to more
important.
11. Protractedness
A specific class is communicated by literary language, so writings are detailed
instead of short writings.
12. Rules of Language

18
 Rules of language are kept in mind while writing a short story, poetry, drama
etc.
13. Symbolic Expression
Instead of telling something straightforward, symbols are used. Metaphoric
meanings of words are used.

C. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEMANTIC AND LITERATURE

Semantics examines the relationship between words and sentences in
language. Semantics is related to sociology and anthropology because the use of
certain words can be symbolized by groups of speakers. Literature is part of the
picture of social life that is presented through reflection so that it can produce
works that are truly an image of the developments of the times that occurred in
society. Literary language is the language used in writing literary works. The
language used in literary works or literary language is different from the language
used in general. Therefore, semantics has a strong relationship in literature
because the meaning contained in words in literary works has its own meaning or
interpretation.

D. CONCLUSION
Literature is an art form that comes from the creative use of language. The
expansion of the semantics of words as well as structures beyond the typical
cognitive interpretation is a creativity in the use of language. Literary language is
the language used in writing literary works. The language used in literature or
literary language is different from the language used in general. The following are
aspects of literary language; formal language, eloquence, rhetoric, imagination,
area of communication, source of creation, objective, emotions, consistency,
conclusion, protractedness, rules of language, and symbolic expression. Semantics
has a strong relationship in literature because the meaning contained in words in
literary works has its own meaning or interpretation.

19
 CHAPTER V
INTRODUCTION TO PRAGMATICS

A. DEFINITION OF PRAGMATICS
Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics that studies about the interpretation of
meaning.53 Pragmatics is the study of the external meaning structure of language,
how language meaning is used in communication, considering the context in
which it is used.54 Pragmatics is concerned with those aspects of meaning that
depend on or derive from the way in which the words and sentences are used. 55
According to Kempson in Ogbulogo (2012), Pragmatics emphasizes the general
principles used to extract information from a particular utterance based on its
context. The emphasis is not necessarily on the grammatical or structural aspects
of the sentence. So in pragmatics the interpretation of meaning is based on the
listener's interpretation of the information conveyed verbally or non-verbally.56
B. DEIXIS
The term Deixis comes from the Greek Deiktikos which means "capable of
showing or showing directly". Deixis involves the relationship between the
reference point and the aspect of the situation in which the utterance occurs,
meaning that a word can be said to be active if the restaurant moves or changes
depending on the time and place where the word is spoken. 57 There are four types
of deixis; personal deixis, spatial deixis, temporal deixis and discourse deixis.58

53
Anne O’Keeffe, et.al, Introducing Pragmatics in Use, (Routledge, 2019), p. 1.
54
Patrick Griffiths, op.cit, p. 1.
55
Paul R, Kroeger, op.cit, p. 4.
56
Charles Ogbulogo, op.cit. p. 44.
57
Jonathan, Culpeper and Michael Haugh, Pragmatics and the English language, (Macmillan
International Higher Education, 2014), p. 21.
58
Ibid., p. 23-30.

20
C. SPEECH ACT THEORY
According to Austin in Ogbulogo (2012), the theory of speech acts is an
approach that explains the role of speech in the form of participant attitudes in
interpersonal communication. This means that the behavior of the speech act
expresses the intention of the speaker and the effect that the speech and
expressions of the speaker have on the listener. Every utterance has a purpose that
comes from a certain context, this is an implication of the speech act. So the use
of language depends on several contextual factors. These factors include social
factors, physical conditions, attitudes, abilities, beliefs and the relationship that
exists between the speaker and the listener.59

D. POLITENESS
Politeness relates to attitude or behavior in a person. Politeness is used in
communicating with other people. Each country has its own rules of politeness in
the language. For example, when we ask someone for help we can say the word
please. In addition, the word please in British has a strong meaning. In British the
word please is used when you ask or want something. The word please is also
usually used using conjunctions or conjunctions such as can, could and etc. The
use of the word please is also often characterized by British and North American
culture. Politeness relates to the interpretation of behavior in context. Pliteness in
language is closely related to the level of politeness, then because it involves a
polite attitude towards behavior in a general context. Someone can be considered
polite when they can behave and use words according to the context.60
Brown and Levinson divided the politeness into positive politeness and
negative politeness. In Positive politeness to show intimacy to the interlocutor
who is not yet close to the speaker. The way to do this in positive politeness is to
try to give a positive impression and try to be familiar and have the same opinion
or desire to the other person. This method can be used in social situations where if
there are strangers who want to be close to other people, they can use this positive

59
Charles Ogbulogo, op.cit. p. 46.
60
Jonathan, Culpeper and Michael Haugh, op.cit, p. 197-199.

21
politeness. Here are fifteen strategies Brown and Levinson list in order to avoid
threatening positive face:61
- Pay attention to a hearer’s interests, wants, needs or goods.
- Exaggerate interest in, approval of or sympathy with a hearer.
- Employ exaggeration and dramatic effect in your speech in order to
interest and involve the hearer
- Use in-group identity markers.
- Seek agreement/make small talk.
- Assert or imply knowledge of and concern for a hearer’s wants.
- Use inclusive ‘we’ forms.
- Give (or ask for) reasons.
- Assume or assert reciprocity.
- Give gifts.

While Negative politeness is a way to penetrate the negative face of the

interlocutor and the speaker's desire to be free from the burden with the intention
that his actions and intentions are not disturbed and not constrained. There ten
strategies Brown and Levinson list in order to avoid threatening negative face: 62
There ten strategies Brown and Levinson list in order to avoid threatening
negative face:63

- Be conventionally indirect.
- Question, hedge.
- Be pessimistic.
- Minimise the imposition.
- Give deference.
- Apologise.
- Impersonalise.
- Adopt an inclusive perspective.
- Nominalise.
- Claim or disclaim indebtedness to the hearer.

61
Anne O’Keeffe, et.al, op.cit, p. 66.
62
Jonathan, Culpeper and Michael Haugh, op.cit, p. 211.
63
Anne O’Keeffe, et.al, op.cit, p. 69.

22
E. IMPOLITENESS
Impoliteness is the opposite of politeness. Impoliteness is characterised by an
intentional and purposeful attack on a hearer’s face. According to Bousfield
impoliteness as face threatening acts delivered unmitigated, in contexts where
mitigation is required, and/ or with deliberate aggression, that is, with the face
threat exacerbated, ‘boosted’, or maximised in some way to heighten the face
damage inflicted. Impoliteness is a negative attitude and behavior that occurs in a
certain context. Impoliteness is based on the speaker's intentions and the listener's
understanding of the speaker's intentions and their relationship. So certain actions
may be considered as impolite actions if the listener has considered that the
speaker is damaging the listener's or listener's face. Culpeper’s divided two
strategies of politeness, include; impoliteness positive strategies and negative
politeness strategies.64

1. Positive Impoliteness Strategies

 Ignore, snub – fail to acknowledge the other’s presence
 Exclude the other from activity
 Disassociate from the other – deny common ground or association;
avoid sitting together
 Be disinterested, unconcerned, unsympathetic
 Use inappropriate identity markers – for example, use title and
surname when a close relationship pertains
 Use obscure or secretive language
 Seek disagreement – select a sensitive topic
 Make the other feel uncomfortable – do not joke or use small talk
 Use taboo language – swear, be abusive
 Call the hearer names – use derogatory nomitations
 Etc.

2. Negative Impoliteness Strategies

 Frighten – instil a belief that action detrimental to other will occur
64
Ibid., p. 71-72.

23
  Condescend, scorn or ridicule – emphasise own power, use
diminutives, be contemptuous, belittle, do not take the hearer
seriously
 Invade the other’s space – literally, position yourself closer than
the relationship permits, or metaphorically (ask for information too
intimate given the relationship)
 Explicitly associate the hearer with a negative aspect – personalise,
use the pronouns ‘I’ and ‘you’
 Put the other’s indebtedness on record
 Etc.

F. CONCLUSION
Pragmatics is the study of the external meaning structure of language, how
language meaning is used in communication, considering the context in which it
is used. Deixis involves the relationship between the reference point and the
aspect of the situation in which the utterance occurs. There are four types of
deixis; personal deixis, spatial deixis, temporal deixis and discourse deixis.
Politeness relates to attitude or behavior in a person. Politeness divided into
positive politeness and negative politeness. While impoliteness is the opposite of
politeness. Impoliteness is characterised by an intentional and purposeful attack
on a hearer’s face. There are two strategies of impolitess namely impoliteness
positive strategies and negative politeness strategies.

REFERENCES

24
Culpeper, J., & Haugh, M. (2014). Pragmatics and the English language.
Macmillan International Higher Education.

Griffiths, P. (2006). Introduction to English semantics and pragmatics. Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press.

Hurford, J. R., Heasley, B., & Smith, M. B. (2007). Semantics: A Coursebook

Second Edition. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kroeger, P. (2018). Analyzing meaning: An introduction to semantics and

pragmatics. Berlin: Language Science Press.

O’Keeffe, A., Clancy, B., & Adolphs, S. (2019). Introducing pragmatics in use.

Ogbulogo, Charles, et al. (2012). Introduction to Semantics. Abuja: National

Open University of Nigeria.

Pardede, Hilman. (2016). Semantics: A View to Logic of Language. Pematang

Siantar: FKIP UHN.

Studypoint.com. (2015, 11 January). What is meant by Literary language and

Write down its qualities. Accessed on 29 June 2021, from
https://studypoints.blogspot.com/2015/01/what-is-meant-by-literary-
language-and.html.

Zdravkovic, Nikola . (2018). The Meaning of Meaning: Leech’s Seven Types of

Meaning in Comparison to Palmer’s and Lyons’ Approaches. Erlangen:
Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg.

25