EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON

ALKALIACTIVATED CUBE BY USING

PROSOPIS JULIFLORAASH

APROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

DHANUSHYAK 927621BCE006
KALIMUTHU P 927621BCE011
KANISHKAR K 927621BCE012
KAVIYA K 927621BCE014

in partial fulfillment for the award of degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

CIVIL ENGINEERING

M. KUMARASAMY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Autonomous Institution affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

KARUR – 639 113

 i

M.KUMARASAMYCOLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Autonomous Institution affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON
ALKALI ACTIVATED CUBE BY USING PROSOPIS JULIFLORAASH” is
the bonafide work of “ DHANUSHYA K (927621BCE006) , KALIMUTHU P
(927621BCE011), KANISHKAR K (927621BCE012), KAVIYA K
(927621BCE014) ” who carried out the 18CEP104L – MINOR PROJECT II
during the academic year (2022-23) under my supervision. Certified further, that to the
best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other
project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred
on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Signature Signature

Mr.R.VETTURAYASUDHARSANAN, M.E.,(Ph.D)., Dr.V.SENTHILKUMAR,M.E.,Ph.D.,

SUPERVISOR, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT,

Department of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering,

M.Kumarasamy College of Engineering, M.Kumarasamy College of Engineering,

Thalavapalayam, Karur-639113. Thalavapalayam, Karur-639113.

This project Report has been submitted for the End Semester Minor Project viva voce
Examination held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ii

DECLARATION

We affirm that the 18CEP104L – MINOR PROJECT II report titled

“EXPERIMENTALINVESTIGATION ON ALKALI ACTIVATED CUBE BY

USING PROSOPIS JULIFLORA ASH” being submitted in partial fulfillment for
the award of Bachelor of Engineering in Department of Civil Engineering is the
original work carried out by us. It has not formed the part of any other project report
or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier
occasion on this or any other candidate.

Signature
DHANUSHYA K

KALIMUTHU P

KANISHKAR K

KAVIYA K
 iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Our sincere thanks to Thiru.M.Kumarasamy, Chairman and

Dr.K.Ramakrishnan, Secretary of M.Kumarasamy College of Engineering for providing
extra ordinary infrastructure, which helped us to complete the project in time.

It is a great privilege for us to express our gratitude to our esteemed Executive

Director Dr.S.Kuppusamy, MBA., Ph.D., and Principal Dr.B.S.Murugan, Ph.D., for
providing us right ambiance for carrying out the project work.

We would like to thank our Head of the Department Dr.V.Senthilkumar,M.E.,Ph.D.,

for his unwavering moral support throughout the evolution of the project.

We would like to thank our project coordinator Dr.S,Sethuraman,M.E.,Ph.D,

Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering for his cooperation and culminating in
the successful completion of project work.

We offer our whole hearted thanks to our internal guide Mr.R.Vetturayasudharsanan,

M.E.,(Ph.D), Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering for his constant
encouragement, kind co-operation, valuable suggestions and support rendered in making our
project a success.

We glad to thank all the Teaching Faculties and Non-Teaching Faculties of

Department of Civil Engineering for extending a warm helping hand and valuable suggestions
throughout the project.

Words are boundless to thank Our Parents and Friends for their constant
encouragement to complete this project successfully.
 iv

ABSTRACT
In today’s world the main emphasis is on green and sustainable development.
Cement industry is one of the major contributors to pollution by releasing carbon
dioxide. So by partially replacing cement with pozzolanic material such as
prosopisjuliflora ash, the cement industry can serve both the purposes of meeting the
demands of construction industry and at the same time providing a green and clean
environment. Prosopisjuliflora ash is difficult to decompose. So
usingprosopisjuliflora ash is a major step towards sustainable development. Also the
concrete is weak in tension, so with the addition of steel fibres it’s flexural and
tensile strength is also enhanced. Prosopisjulifloraash is obtained from biomass
waste power plants as a waste material. Prosopisjuliflora ash does not have
cementitious property by itself which is responsible for strength generation. But in
presence of water it reacts with free lime obtained from cement and form hydrated
products (c2s and c3s) which helps in attaining the strength and also improving the
durability. As the prosopisjuliflora ash is very fine in structure, it fills more voids
and provides superior pore structure and thereby improves its strength at later stages
due to reduced permeability.

KEYWORDS: Juliflora ash, concrete material.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER.NO CONTENTS PAGE.NO

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 GENERAL 1

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY 2

1.3 FLYASH BRICKS 2

1.4 MATERIALS USED 9

1.5 PREPARATION OF ALKALI SOLUTION 21

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 23
2.1 GENERAL
23
2.2 LITERATURES
23
2.3 SUMMARY
27
3. METHODOLOGY
28
3.1 FLOWCHART
28
3.2 PROPERTIES OF PROSOPIS JULIFLORA ASH
29
4. MIX DESIGN
31
4.1 GENERAL
31
4.2 MIX PROPORTION
31
 vi

4.3 MIXING AND CASTING OF CUBES 32

4.4 CURING OF CUBES 32

5. SIMULATION & DISCUSSIONS 34

5.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE CUBES 34

5.2 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS 35

5.3 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BEAMS 35

6. CONCLUSION
37
7. REFERENCES
38
 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
With the increase of construction materials costs such as cement, steel and timber
are not enthusiastic to build these houses on a tight budget. Polymers have been
gaining tremendous popularity in the construction industry with their ability to
produce long-lasting, energy-efficient and cost-effective building materials and
structures. However, their uses in construction are still relatively novel and
sometimes limited to only a few types of polymers.
Geopolymer is manufactured from the aluminosilicate source material in
example fly ash, silica fume, kaolin, ground granulate blast slag (GGBS), boiler ash
and volcano ash reactivated via alkaline solution.
Sustainability practices can enhance the cost reduction in construction. The
following sustainability practices can be achieved such as by using sugarcane
baggase ash and fly ash as Cement and water replacement. Geopolymers are binding
materials different from OPC and made by activating source materials containing
silica and alumina such as (fly ash) FA with alkali solutions and Na2SiO3. A three-
dimensional amorphous aluminosilicate network is formed due to
geopolymerization.

Geopolymer binders are becoming important because of utilization of waste

materials. One such important source material is FA, which has extensively been
used for synthesis of geopolymer concrete with better mechanical, chemical, thermal
and durability properties as compared to OPC concrete
 2

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

For the present study, the following objectives have been set.
1. To study the properties of bricks.
2.To determine the compressive strength of brick specimens (bricks with prosopis
juliflora ash) using four mix ratio of prosopis juliflora ash and fly ash .
3.To study the compressive strength and water absorption of brick specimens bricks
4.To study all kinds of materials used in bricks with prosopis juliflora ash and fly
ash.

1.3 FLYASH BRICKS:

 3

1.3.1 Composition of Fly ash Brick:

The cost of fly ash bricks is depending on which composition is used. But
whatever fly ash bricks mixing ratio is used and along with that, you have to maintain
the quality too.

You can make quality bricks with using best mixing ratio and raw materials
as per market requirements. Business is about how to increase profit by using the
proper mixing ratio to manufacture fly ash brick at a low cost. Here we explain the
3 very trusted and proven mixing ratios to manufacture fly ash bricks.

1.3.2 Mix Proportion for Fly Ash Brick Manufacturing

Material Quantity

Fly ash 55 to 60%

Sand or stone dust 20 to 25%

Sludge lime 15 to 22%

Gypsum 5%

The material is used to manufacture a fly ash brick is depend on raw material
availability and requirement of bricks. It is suggested to use Sludge Lime as it is less
expensive than Hydrated Lime. The above mixing ratio is more profitable mixing
ratio than below two. The Sludge lime is waste material and costs less than hydrated
 4

lime. Sludge lime is usually wet and has lumps and it is used to make quality fly ash
bricks.

1.3.3 Mix Proportion for Fly ash brick Manufacturing

Here Hydrated lime is used instead of Sludge lime.

Material Quantity

Fly ash 57 to 95%

River Sand or stone dust 18 to 27%

Hydrated lime 9 to 12%

Gypsum 5%

This mixing ratio is widely used to make quality fly ash bricks. As hydrated lime is
easily available this fly ash brick compositions are used by many fly ash brick
manufacturers.

1.3.4 Mix Proportion for Fly Ash Bricks Manufacturing with cement
instead of gypsum and Lime

Material Quantity

Fly ash 50 to 60%

River Sand or stone dust 30 to 40%

Cement 8 to 12%
 5

In this mixing ratio, the cement is used instead of gypsum and lime. This ratio is not
so used because it is costly and not preferred by entrepreneurs. The price of cement
is more than gypsum and lime; thus, this mixing is used only when gypsum and lime
are not available.

5. Tests for Fly ash bricks:

Abrick is generally subjected to following tests to find out its suitability of the
construction works.
i. Absorption.
ii. Crushing strength orcompression strength.
iii. Hardness.
iv. Presence soluble salts.
v.Shape and size.
vi.Soundness.
vii. Structure.

i) Absorption:
A good bricks should not absorb not more than 20 percent of weight of dry
brick.
ii) Compressive strength:
Crushing or compressive strength of brick is found out by placing it in
compression testing machine. It is compressed till it breaks.
iii) Hardness:
No impression is left on the surface the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard.
iv) Presence of soluble salts:
The bricks should not show any grayer white deposits after immersed in water
for 24 hours.
 6

v) Shape and size:

It should be standard size and shape with sharp edges.
vi) Soundness:
The brick should give clear ringing sound struck each other.
vii) Structure:
The structure should be homogeneous, compact and free from any defects.
1.3.6 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF FLYASH BRICKS:

Bricks are one of the choices of constructors for choosing the best materials for their
projects. It is fact that these are widely known as well as their demand in the market,
also their machines are very much popular.

Fly ash bricks making machines are very eco-friendly and durable to make bricks.
With the help of these machines, it is easy and quick to make more bricks in limited
time slop

1.Mixing Process

The main and most important phase for making fly ash brick is to mix the raw
material as well. The quality and strength depend on the mixing process. There are
different types of materials that will be mixed in the following ideal material.

➔ Fly Ash

➔ Sand

➔ Sludge Lime

➔ Gypsum
 7

➔ Grit 4 MM to 8 MM

➔ Crusher Dust 0 MM

➔ Cement

➔ Water

These All Materials Can be Used in Fly Ash Brick Making Machine.

In the mixing process, after adding sludge, lime, and gypsum with some water it is
suggested to mix well and appropriately. After that add a proportion of sand and fly
as above mentioned. And mixed it for some time till it is not mixed properly. With
this our basic raw material manufacturing process comes to an end.

2. Pressing Process

In the second process, the raw material that we made is added to the hopper. Through
the hopper, the raw material will go into the pressure machine and it will be filled in
the mold. Later on, it will be put into the shape of brick by applying pressure.

In the pressing process, to maintain the shape of brick the wooden or thought plastic
pallet is used. To do this process very less hardly 1 or 2 laborers can be required to
put these pallets below the pressure machine.

3. Curing and Drying Process

After the brick goes through by above two processes now it turns to do cure and dry
the brick. When a brick is made, it is stored in a very safe chamber and placed
 8

through a pallet truck. Then it is kept outside to dry for around 10-15 days in the
sunlight.

So, this is the whole process the bricks are made. This process is not hectic and
difficult as we go accordingly and wisely. Mostly, in this process labor cost is a bit
more if you do have not a AFully Automatic Brick Making Machine.

As the form of the solution, Steel land machinery works develop the qualitative
and standard brick making machine that reduces the labor cost and takes less time in
the brick making process mentioned above.

In the Automatic Fly Ash Brick Making Machine, all you need is to put all raw
materials only in their bin. After this, all the material will reach the pan mixer
through the conveyor belt. With the help of this belt, it will again go to the hopper
and be mixed well.

After that, the pallet automatically goes into the machine. And on the top of the
pallet, the raw material will be pressurized and come out in the form of a brick. And
then, the pallet stacker automatically arranges the bricks produced by the pressure
machine.

In this whole process, around 6 laborers are required. This means that you will get
quality work at half the cost of labor. Also, it becomes a one-time investment for any
manufacturer. This shows that the automatic fly ash brick making machine is much
better than the manual fly ash brick making machine in all aspects.
 9

4. MATERIALSUSED:
1. Prosopis Juliflora Ash.

2. Sugarcane Baggase Ash.

3. Plastic Waste.
4. Rice husk ash.
5. Fly Ash.
6. Alkaline Solution.

1.4.1 PROSOPIS JULIFLORAASH:

PROSOPIS JULIFLORA ash is used as the additive material in the paver Blocks
The percentage of PROSOPIS JULIFLORA ash used in 0, 5, 10, 15,20, 25, 30, 35,
40 by the weight of cement. The PROSOPIS JULIFLORA Ash added is to Enhance
the strength of concrete paver blocks. Wood ash( PROSOPIS JULIFLORA ash ) is
optioned from the combustion of wood. Wood ash prepared from the uncontrolled
burning of wood (PROSOPIS JULIFLORA).During the last decades it has been
recognized with growing wood ash waste of large volume and that is increasing year
in the household, mills and factories.
 10

PROSOPIS JULIFLORA ASH

The history of the first introduction of Prosopis Juliflora into India is about 130
years old. Introduction of the species was first seriously attempted in 1970. Owing
to its fast growth and drought hardiness, the species has since been introduced in
many other parts of India from the northwest to extreme southern parts. Prosopis
juliflora is one of the most economically and ecologically important tree species in
arid and semi-arid zones of the world. All parts of P. juliflora have a wide range of
uses. Prosopis was introduced in India during the 1870s to meet the fuel wood
demand and in Tamil Nadu the 1960s, particularly in the composite
Ramanathapuram and Tirunelveli districts. In Ramanathapuram district alone, it has
commanded an area of about 52,000 hectares. Prosopis juliflora is an evergreen tree
with a large crown and an open canopy, growing to a height of 5-10 m. Stem green-
brown, sinuous and twisted, with axial thorns situated on both sides of the nodes and
branches. Prosopis Juliflora is found especially in areas with 150-750mm mean
annual rainfall and maximum shade temperatures of 40-45ºC. Bark somewhat rough;
dull red. The root system includes a deep taproot. In India, P. juliflora flowers twice
a year, in February-March and AugustSeptember, and is a prolific seeder. The pods
from autumn flowering mature by May or early June and are dispersed before the
onset of the monsoon. In drought years, autumn flowering is extremely affected,
with trees often failing to flower, but these same trees flower and fruit subsequently
when there is adequate rainfall. The bisexual, pea like flowers are cross-pollinated
by wind and insects. The seed is disseminated and pretreated by the agency of
animals that feed on the pods.

In India, original introductions are thought to have been P.juliflora from Mexico or
Jamaica. Differences in plant morphology may be due to further introductions of
seed material of various origins and possible hybridisation between them. Five forms
 11

of P. juliflora have been identified in India. P.juliflora leaves have been used as
feeding cattles and humans. Intoxication with plant has been reported and is
characterized by neuromuscular alterations and gliosis. Plant growth and
productivity are adversely affected by various abiotic stress factors. Prosopis
juliflora is a hardy plant reported to be tolerant to drought, salinity, extremes of soil
pH, and heavy metal stress. Every part of P.juliflora is abundantly being used in
various fields. Research in developing P. juliflora for its alleopathy, medicinal and
biopesticide is going to have a great impact on development of new drugs and
pesticides. The detailed understanding of the chemistry of P. juliflora and the ability
of growing in extreme conditions will ensure a rational and cost effective
development.

1.4.2 Uses of Prosopis Juliflora Ash:

P. juliflora is considered very useful for afforestation of saline and alkaline
wasteland and for the production of fuelwood and dry season fodder. Its role as a
rangeland tree deserves further research attention. Barks are used for non-
nutritional purposes, i.e., wood, tanning, fuel, firewood and charcoal.

1.4.3 SUGARCANE BAGGASE ASH:

Sugar cane is a kind of tropical and subtropical crop and is the main sugar crop
worldwide. Sugar cane is typically used to produce sugar and ethanol. It shows the
whole production chain in the sugar mill. After the extraction of sugar juice from
sugar cane, sugar cane bagasse is produced, which is approximately 50% of the
sugar cane quality.

Sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) is an abundant byproduct of the sugar and ethanol
industry. SCBA is generally used as a fertilizer or is disposed of in landfills, which
has led to intensified environmental concerns
 12

The SCB could be used in diverse applications such as adsorbent, ion exchange
resin, briquettes, ceramics, concrete, cement and polymer composites.
Consequently, the SCB is a biomass with great potential to meet global energy
demand and encourage environmental sustainability.

SUGARCANE BAGGASE ASH

Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) is obtained from the burning of bagasse as a heat
source in the sugar industry [9]. The sugarcane bagasse ash contains approximately
62% of silica, and some minor components of alumina, calcium oxide, ferric oxide,
and potassium oxide.

Bagasse is the dry pulpy fibrous material that remains after

crushing sugarcane or sorghum stalks to extract their juice.It is used as a biofuel for
the production of heat, energy, and electricity, and in the manufacture of pulp and
building materials

Bagasse is the solid by-product when the liquid components are extracted from
plants. Much of the core of those plants is a heterogeneous "pith" fibre. This fibre is
 13

primarily parenchyma tissue, along with bast, rind, or stem fibers of

the sclerenchyma.

Here's an example chemical analysis of washed and dried bagasse:

 Cellulose: 45–55%
 Hemicellulose: 20–25%
 Lignin: 18–24%

There is improvement in the performance of concrete containing sugarcane bagasse;

strength gain was noticed due to increased pozzolanic reactions, low heat of
hydration, reduced permeability could be due to pore refinement bagasse ash
blended concrete.
 14

4. Uses of Sugarcane BaggaseAsh:

The bricks can be used in local construction especially for non-load-bearing
walls. Sugarcane bagasse ash waste in brick can keep the sugarcane industry
disposal charges and produce a ‘greener’bricks for creation.

5. Plastic Waste:
Plastic pollution involves the accumulation of plastic products in the environment
that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, or humans. The prominence of
plastic pollution is correlated with plastics being inexpensive and durable, which
lends to high levels of plastics used by humans. However, it is slow to degrade.
Plastic pollution can unfavorably affect lands, waterways and oceans. Living
organisms, particularly marine animals, can also be affected through entanglement,
direct ingestion of plastic waste, or through exposure to chemicals within plastics
that cause interruptions in biological functions. Disposable plastics used in
packaging foodstuff meant for human consumption contain harmful compounds.
Improper disposal of these packaging products leads to these harmful compounds
finding their way to water bodies, where they degradable over a long time due to
their non-biodegradable nature.
 15

PLASTIC WASTE
6. Uses of Plastic Waste:
Waste plastic will not absorb any moisture at any time any source. So, it will helps
to restrict the absorption of water in the brick.. Not only the absorption of water it
will also increase the strength of brick. This will increase the life span of brick
more than normal type of brick.

7. Plastic Waste:
Rice husks are the hard protective coverings of rice grains which are separated
from the grains during milling process. Rice husk is an abundantly available waste
material in all rice producing countries, and it contains about 30%–50% of organic
carbon. In the course of a typical milling process, the husks are removed from the
raw grain to reveal whole brown rice which upon further milling to remove the
bran layer will yield white rice. Current rice production in the world is estimated to
 16

be 700 million tons. Rice husk constitutes about 20% of the weight of rice and its
composition is as follows: cellulose (50%), lignin (25%–30%), silica (15%–20%),
and moisture (10%–15%). Bulk density of rice husk is low and lies in the range
90–150 kg/m3.
Sources of rice husk ash (RHA) will be in the rice growing regions of the world, as
for example China, India, and the far-East countries. RHA is the product of
incineration of rice husk. Most of the evaporable components of rice husk are slowly
lost during burning and the primary residues are the silicates. The characteristics of
the ash are dependent on (1) composition of the rice husks, (2) burning temperature,
and (3) burning time. Every 100 kg of husks burnt in a boiler for example will yield
about 25 kg of RHA. In certain areas, rice husk is used as a fuel for parboiling paddy
in rice mills, whereas in some places it is field-burnt as a local fuel. However, the
combustion of rice husks in such cases is far from complete and the partial burning
also contributes to air pollution. The calorific value of rice husks is about 50% of
that of coal, and assuming that husks have about 8%–10% of moisture content and
zero bran, the calorific value is estimated to be 15 MJ/kg. Under controlled burning
conditions, the volatile organic matter in the rice husk consisting of cellulose and
lignin are removed and the residual ash is predominantly amorphous silica with a
(microporous) cellular structure.

1.4.8 Uses of Rice husk ash:

Rice husk ash has been used to produce refractory bricks due to its insulating
properties. It can be used as an organic filler in refractory bricks where the organic
matter is burned out during the firing to produce a lightweight porous product.
 17

1.4.9 FlyAsh:
Fly ash is most commonly used as a pozzolan in PCC applications. Pozzolans are
siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials, which in a finely divided form and in
the presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to
produce cementitious compounds.

The fly ash produced from the burning of pulverized coal in a coal-fired boiler is a
fine-grained, powdery particulate material that is carried off in the flue gas and
usually collected from the flue gas by means of electrostatic precipitators,
baghouses, or mechanical collection devices such as cyclones.
Fly ash is a heterogeneous by-product material produced in the combustion process
of coal used in power stations. It is a fine grey coloured powder having spherical
glassy particles that rise with the flue gases. As fly ash contains pozzolanic materials
components which reach with lime to form cementatious materials. Thus Fly ash is
used in concrete, mines, landfills and dams.

FLY ASH

Fly ash can be separated into two main types, known as Class F and Class C. Class F
fly ash contains particles covered in a type of melted glass allowing it to reduce the
risk of concrete expansion and increase resistance to sulphates and alkali-aggregate
 18

reactions. Class C fly ash contains a higher percentage of calcium oxide, making it
more effective in strengthening structural concrete.

1.4.10 Uses for Fly ash:

1. Used in the manufacture of Portland cement.

2. Typically used for embankment construction.

3. Used as a soil stabilisation material.

4. Fly ash is also used as a component in the production of flowable fill.

5. Used as the filler mineral in asphalt road laying to fill the voids.

6. Fly ash is used as component in geoploymers.

7. Used in Roller compacted concrete dams.

8. Used in the manufacture of fly ash bricks

Fly ash bricks are hi-tech well-improved quality bricks used for construction of brick
masonry structures. They are used as replacement for normal clay bricks and has
better properties than it. Fly ash bricks competitive in comparison to the
conventional clay bricks and provide enormous indirect benefits. The utilization of
fly ash bricks results in conservation of natural resources as well as protection of
environment.

1.4.11Alkaline Solution:

When an alkali is dissolved in water, the solution formed is known as alkaline

solution. They can be formed in the laboratory or via natural processes also like
erosion. Alkaline solution is basic in nature so used in the laboratory, industry etc.
to make chemical reactions basic or neutral.
 19

Sodium Hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye and caustic soda, is an alkaline solution with
a strong chemical base. Manufacturers use this solution in textiles, soaps, drinking
water and paper. Sodium hydroxide is hygroscopic meaning it absorbs water from
the air and, therefore, you must store this alkaline solution in an airtight container.
You can also use sodium hydroxide to dissolve certain types of metals and
compounds. In food preparations, you can use sodium hydroxide to chemically wash
or peel foods, to process fruits, vegetables and cocoa and to scald poultry.

Potassium Hydroxide

Potassium hydroxide, also known as caustic potash, is an inorganic compound that

also functions as an alkaline solution. Potassium hydroxide has several different
applications including use in the manufacturing of diesel, soft soaps and as an
electrolyte in alkaline batteries. Additionally, you can use potassium hydroxide as a
cuticle remover in manicure treatments and for chemical cremations. The chemical
cremation process dissolves all body tissues except bones. Many alkaline solutions
including potassium hydroxide can cause severe chemical burns. You should always
take extreme precaution while handling any alkaline solution.

Magnesium Hydroxide

Magnesium hydroxide is commonly called milk of magnesia because this alkaline

solution looks like milk. Medical professionals commonly recommend magnesium
hydroxide as a mild antacid or laxative. This alkaline solution, however, can deplete
your body of essential mineral potassium when used as a laxative. Speak to a medical
 20

professional prior consuming using magnesium hydroxide. Manufacturers also

commonly use magnesium hydroxide as an ingredient in antiperspirants.

1.4.12 Alkali activator solution

The alkaline activator solution is another pillar of the geopolymerization process,

playing an important role in the formation of crystalline structures of Si and Al,
which is typically a combination of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium
hydroxide (KOH) and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) or potassium silicate (K2SiO3)

Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye and caustic soda, is an inorganic

compound. In the presence of NaOH in the activating solution the reaction
proceeds more rapidly and the gel is less smooth the most common alkaline
activator used is the mixture of Sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate. It is a white
solid and highly caustic metallic base and alkali of sodium which is available in
flakes, granules, and as prepared solutions at different concentrations.

ALKALI SOLUTION
 21

Sodium Silicate Sodium silicate is the common name for compounds with the
formula Na2SiO3. Also known as water glass or liquid glass, these materials are
available in aqueous solution and in solid form.

Na2CO3 + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + CO2

Sodium silicate with a ratio of Sio2 to Na2o is approximately 2 was used. That is
29.4% Sio2, 14.7 % Na2o, 55.9% water. A chemical reaction occurs with the
excess Ca (OH)2 (Portlandite) present in the concrete that permanently binds
the silicates with the surface, making them far more durable and water repellent.
This type of activator plays an important role in the polymerization process.

5. PREPARATION OFALKALI SOLUTION

The preparation of NaOH solution is done by dissolving the following ingredients
in water.
Aconcentration of 10m NaOH is calculated as molecular weight of NaOH is 40 and
for 10M.
We need to calculate NaOH by 10 X 40=400 grams and dividing 400 grams in 1 liter
distilled water adding distilled water to NaOH flakes use the solution after 24 hours.

1. Molar concentration
The component of a solution that is present in the largest amount is known as
the solvent. Any chemical species mixed in the solvent is called a solute, and solutes
can be gases, liquids, or solids. For example, Earth's atmosphere is a mixture of 78%
percent nitrogen gas, 21%, percent oxygen gas, and 1%, percent argon, carbon
dioxide, and other gases. We can think of the atmosphere as a solution where
nitrogen gas is the solvent, and the solutes are oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide.
 22

1.5.2 Molarity:

The molarity or molar concentration of a solute is defined as the number of moles of

solute per liter of solution (not per liter of solvent!)

MOLARITY = weight of NaOH x 1000ml

Molecular weight of solute Volume of Solvent(ml)

 23

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1. GENERAL
Various literatures were collected to study and investigate to do project
about bricks. Based on these collected literatures, the type of ingredients and the
addition of ingredients were studied.

2. LITERATURES
1.DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF GREEN FIRED CLAY
BRICKS USING INDUSTRIALAND AGRICULTURALWASTES

Radwa Defalla Abdel Hafez a,*, Bassam A. Tayeh b, Raghda Osama Abd- Al Ftahc
The primary focus of this research is to examine the impacts of agro-industrial
wastes, such as sludge waste (SW), steel slag (SS), wood ash (WA), and banana ash
(BA) on various physical, mechanical, and microstructure characteristics. The green
CBs were prepared by admixing the wastes at a 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% dosage.
The binary blended CBs were dried under the sun for 7 days before being fired at
900 ◦C for 3 hrs. The CBs containing SW, WA, and BA exhibited lower compressive
strengths of ~67% than the control and SS blended specimens depending on the
chemical composition and particle size distribution of the source material.

The microstructural analysis of the CBs incorporating the wastes tented to improve
with the addition of waste precursors and governed by the Ca/Si ratio. The outcomes
revealed the potential of attaining reduced bulk density for the light-weight and cost-
effective constructions with low volume (5%) replacement of studied wastes in the
clay mixture. The scanning electron micro-scopic (SEM) analysis revealed a
relatively compact matrix of the control and SS-based specimens which tended to
improve the engineering properties of developed CBs.
 24

2.THE INCORPORATION OFWOOD WASTE ASH AS APARTIAL

CEMENT REPLACEMENT MATERIAL FOR MAKING STRUCTURAL
GRADE CONCRETE

Swaptik Chowdhury, Mihir Mishra, Om Suganya

. With increasing industrialization, the industrial byproducts (wastes) are being
accumu- lated to a large extent, leading to environmental and economic concerns
related to their disposal (land filling). Wood ash is the residue produced from the
incineration of wood and its products (chips, saw dust, bark) for power generation
or other uses. Cement is an energy extensive industrial commodity and leads to the
emission of a vast amount of greenhouse gases, forcing researchers to look for an
alternative, such as a sustainable building practice. This paper presents an
overview of the work and studies done on the incorporation of wood ash as partial
replacement of cement in concrete from the year 1991 to 2012. The aspects of
wood ash such as its physical, chemical, min- eralogical and elemental
characteristics as well as the influence of wood ash on properties such as
workability, water absorption, compressive strength, flexural rigidity test, split
tensile test, bulk density, chloride permeability, freeze thaw and acid resistance of
concrete have been discussed in detail.

3.WOODASH ASAN EFFECTIVE RAW MATERIALFOR CONCRETE

BLOCKS
PrabagarSubramaniam, KalyaSubasinghe, W. R. KeerthiFonseka
Utilization of wood ash as a partial substitution for cement is one of the promising
method to increase the strength and thermal insulation for cement blocks. The
present study focused to use wood ash as a partial replacement for cement material
 25

during sandcement block manufacturing. The concrete mixtures have been mixed
with 10%, 15% 20% and 25% of wood ash as a partial replacement for cement with
sand and tested for compressive strength, water absorption and heat release. Higher
compressive strength was observed in the samples of 15% containing wood ash
replacement material. All the samples other than 25% of wood ash replacement were
shown lower water absorption and highest was found in 15% wood ash content.
Slower heat release was observed in the samples of 15% and 20% of wood ash
replacement after 21 days of curing time. Addition of 15% wood ash for the
manufacturing of concrete blocks was developed and these blocks meet standard
limits.The wood ash has the potential ability to replace the cement partially in
cement block manufacturing industry. According to the results, the optimum
percentage of wood ash that can replace cement is 15% and it provides a block with
a high compressive strength. Water absorption capacity is obtained at 15% of wood
ash replacement after 21 days of curing period. Wood ash is a valuable addition due
to its slow rate of heat release and 15% replacement showed slower heat release. The
Blocks can be modified with 15% of wood ashtogether with other cement materials.

4. RECYCLING UNTREATED SUGARCANE BAGASSE ASH AND

INDUSTRIAL WASTES FOR THE PREPARATION OF RESISTANT,
LIGHTWEIGHTAND ECOLOGICALFIRED BRICKS

Olivia Teresa Maza-Ignacio a, Víctor Guillermo Jiménez-Quero b, Jaime Guerrero-

Paz c,Pedro Montes-García b,⇑

The partial replacement of CLAY with agricultural and industrial waste on the
strength and durability properties of fired bricks. In the first phase of this study,
CLAY was partially replaced by untreated sugarcane bagasse ash (UtSCBA),and in
the second phase by combinations of UtSCBA plus fly ash (FA) and UtSCBA plus
silica fume (SF).Binary and ternary mixtures were elaborated and characterized. The
 26

plasticities of all mixtures were eval-uated, and bricks were fabricated at 900 and
1000 C for the binary mixtures and at 900, 1000 and 1100 C for the ternary mixtures.
The fired bricks were tested for linear shrinkage, apparent density,apparent porosity,
water absorption, initial rate of absorption, compressive strength and flexural
strength. It was found that the bricks made with 70CLAY + 20UtSCBA + 10SF
mixture fired at 1100 C are only 2.08% more resistant to compression, 84% more
resistant to bending, and only 7.03% lighter than the control bricks; nevertheless,
with this mixture the use of clay is reduced by up to 30%.

5. THE POTENTIAL OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE:USING FOUNDRY SAND

WITH FLY ASH AND ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE SLAG FOR
GEOPOLYMER BRICK PRODUCTION

Suchanya Apithanyasai a , Nuta Supakata b,c,d,*, Seksan Papong e

The purpose of this study was to investigate the best ratio of waste foundry sand
(WFS), fly ash (FA), and electric arc furnace slag (EAF slag) for the production of
geopolymer bricks. In this research study, WFS, FA, and EAF slag were mixed. t
the geopolymer bricks with the highest compressive strength were those mixed at
the 40:30:30 ratio, with a compressive strength of 25.76 MPa. The strongest bricks
were also analyzed using the leaching test to ensure the production involved non-
hazardous materials. To compare the environmental impacts of geopolymer bricks
and concrete bricks, their effects on climate change, ozone depletion, terrestrial
acidification, human toxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, and fossil fuel depletion were
examined from cradle to grave using SimaPro 8.0.5.13 software. The results of the
life cycle assessment (LCA) from cradle to grave showed that the environmental
impact of geopolymer brick production was lower in every aspect than that of
concrete production. Therefore, geopolymer brick production can reduce
environmental impact and can be a value-added use for industrial waste.
 27

6. RECYCLING OF WASTE HDPE AND PP PLASTIC PREPARATION OF

PLASTIC BRICKAND ITS MECHANICALPROPERTIES

Prathik Kulkarni a,Vikas Ravekar a, P. Rama Rao b, Sahil Waigokar a, Sanket

Hingankar a

The first phase of work, standard tests are performed to study the physical,
mechanical and thermal properties of the plastic brick. In the next phase, a 500 ×
110 × 500 mm wall is constructed and the results of the plastic brick wall are
compared with a conventional brick wall. The wall was tested using a universal
testing machine (UTM) as per IS 1905:1987. It was interesting to observe that the
HDPE and PP brick gave a compressive strength of 11.19 N/mm2 and 10.02 N/mm2
which were in good agreement with first-class conventional brick which gave a
compressive strength of 10.5 N/mm2. While it is also worth noting that HDPE brick
had the highest compressive strength. The ultimate load for the plastic brick wall
was 197.50 KN with a shear failure at a 45◦, while the conventional brick wall
experienced a vertical failure at 153.95 KN load.

A fire-resistance test on a plastic brick wall and a conventional brick wall was
performed to evaluate if the specifications of Nation Building Code(2005): Part 4:
Table 1 were met. It was observed that the plastic brick wall even after 30 min of
heating at 4corners and centre, showed a better temperature difference as compared
to the conventional brick wall. Thestudy initiates a new line of research in
sustainable plastic waste management.

2.3 SUMMARY
With the help of collected literatures, we came to know that the construction with
bricks has environmental advantages and also enables speedier construction of high
quality, aesthetic and affordable building.
 28

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 FLOWCHART
 29

2. PROPERTIES OF PROSOPIS JULIFLORAASH

1. Physical Properties Of wood Ash :
To evaluate fineness, average amount of wood fly ash passing sieve #200(75 lm) is
50% and percentage of ash retained on sieve #325 (45 lm) is 31%. Test results
showed the average unit weight of (ASTM C 29) of fly ash and bottom ash as 490
kg/m3 and 827 kg/m3 respectively and average specific gravity was 2.48 and 1.65
respectively. The average water requirement for fly ash was 116% and average
auto clave expansion test value 0.2%. Evaluated the physical properties of waste
(WWA) wood ash used as partial replacement of cement. WWA had a specific gravity
of 2.43, 1.81% of moisture content and a Ph of 10.48. The average loss on
ignition was 10.46. The specific gravity of wood fly ash to be 2.54 collected from a
forestry biomass fired power plant and observed finer particles with average
diameter of 50 lm. Wood ash was mainly found to be composed of highly angular
particles with extensive surface porosity seen through SEM images. Wood ash
from five various sources and they were designated as W1–W5. Specific gravity of
different sources wood ash varied between 2.26 and 2.60 and fineness of the wood
ash (% retained on 45 lm sieves) was between 23% and 90%.

2. Chemical Properties Of wood Ash :

The major oxides in the wood ash are lime (CaO), portlandite (Ca(OH)2), Calcite
(CaCO3) and calcium silicate (Ca2SiO4). The possible hydration of lime and
silicates present in the wood ash were attributed to, for the swelling of wood ash in
rainy season. The chemical characteristics of wood ash from five different varieties
of wood to study the potential of their use in CLSM [12]. The LOI was found to
range from 6.7% to 58.1% and moisture percentage varied between 0.5% and
3.3%. The chemical properties of all the five sources wood ash the oxide
concentration of the ash using an X-ray diffraction (XRD) test and showed that its
 30

major oxide concentration are CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, K2O, Fe2O3, MgO, SO3, TiO2
and P2O5. Compounds such as Na2O, ZnO, Cl, MnO, SrO, Cr2O3, CuO, ZrO2
and Rb2O were detected in trace amount. The chemical analysis confirmed that the
ash has Silicon dioxide (SiO2), Aluminum dioxide (Al2O3) and iron oxide
(Fe2O3) with values 20.8, 11.6 and 5.37 respectively. But combining the
percentage masses of these oxides gives a total of 37.8% which is less than 70%,
the limit speci- fied for pozzolan in ASTM C 618 (1994).
 31

CHAPTER 4
MIX DESIGN

1. GENERAL
For manufacturing the Fly ash cubes, most of the machine manufacturers
suggest the following mix ratio, we can choose profitable mix ratio to survive in the
market if we are facing low availability of Fly ash. At the same time we should
maintain the quality too.
1. Normal Method
In normal method of manufacturing of fly ash cubes, the following are the
ratios of materials used in cubes,
0.3-0.45 Alkaline liquids/Binder
2.0-2.5 Sodium silicate/Sodium
hydroxide
0.16-0.24 Water
65-85% Total aggregate in mass of
concrete
30% Fine aggregate
4.2 MIX PROPORTION
A variety of cubes have been developed during the past years, differing in shape
and size, depending on the required strengths and uses. Our cubes size are
modular and rectangular is (150 mm x 150 mm x 1500 mm) and having the
following mix proportions.

Length of cube = 150 mm

Breadth of cube = 150 mm
 32

Height of cube = 150 mm

For example, considering NaOH as solute,

Mol weight of solute [NaOH]
= 400gm
Volume of solvent
= 1000ml [ considering required quantity]
For 10 M = wt of NaOH x 1000ml
400 1000

4.3 MIXING AND CASTING OF CUBES

The raw materials are initially mixed to achieve homogeneity.

The quantities are taken from the ratios fixed previously.
Fill the concrete in each mould in three layers. After each layer do proper
compaction by applying 35 strokes using a tamping rod. After 3 rd layer
compaction, Finish the top
surface using a flat trowel. Leave the specimen for 24 hours, undisturbed.

4.4 CURING OF CUBES

The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period the
specimens are marked and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear
freshwater until taken out prior to the test.

The casted cubes are cured at room temperature and are tested for their compressive
strength after 7 days, 14 days and 28 days of curing.
 33

The water for curing should be tested every 7 days and the temperature of the water
must be at 27+-2oC.
Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If the strength of
any specimen varies by more than 15 percent of average strength, the results of
such specimens should be rejected. The average of three specimens gives the
crushing strength of concrete.
 34

CHAPTER 5

SIMULATION & DISCUSSIONS

To determine the hardened properties of concrete standard tests like compression

test on cubes for compressive strength, split tensile test on cylinders for tensile
strength and flexural test on beams for flexural strength of concrete were carried out
at 7days and 28days of curing.

5.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE CUBES

For compressive strength test, cube specimens of dimensions 150 x 150 x 150 mm
were cast for M20 grade of concrete. Vibration was given to the moulds using table
vibrator. The top surface of the specimen was levelled and finished. After 24 hours
the specimens were demoulded and were transferred to curing tank wherein they
were allowed to cure for 7 and 28days.

Compressive strength (MPa) = Failure load / cross sectional area

After 7 and 28 days curing, these cubes were tested on digital compression testing
machine as per I.S. 516-1959. The failure load was noted. In each category three
cubes were tested and their average value is reported.
 35

5.2 SPILT TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS

For Split tensile strength test, cylinder specimens of dimension 150 mm diameter
and 300 mm length were cast.

Split Tensile strength (MPa) = 2P / π DL, Where, P = failure load, D = diameter of

cylinder, L= length of cylinder.

The specimens were demoulded after 24 hours of casting and were transferred to
curing tank wherein they were allowed to cure for 28 days. These specimens were
tested under compression testing machine. In each category three cylinders were
tested and their average value is reported.

5.3FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BEAMS

For flexural strength test beam specimens of dimension 1600x150x100 mm were

cast. The specimens were demoulded after 24 hours of casting and were transferred
to curing tank wherein they were allowed to cure for 28 days
 36

Flexural strength (MPa) = PL/bd2

Where, P = Failure load,

L= Centre to center distance between the support = 400 mm,

b = width of specimen=150 mm,

d = depth of specimen= 100 mm

These flexural strength specimens were tested under two point loading as per I.S.
516-1959, over an effective span of 400 mm on Flexural testing machine. Load and
corresponding deflections were noted up to failure. In each category three beams
were tested and their average value is reported.
 37

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

The concrete is achieved by Cement, prosopisjuliflora ash, Coarse aggregate, Fine

aggregate, and water. The prosopisjuliflora ash are replaced in cement at 20%, 30%,
40%. The concrete test are conducted and to find out the workability

The 28-day compressive strength of cube with all the three per- centages of
replacement satisfied the strength requirement. The 3,7,14 and 28- day compressive
strength of cube with 25% replace- ment of cement with Juliflora ash was founded
as Optimum value. Objectives are concluded with the values.

 The utility of Prosopis Juliflora ash as a partial replacement of cement in

concrete in correct way as per IS Codal Provisions upto 25% at maximum.
 Compare the performance with standard concrete and Prosopis Juliflora ash
concrete in the Results can be acceptable t IS codes.
 It is also act as SELF RETARDER parameter to increase the Setting time as
well as increased.

 Material Properties of Materials and PJAcan be complted

 To found out the mechanical and durability of concrete.
 38

CHAPTER 7
REFERENCES

1.M. RameGowda ; M . C . Narasimhan; and karisiddappa, “ Development and

study of the strength of Self – Compacting Mortar Mixes using materials” (2011)
American society of civil engineers.
2. Ho, D.W.S., Sheinn, A.M.M., Ng, C.C., and Tam, C.T. (2002). “ The use of
quarry dust for SCC applications. “ Cem.Corcr.Res.,32,505-511.
3.Kumar, P.,Mehta, and Monterio, P. J. M. (1997). Concrete- Micro structure,
Properties and materials, India Ed., Indian Concrete Institute, Chennai, India, 23-
285.
4.James , J., and Rao, M.S.P (1986). “ Reaction products of Lime and Silica from

rice husk ash.” Cem. Concr . Res., 16(1),67-73.

5.Nataraja M.C., Nagaraj T.S. and reddy. A . 2001. Proportioning Concrete Mix

with Quarry Waste Cement. Concrete and Aggregate journal,ASTM.23(2) : 81-87

6.Kumar, S., and Barai, S.V. (2009). “ Determining double-K fracture parameters
of concrete for compact tension and wedge splitting tests using weight function.”
Eng. Fracture Mech., 76, 935-948
7.Abdullahi. M., 2006. Characteristics of wood Ash / opc concrete, Leonardo
electronic journal of practices and technologies,:8:9-16
 39

Bureau of Indian Standards for relevant standards as under:

1 IS : 1077 – 1992 Common burnt clay building bricks.

2 IS : 1200 (Part-III) – 1976 Methods of measurement of buildings and

civil engineering works – Brick Work

3 IS : 2212 – 1991 Code of practice for brick work.

4 IS : 3102 – 1971 Classification of burnt clay solid bricks.

5 IS : 3495 (Part I to IV) 1992 Methods of tests on burnt clay building bricks
6 IS : 6042 – 1969 Code of practice for construction of light
weight concrete block masonry.

7.IS 2110: 1980 Code for practice for in situ construction of

wall in building with soil cement.

8 IS 1725:1982 Specification for soil-based blocks used in

general building Construction.
9 IS 4326: 1983 Earthquake resistant design and construction
of building code of practice.
10 IS 13759: 1993 Fly ash building bricks specification.