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Ch2 Kitabcd MSB Class 12 Physics Notes

The document provides an overview of the mechanical properties of fluids, covering topics such as pressure, surface tension, and fluid motion. It explains key concepts including ideal and incompressible fluids, gauge and absolute pressure, and Pascal's law, along with their applications. Additionally, it discusses the characteristics of fluids, the differences between solids and fluids, and various principles related to fluid dynamics.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
22 views56 pages

Ch2 Kitabcd MSB Class 12 Physics Notes

The document provides an overview of the mechanical properties of fluids, covering topics such as pressure, surface tension, and fluid motion. It explains key concepts including ideal and incompressible fluids, gauge and absolute pressure, and Pascal's law, along with their applications. Additionally, it discusses the characteristics of fluids, the differences between solids and fluids, and various principles related to fluid dynamics.

Uploaded by

bhoih2007
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Kitabcd Academy

Notes

Mechanical Properties of
Fluids

www.kitabcd.org
Free Online Education and study material-Books-Notes-Solutions-Tests-
Videos-PDF
Class -12 –Physics-Chapter-2- Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Introduction
Fluid, Fluids at rest
Pressure
 Pressure due to a liquid column
 Atmospheric pressure
 Absolute pressure and Gauge pressure
 Hydrostatic Paradox
 Pascal's law, Applications
 Measurement of pressure
Surface tension
 Molecular theory of surface tension
 Surface tension and Surface energy
 Angle of contact
 Effect of impurity and temperature on surface tension
 Excess pressure across the free surface of a liquid
 Explanation of formation of drops and bubbles
 Capillary action
Fluids in motion
Critical velocity and Reynolds number
 Viscosity
 Coefficient of viscosity
Stokes’ Law
 Terminal velocity
Equation of continuity
Bernoulli equation, Applications

Fluid : A fluid is a substance that can flow. A fluid has shear modulus  0 and yield
to shear. Under a shear stress and a pressure gradient, a fluid begins to flow.
Liquids, gases and plasmas are collectively called fluids.
Examples : All gases, all liquids, molten glass and lava, honey, etc.
Properties of Fluids:
1. They do not oppose deformation, they get permanently deformed.
2. They have ability to flow.
3. They have ability to take the shape of the container.

Ideal fluid -Characteristics of an ideal fluid.


An ideal fluid is one that has the following properties :

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 It is incompressible, i.e., its density has a constantvalue throughout the
fluid.
 Its flow is irrotational, i.e., the flow is steady or laminar. In an irrotational
flow, the fluid doesn't rotate like in a whirlpool and the velocity of the
moving fluid at a specific point doesn't change over time. (Many fluids
change from laminar to turbulent flow as the speed of the fluid increases
above some specific value. This can dramatically change the properties of
the fluid.)
 Its flow is nonviscous or inviscid, i.e., internal friction or viscosity is zero so
that no energy lost due the motion of the fluid.

Incompressible fluid : An incompressible fluid is one which does not undergo


change in volume for a large range of pressures. Thus, its density has a constant
value throughout the fluid. In most cases, all liquids are incompressible.

Q. How does a fluid differ from a solid?

Solid Fluid
 In response to a shear as well as  A fluid, on the other hand, can only
normal force, a solid deforms and be subjected to normal compressive
develops a restoring force. stress, called pressure.
 Within the elastic limit, both types of  A fluid does not have a definite
deformation is reversible. shape, so that under a shear it begins
 A solid changes its shape under a to flow.
shear.  Real fluids, with non-Zero viscosity,
 A normal force causes a change in its display a weak resistance to shear.
length or volume.
 If the elastic limit is exceeded, the
solid gets an irreversible deformation
called a permanent set.

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Plasma : Plasma is a phase of matter which exists at very high temperatures, at
which molecules may disassociate into atoms and ions, and further into electrons
and protons. Plasma, however, has very different properties from the three other
common phases of matter (viz., solid, liquid and gas) due to the strong electrical
forces between the charges.

The term fluid includes both the liquid and gas phases.
It is commonly used, as a synonym for liquid only, without any reference to gas.
For example, ’brake fluid’ is hydraulic oil and will not perform its required function
if there is gas in it! This colloquial use of the term is also common in the fields of
medicine and nutrition, e.g. ”take plenty of fluids.”

Pressure
Pressure : The pressure at a point in a fluid in hydrostatic equilibrium is defined as
the normal force per unit area exerted by the fluid on a surface of infinitesimal area
containing the point.
𝐹
Thus, the pressure, 𝑝 = lim
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴

where F is the magnitude of the normal force on a surface of area A. The pressure
is defined to be a scalar quantity.
SI unit = the pascal (Pa), 1 Pa = 1 N-m-2
CGS unit : the dyne per square centimeter (dyn/cm2)
Dimensions = [p] = [F][A-1] = [MLT-2 , L-2 ] = [ML-1T-2]

Two non-SI units of pressure, which are either of historical interest, or are still
used in specific fields are the bar and the torr.
1 bar = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa = 1000 hPa =105Pa
1 torr = (101325/ 760) Pa = 133.32 Pa
[Note : Their use in modern scientific and technical work is strongly discouraged]

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Q. Explain why the forces acting on any surface within a fluid in hydrostatic
equilibrium must be normal to the surface. (2 marks)
Ans. In a fluid, the molecules are in a state of random motion and the
intermolecular cohesive forces are weak. If a fluid is subjected to a tangential force
(shear) anywhere within it, the layers of the fluid slide over one another, i.e., the
fluid begins to flow.

Within in a static fluid, forces on a volume element are normal to the surface

Thus, a fluid cannot sustain a tangential force. So, in turn, a fluid at rest cannot
exert a tangential force on any surface with which it is in contact. It can exert only a
force normal to the surface. Hence, if a fluid is in In hydrostatic equilibrium (i.e., at
rest), the force acting on any surface within the fluid must be normal to the surface.

Q. Why does a knife have a sharp edge or a needle has a sharp tip ?
Ans : For a given force, the pressure over which the force is exerted depends
inversely on the area of contact; smaller the area, greater the pressure.
For instance, A pressure for a force applied to an area of 1 mm2 is 100 times as
great as than pressure for the same force applied to an area of 1 cm2.
The edge of a knife or the tip of a needle has a small area of contact. That is why a
sharp needle is able to puncture the skin when a small force is exerted, but applying
the same force with a finger does not.
Expression for pressure exerted by a liquid column.
At a point at depth h below the surface of a liquid of uniform density , the pressure
due to the liquid is due to the weight per unit area of a liquid column of height h
above that point.

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In Fig. to find the pressure due to the liquid at point P, consider the cylindrical liquid
column, of cross section A and height h, above that point.
The weight of this liquid column
= volume X density X acceleration due to gravity
= (Ah)( )(g)
Pressure due to the liquid at depth h
= weight of the liquid column / cross sectional area
Ahg/A = hg
If the free surface of the liquid is open to the atmosphere, the pressure on the
surface is the atmosphere pressure P0. Then, the absolute pressure within the liquid
at a depth h is
P=P0+ hg

1. As p = hg , the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest is independent of the shape


and size of the container.
2. p = hg is true for liquids as well as for gases.

Characteristics of pressure due to a liquid at rest at a point within it :


 Within a liquid of constant density, the pressure is directly proportional to the
depth.
 At the same depth within liquids of different densities, the pressure is directly
proportional to the density of the liquid.

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 Within a liquid of constant density, the pressure at a given depth is directly
proportional to the acceleration due to gravity.
 The pressure at a point within a given liquid is the same in all directions.
 The pressure at all points at the same horizontal level within a given liquid is
the same.

Atmospheric pressure : The Earth's surface is covered with a layer of atmosphere,


with more than 99% of the atmosphere lying within 31 km of the surface. The
weight of the atmosphere exerts a downward thrust on any surface lying within it.
This gives rise to atmospheric pressure.
The atmospheric pressure at any height above the Earth's surface is the weight of a
column of air of unit cross section from that altitude to the top of the atmosphere.

Standard atmospheric pressure : Standard atmospheric pressure, or one


atmosphere of pressure, is defined as the pressure equivalent of a column of
mercury that is exactly 0.7600 m in height at 0 °C.
We can calculate this equivalent pressure in SI unit by using the density of mercury

 = 13.6 X103 kg/m3 and g =9.80 m/s2.


1 atm = (0.76 m)(13.6 X 103 kg/m3)(9.80 m/s2)
= 1.013 X105 Pa = 101.3 kPa
[Note : 1000 mbar = 100 kPa. Therefore, 1 atm = 1013 mbar.]

Q. Explain gauge pressure and absolute pressure within a liquid open to the
atmosphere. QR Explain the effect of gravity on fluid pressure.
Ans. Consider a cylindrical fluid column of uniform density , area of cross section A
and height h,
Fig.

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The mass of the fluid within the column is
m = density X volume
= Ah
If P1 and P2 are the pressures at the top and bottom faces of the column, the forces
on the top and bottom faces are respectively.
F1 = P1A + mg (downward) and F2 = P2A (upward)
If the column is in equilibrium,
F2 = F1
P2A = P1A + mg = P1A + Ahg
P2 - P1 = hg
If P1 = P0 = atmospheric pressure, the gauge pressure
P2 - P0 = hg
In the absence of gravity, P2 = P0. But since atmospheric pressure is equal to the
weight per unit area of the entire air column above, even P0 will be zero in the
absence of gravity.

Gauge pressure. : Gauge pressure is exerted by a fluid relative to the local


atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure, pg = p- p0
where p is the absolute pressure and p0, is the local atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure (i) positive (ii) negative :
When the pressure inside a closed container or tank is greater than atmospheric
pressure, the pressure reading on a pressure gauge is positive.

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The pressure inside a ‘vacuum chamber' rigid chamber from which some of the air is
pumped out—is less than the atmospheric pressure, so a pressure gauge on the
chamber designed to measure negative pressure reads a negative value.

At a depth within a liquid of density , the gauge pressure is pg = p- p0 = hg


Examples : Tyre pressure gauge, blond pressure gauge, pressure gauge on an
oxygen or scuba tank.
Absolute pressure : The absolute pressure, or total pressure, is measured relative
to absolute zero on the pressure scale—which is a perfect vacuum—and is the sum
of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure. It is the same as the thermodynamic
pressure.
Absolute pressure accounts for the atmospheric pressure, which in effect adds to the
pressure in any fluid which is not enclosed in a rigid container i.e., the fluid is open
to the atmosphere.
p = p 0 + pg
where p0 and pg are respectively atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure.
Absolute pressure can be never negative.

Hydrostatic paradox : The normal force exerted by a liquid at rest on the bottom
of the containing vessel is independent of the amount of liquid or the shape of the
container, but depends only on the area of the base and its depth from the liquid
surface.
Consider several vessels of the same base area as shown in Fig.
A liquid is poured into them to the same level, so that the pressure is the same at
the bottom of each vessel. Then it must follow that the normal force on the base of
each vessel is also the same. However, when placed on n scale balance they are
found to have different weights. Herein lies the paradox.

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Explanation : Since a liquid always exerts a normal force on a wall of the container,
in turn, the wall exerts an equal and opposite reaction on the liquid. ln the case of
tube A, this reaction is everywhere horizontal; so that the normal force at the base
of A is only due to the weight of the liquid column above.
The reaction of the slanted wall of vessel C has a vertical component, as shown in
Fig. (b), which supports the weight of the liquid above the slanted side. Hence, the
normal force at the base of C is only due to the weight of the vertical liquid column
above the base, shown by dashed lines.
Since the vessels A and C are filled to the same height and have the same base
area, the pressures at the bases of the two vessels are also same. However, the
volume of the liquid being clearly different, they have different weights.
In the case of vessel B, the downward vertical component of the reaction of the wall
provides an extra normal force at the base as shown in Fig.(c)

Pascal’s Law:
Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied at any point of an enclosed fluid at rest
is transmitted equally and undiminished to every point of the fluid and also on the
walls of the container, provided the effect of gravity is neglected.
Note ; The law does not say that ‘the pressure is the same at all points of a fluid’ —
rightly so, since the pressure in a fluid near Earth varies with height. Rather, the law

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applies to the change in pressure. According to Pascal's law, if the pressure on an
enclosed static fluid is changedby a certain amount, the pressure at all points within
the fluid changes by the same amount.
The above law is due to Blaise Pascal (1623 -62), French mathematician and
physicist.]
Experimental proof of Pascal’s principle.
Consider a vessel with four arms A, B, C, and D fitted with frictionless, water tight
pistons and filled with incompressible fluid as shown in the figure given.

Let the area of cross sections of A, B, C, and D be a, 2a, 3a, and a/2 respectively.
If a force F is applied on the piston A, the pressure exerted on the liquid is p = F/a.
It is observed that the other three pistons B, C, and D move outward.
In order to keep these three pistons B, C, and D in their original positions, forces 2F,
3F, and F/2 respectively are required to be applied on the pistons. Therefore,
pressure on the pistons B, C, and D is:
on B, pB = 2F/2a = F/a
on C, pC = 3F/3a = F/a and
on D, pD = (F/2)/(a/2) = F/a
i.e. pB = pC = pD = p, this indicates that the pressure applied on piston A is
transmitted equally and undiminished to all parts of the fluid and the walls of the
vessel.

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Principle of multiplication of thrust by transmission of fluid pressure :
The normal force exerted by a fluid on any surface in contact with it is called the
thrust. Consider two hydraulically connected cylinders, one of cross section n and
the other A, as in above Fig.
If a force Fa is exerted on the smaller piston, pressure p= Fa/a is produced and
transmitted undiminished throughout the liquid.
Then, the thrust FA on the larger piston is
FA = pA = (A/a)Fa
If A = na, FA = nFa, i.e., the thrust on the larger piston is multiplied n times. This
is known as the principle of multiplication of thrust by transmission of fluid
pressure.
Applications of Pascal's law :
(1) Hydraulic car lift and hydraulic press
(2) Hydraulic brakes.
All the above applications work on the principle of multiplication of thrust by
transmission of fluid pressure.
(i) Working hydraulic lift :

Two hydraulically connected cylinders, one of cross section a and the other A, are
such that A is many times larger than a
A=na
If a force Fa, is exerted on the smaller piston, a pressure p =Fa/a is produced and
transmitted undiminished throughout the liquid.

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Then, the thrust FA on the larger piston
FA = pA = (A/a)Fa =n Fa is n times greater than that on the smaller piston.

A platform attached to the larger piston can lift a car (as in a hydraulic car lift).
ii) Hydraulic brakes: Hydraulic brakes are used to slow down or stop vehicles in
motion.
It is based on the same principle as that of a hydraulic lift.
Figure shows schematic diagram of a hydraulic brake system.

 By pressing the brake pedal, the piston of the master cylinder is pushed in
forward direction.
 As a result, the piston in the slave cylinder which has a much larger area of
cross section as compared to that of the master cylinder, also moves in
forward direction so as to maintain the volume of the oil constant.
 The slave piston pushes the friction pads against the rotating disc, which is
connected to the wheel.
 Thus, causing a moving vehicle to slow down or stop.
The master cylinder has a smaller area of cross section A1 compared to the area A2
of the slave cylinder.
By applying a small force F1 to the master cylinder,
we generate pressure p = (F1/A1).

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This pressure is transmitted undiminished throughout the system. The force
F2 on slave cylinder is then,
F2 = pA2 = (F1/A1). A2 = F1 (A2/A1) = n F1 (i.e. force is n times greater than that on
the smaller piston)

This is similar to the principle used in hydraulic lift. Since area A2 is greater than A1,
F2 is also greater than F1. Thus, a small force applied on the brake pedal gets
converted into large force and slows down or stops a moving vehicle.

Advantages of hydraulic brakes :


 By Pascal's law, equal braking effort is applied to all the wheels.
 It is easily possible to increase or decrease the applied f0rce during the design
stage by changing the size of piston and cylinder relative to other.

(1) Pascal's law laid the foundation for hydraulics, the use of a liquid under
pressure to transfer force or motion, or to increase an applied force. It is one of
the most important branches in modem engineering.
(2) A hydraulic system, as an example of a simple machine, can increase force but
cannot do more work than is done on it. Work being force times the distance
moved, the piston in a wheel cylinder moves through a smaller distance than that
in the pedal cylinder. Power brakes in modern automobiles have a motorized pump
that does most of the work in the system.

Q. Why are liquids used in hydraulic systems but not gases?


Ans. Liquids are used in a hydraulic system because liquids are incompressible and
transmit a change in pressure undiminished to all parts of the system.
On the other hand, on increasing the pressure, a gas will be compressed into a
smaller volume due to which there will be no transmission of force or motion.

Mercury Barometer: An instrument that measures atmospheric pressure is called a


barometer.

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Mercury Barometer was invented by Italian scientist Torricelli. The barometer is in
the form of a glass tube completely filled with mercury and placed upside down in a
small dish containing mercury. It’s schematic diagram is shown in Fig.

 A strong glass tube, about one metre long and closed at one end, is filled with
mercury.
 With a finger over the open end, the tube is inverted and the open end is
immersed into a bowl of mercury.
 When the finger is removed, the mercury level in the tube drops.
 The mercury column in the tube stands at a height h for which the pressure at
point B inside the tube due to the weight of the mercury column is equal to the
atmospheric pressure p0 outside (at point C).
 The space at the closed end of the tube, after the mercury level drops, is
nearly a vacuum, known as the Torricellian vacuum, so the pressure there can
be taken as zero. It, therefore, follows that p0 = gh
 Where  is the density of mercury and h is the height of the mercury column.

Open tube manometer : An open tube manometer is a device to measure the


pressure of a gas in a vessel.
It consists of a U-shaped tube containing a liquid (say, mercury) of density , as
shown in Fig.

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One end of the tube is connected to the vessel while the other end is open to the
atmosphere. The pressure p at point A is the (unknown) pressure of the gas in the
vessel. The pressure on the mercury column in the open tube is the atmospheric
pressure p0.

A point B, at the same horizontal level as A, is at a depth h from the surface of


mercury in the open tube. Therefore, the pressure at B is p0 + gh.
The pressures at points A and B at the same liquid level being the same, equating
the unknown pressure p (at A) to the pressure at B.
p = p0 + gh
The pressure p is called the absolute pressure, and the difference in pressure p -
p0 is called the gauge pressure.

Q. Why is a low density liquid used as a manometric liquid in a physics


laboratory?
Ans. An open tube manometer measures the gauge pressure, p — p0 = hg, where
p is the pressure being measured, po is the atmospheric pressure, h is the difference
in height between the manometric liquid of density  in the two arms. For a given
pressure P, the product h is constant. That is,  should be small for h to be large.
Therefore, for noticeably large h, laboratory manometer uses a low density liquid.

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Surface tension
Surface tension : Surface tension is a unique property of liquids that arises
because the net intermolecular force of attraction on the liquid molecules at or near
a liquid surface differs from that on molecules deep in the interior of the liquid. This
results in the tendency of the free surface of a liquid to minimize its surface area and
behave somewhat like a stressed elastic membrane.

Surface tension is important in understanding the peculiar behaviour of the free


surface of a liquid in many cases as illustrated below :
 Small quantities of liquids assume the form of spherical droplets, as in mist, or
a mercury droplet on a flat surface. This is because the stressed surface ‘skin’
tends to contract and mould the liquid into a shape that has minimum surface
area for its volume, i.e., into a sphere.
 Surface tension is responsible for the spherical shape of freely-falling raindrops
and the behaviour of bubbles and soap films.
 The bristles of a paint brush cling together when it is drawn out of water or
paint.
 A steel needle or a razor blade can, with care, be supported on a still surface
of water which is much less dense than the metal from which these objects are
made of.
 Many insects like ants, mosquitoes, water striders, etc., can walk on the
surface of water.

Cohesive force : The intermolecular force of attraction between two molecules of


the same material is called the cohesive force.
Example : The force of attraction between two water molecules.
Adhesive force : The intermolecular force of attraction between two molecules of
different materials is called the adhesive force.
Example :The force of attraction between a water molecule and a molecule of the
solid surface which is in contact with water.

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Range of molecular attraction or molecular range :
Range of molecular attraction or molecular range is defined as the maximum
distance between two molecules up to which the intermolecular force of attraction is
appreciable.
The intermolecular force is a short range force, i.e., it is effective over a very short
range about 10-9 m. Beyond this distance, the force is negligible. The inter-
molecular force does not obey inverse square law.

Sphere of influence :The sphere of influence of a molecule is defined as an imaginary


sphere with the molecule as the centre and radius equal to the range of molecular
attraction.
All molecules lying within the sphere of influence of a molecule are attracted by (as
well as attract) the molecule at the centre. For molecules which lie outside this
sphere, the intermolecular force due to the molecule at the centre is negligible

Surface film : The layer of the liquid surface of thickness equal to the range of
molecular attraction is called a surface film.
Free surface of a liquid : The surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is called
the free surface of the liquid.

Phenomenon of surface tension on the basis of molecular theory :


The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the cohesive forces between the
molecules of a liquid. The net cohesive force on the liquid molecules within the
surface film differs from that on molecules deep in the interior of the liquid.

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Consider three molecules of a liquid : A molecule A well inside the liquid, and
molecules B and C lying within the surface film, Fig.
The figure also shows their spheres of influence of radius R.
 The sphere of influence of molecule A is entirely inside the liquid and the
molecule is surrounded by its nearest neighbours on all sides. Hence, molecule
A is equally attracted from all sides, so that the resultant cohesive force acting
on it is zero. Hence, it is free to move anywhere within the liquid.
 For molecule B, a part of its sphere of influence is outside the liquid surface.
This part contains air molecules whose number is negligible compared to the
number of molecules in an equal volume of the liquid. Therefore, molecule B
experiences a net cohesive force downward.
 For molecule C, the upper half of its sphere of influence is outside the liquid
surface. Therefore, the resultant cohesive force on molecule C in the downward
direction is maximum.
 Thus, all molecules lying within a surface film or thickness equal to R
experience a net cohesive force directed into the liquid.
 The surface area is proportional to the number of molecules on the surface. To
increase the surface area, molecules must be brought to the surface from
within the liquid. For this, work must be done against the cohesive forces. This
work is stored in the liquid surface in the form of potential energy.
 With a tendency to have minimum potential energy, the liquid tries to reduce
the number of molecules on the surface so as to have minimum surface area.
This is why the surface of a liquid behaves like a stressed elastic membrane.

Units of surface tension : The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the


tangential force per unit length, acting at right angles on either side of an imaginary
line on the free surface of the liquid.
If F is the force on one side of a line of length l, drawn on the free surface of a liquid,
the surface tension (T) of the liquid is T=F/l

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The CGS unit of surface tension : The dyne per centimetre (dyn/ cm) or,
equivalently, the erg per square centimetre (erg/cm2).
The Sl unit of surface tension : The newton per metre (N/ m) or, equivalently,
the joule per square metre (J/m2).

Q. Obtain the dimensions of surface tension.


Ans: Surface tension is force per unit length.
 [Surface tension] = [force] / [length]
= [ML1T-2] / [M°L1T°] = [ML° T-2]
Surface tension is also equal to the surface energy per unit surface area of a liquid.
[Surface tension] = [energy] / [area] = [work] / [area]
= ([force] [displacement])/[area]
= ([ML1T-2] [M°L1T°]) / [M°L2T°] = [ML° T-2]

Surface energy : The surface energy is defined as the extra (or increased) potential
energy possessed by the molecules in a liquid surface with an isothermal increase in
the surface area of the liquid.
 A liquid exerts a resultant cohesive force on every molecule of its surface,
trying to pull it into the liquid. To increase the surface area, it is necessary to
bring more molecules from inside the liquid to the liquid surface. For this,
external work must be done against the net cohesive forces on the molecules.
 This work is stored in the liquid surface in the form of potential energy.
 This extra potential energy that the molecules in the liquid surface have is
called the surface energy.

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 Thus, the molecules of a liquid in the surface film possess extra energy.
Dimensions : [surface energy] =[ML2T-2]
SI unit : the joule (J).

Q. Why is the surface tension of paints and lubricating oils kept low?
Ans. For better wettability (surface coverage), the surface tension and angle of
contact of paints and lubricating oils must be low.

Relation between the surface tension and surface energy of a liquid:


Suppose a soap film is isothermally stretched over the area enclosed by a U-shaped
frame ABCD and a cross-piece RQ that can slide smoothly along the frame, as shown
in the figure. Let T be the surface tension of the soap solution and l, the length of
wire RQ in contact with the soap film.

The film has two surfaces, both of which are in contact with the wire. The film tends
to contract by exerting a force on wire RQ. As each surface exerts a force Tl, the net
force on the wire is 2Tl.
Suppose that wire RQ is pulled outward very slowly through a distance dx to the
position R’Q' by an external force of magnitude 2Tl. The work done by the external
force against the force due to the film is
W = applied force x displacement
 W=Fdx = 2Tldx (… F=2Tl)
This work is stored in the unit surface area in the form of potential energy. This
potential energy is called the surface energy.

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Due to the displacement dx, the surface area of the film increases. As the film has
two surfaces, the increase in its surface area is
A = 2ldx
Thus, the work done per unit surface area is
W/A = (2Tldx)/(2ldx) = T
Thus, the surface energy per unit area of a Liquid is equal to its surface tension.

Angle of contact : The angle of contact for a liquid-solid pair (a liquid in contact
with a solid) is defined as the angle between the surface of the solid and the tangent
drawn to the free surface of the liquid at the extreme edge of the liquid, as
measured through the liquid.

Characteristics of angle of contact :


 It depends upon the nature of the liquid and solid in contact, and is constant
for a given liquid—solid pair, other factors remaining unchanged.
 It depends upon the medium (gas) above the free surface of the liquid.
 It is independent of the inclination of the solid to the liquid surface.
 It changes with surface tension and, hence, with the temperature and purity of
the liquid.

Characteristics of the angle of contact in :


(i) The angle of contact in the case of a liquid which completely wets.
For a liquid, which completely wets the solid, the angle of contact is zero.
For example, pure water completely wets clean glass. Therefore, the angle of contact
at the water glass interface is zero

(ii) The angle of contact in the case of a liquid which partially wets

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For a liquid which partially wets the solid, the angle of contact is an acute angle.
For example, kerosine partially wets glass, so that the angle of contact is an acute
angle at the kerosine-glass interface

(iii) The angle of contact in the case of a liquid which does not wet the solid.
For a liquid which does not wet the solid, the angle of contact is an obtuse angle.
For example, mercury does not wet glass at all, so that the angle of contact is an
obtuse angle at the mercury-glass interface.

(iv) The angle of contact for a given liquid solid pair is constant at a given
temperature, provided the liquid is pure and the surface of the solid is clean.

Formation of concave and convex surface of a liquid on the basis of


molecular theory.
(Q. why the free surface of some liquids in contact with a solid is not
horizontal.?)

For a molecule in the liquid surface which is in contact with a solid, the forces on it
are largely the solid-liquid adhesive force FA = PA and the liquid- liquid cohesive
force FC = PC, FA is normal to the solid surface and FC is at 45 with the horizontal
See Fig. The free surface of a liquid at rest is always perpendicular to the resultant
FR = PR of these forces

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If FC = √2 FA, FR is along the solid surface, the contact angle is 90° and the liquid
surface is horizontal at the edge where it meets the solid, as in above Fig. In general
this is not so, and the liquid surface is not horizontal at the edge.

For a liquid which completely wets the solid (e.g. pure water in contact with clean
glass), FC << FA. For a liquid which partially wets the solid (e.g., kerosene or impure
water in contact with glass), FC < √2 FA
If FC << FA or if FC < √2 FA, the contact angle is correspondingly zero or acute and
the liquid surface curves up and acquires a concave shape until the tangent PT is
tangent to FR ref. below Fig.

If FC > √2 FA, the contact angle is obtuse and the liquid surface curves down and
acquires a convex shape until the tangent PT is tangent to FR, see below Fig.

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Q. State the conditions for concavity and convexity of a liquid surface where
it is in contact with a solid. (1 mark)
Ans. For a molecule in the liquid surface which is in contact with a solid, the forces
on it are largely
(i) the solid-liquid adhesive force FA, normal and into the solid surface and (ii) the
liquid-liquid cohesive force E at nearly 45° with the horizontal.
if FC << FA or if FC < √2 FA, the contact angle is correspondingly zero or acute and the
liquid surface is concave with the solid.
If FC > √2 FA, the contact angle is obtuse and the liquid surface curves down, i.e.,
convex, with the solid.

Shape of a liquid drop on solid surface in terms of interfacial tensions.

Ans. A liquid surface, in general, is curved where it meets a solid. The angle
between the solid surface and the tangent to the liquid surface at the extreme edge
of the liquid, as measured through the liquid, is called the angle of contact.

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Figure 2.19 shows the interfacial tensions that act
in equilibrium at the common point of the liquid, solid and gas (air + vapour).
T1 = the liquid-solid interfacial tension
T2 = the solid-gas interfacial tension
T3 = the liquid-gas interfacial tension
 = the angle of contact for the liquid-solid pair is the angle between T1 and T3,
The equilibrium force equation (along the solid surface) is
T3 cos  + T1 – T2 = 0
𝑇2 −𝑇1
 cos  = …… (1)
𝑇3

Case (1) : If T2 > T1 , cos is positive and contact angle 0 < 90°, so that the liquid
wets the surface.

Case (2) : If T2 < T1, cos is negative and  is obtuse, so that the liquid is non-
wetting.
Case (3) : If T2 — T1,  T3, cos=1 and   0°.

Case (4) : If T2 — T1, > T3, cos will be greater than 1 which is impossible, so that
there will be no equilibrium and the liquid will spread over the solid surface.

Q. State the expression for the angle of contact in terms of interfacial


tensions? (1 mark)
𝑇2 −𝑇1
Ans. cos  = , where  is the angle of contact for a liquid-solid pair,
𝑇3

T1 = the liquid-solid interfacial tension


T2 = the solid-gas interfacial tension
T3 = the liquid-gas interfacial tension

Q. ln terms of interfacial tension, when is the angle of contact acute ? (1


mark)
Ans. The angle of contact is acute when the solid-gas (air + vapour) interfacial
tension is greater than the liquid-solid interfacial tension.

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Q. In terms of interfacial tensions, when is the angle of contact obtuse ? (1
mark)
Ans. The angle of contact is obtuse when the solid-gas (air+vapour) interfacial
tension is less than the liquid-solid interfacial tension.

Q. Explain : Pure water on a clean glass surface tends to spread out, while
mercury on the same surface tends to form a drop. (3 marks)
Ans

For pure water on a clean glass surface, T2 — T1  T3, so that cos=1 and   0° i.e.,
pure water completely wets the surface. Thus, when a drop of pure water is put on a
clean glass surface, it flattens out.
For mercury on the same surface, T2 < T1, so that cos is negative and  is obtuse,
i.e., mercury is non-wetting. Thus, a small drop of mercury on a clean glass surface
is almost spherical.

Factors affecting a liquid-solid angle of contact :


(1) The nature of the liquid and the solid in contact,
(2) Impurities in the liquid,

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(3) Temperature of the liquid.

Effect of impurity :
(i) The angle of contact or the surface tension of liquid increases with dissolved
impurities like common salt. For dissolved impurities, the angle of contact (or surface
tension) increases linearly with the concentration of the dissolved materials.
(ii) It decreases with sparingly soluble substances like phenol or alcohol. A detergent
is a surfactant whose molecules have hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends, the
hydrophobic ends decrease the surface tension of water. With reduced surface
tension, the water can penetrate deep into the fibres of a cloth and remove stubborn
stains.
(ii) It decreases with insoluble surface impurities like oil, grease or dust. For
example, mercury surface contaminated with dust does not form perfect spherical
droplets till the dust is removed.
Effect of Temperature :
The surface tension of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature of the liquid.
For small temperature differences, the decrease in surface tension is nearly directly
proportional to the temperature rise.
If T and T0 are the surface tensions of a liquid at temperatures  and 0°C,
respectively, then
T=T0(1 —) where  is a constant for a given liquid.
The surface tension of a liquid becomes zero at its critical temperature. The surface
tension increases with increasing temperature only in case of molten copper and
molten cadmium.

Q. Why cold wash is recommended for new cotton fabrics while hot wash
for removing stains ? (1 mark)
Ans..
 Cold wash is recommended for new/ coloured cotton fabrics. Cold water, due
to its higher surface tension, does not penetrate deep into the fibres and thus
does not fade the colours.

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 Hot water, because of its lower surface tension, can penetrate deep into fabric
fibres and remove tough stains.

Pressure difference across a curved liquid surface.:


Every molecule lying within the surface film of a static liquid is pulled tangentially by

forces due to surface tension. The direction of their resultant, → on a molecule


𝑓𝑟

depends upon the shape of that liquid surface and decides the cohesion pressure at a
point just below the liquid surface.
Consider two molecules, A and B, respectively just above and below the free surface
of a liquid. So the level difference between them is negligibly small and the

atmospheric pressure on both is the same, po, Let → be the downward force on A
𝑓𝐴

and B due to the atmospheric pressure.

(i) If the free surface of a liquid is horizontal, the resultant force → on molecule B is
𝑓𝑟

zero, see Fig. Then, the cohesion pressure is negligible and the net force on A and B

is → . The pressure difference on the two sides of the liquid surface is zero.
𝑓𝐴

(ii) If the free surface of a liquid is concave, the resultant force → on molecule B is
𝑓𝑟

outwards (away from the liquid), see below Fig. opposite to → .


𝑓𝐴

Then, the net force on B is less than → , and the cohesion pressure is decreased. The
𝑓𝐴

pressure above the concave liquid surface is greater than that just below the liquid
surface.

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(iii) If the free surface of a liquid is convex, the resultant force → on molecule B
𝑓𝑟

acts inwards (into the liquid), see below Fig. in the direction of → .
𝑓𝐴

Then, the net force on B is greater than → and the cohesion pressure is increased.
𝑓𝐴

The pressure below the convex liquid surface is greater than that just above the
liquid surface.

Laplace's law for a spherical membrane. :


(Q. Derive an expression for the excess pressure inside a liquid drop.)
Consider a small spherical liquid drop with a radius R. It has a convex surface, the
pressure, pi, inside the drop is greater than p0, the pressure outside. Therefore, the
excess pressure inside the drop is pi- p0.

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Let the radius of the drop increase from r to r + Δr, where Δr is very small, so that
the pressure inside the drop remains almost constant.
Let the initial surface area of the drop be
A1 = 4r2, and the final surface area of the drop be A2 = 4 (r+Δr)2.

∴ A2 = 4 (r2 + 2rΔr + Δr2)

∴ A2 = 4r2 + 8rΔr + 4Δr2


As Δr is very small, Δr2 can be neglected,
∴ A2 = 4πr2 + 8rΔr
Thus, increase in the surface area of the drop is
dA = A2 – A1 = 8rΔr --- (1)
Work done in increasing the surface area by dA is stored as excess surface energy.

∴dW = TdA= T (8rΔr) --- (2)


This work done is also equal to the product of the force F which causes increase in
the area of the bubble and the displacement Δr which is the increase in the radius of
the bubble.
∴ dW = FΔr --- (3)
The excess force is given by, (Excess pressure) × (Surface area)
∴F = (pi – p0) 4r2 --- (4)
Equating Eq. (2) and Eq. (3), we get,

T(8rΔr) = (pi – p0)4r2Δr


∴ pi – p0 = 2T/r --- (5)

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This equation gives the excess pressure inside a drop. This is called Laplace’s law of
a spherical membrane.

Q. Derive an expression for the excess pressure inside a soap bubble. OR


Derive Laplace’s law for spherical membrane of a bubble due to surface
tension. (3 marks)
Consider a small, spherical, thin-filmed soap bubble with a radius r. Let the pressure
outside the drop be po and that inside be pi. A soap bubble in air is like a spherical
shell and has two gas-liquid interfaces. Hence, the surface area of the bubble is
A = 4r2 …..(1)
Hence, with a hypothetical increase in radius by an infinitesimal amount Δr, the
differential increase in surface area and surface energy would be
dA = 16rΔr and

dW = T.dA = T(16rΔr) …….(2)


We assume that Δr is so small that the pressure inside remains the same, equal to
pi. All parts of the surface of the bubble experiences an outward force per unit area
equal to pi – p0.
Therefore, the work done by this outward pressure-developed force against the
surface tension force during the increase in radius Δr is
dW= (Excess pressure) × (Surface area).Δr
= (pi – p0) 4r2 Δr …….(3)
From Eqs. (2) and (3),

(pi – p0) 4r2 Δr = T(16rΔr)


∴ pi – p0 = 4T/r --- (4) which is the required expression.

[Note ; The excess pressure inside a drop or bubble is inversely proportional to its radius : the smaller
the bubble radius, the greater the pressure difference across its wall.]

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Capillary Action :
A tube of narrow bore (i.e. very small diameter) is called a capillary tube. The word
capillary is derived from the Latin capillus meaning hair, capillaris in Latin means
‘like a hair’.
If a capillary tube is just partially immersed in a wetting liquid the liquid rises in the
capillary tube. This is railed capillary rise.
If a capillary tube is just partially immersed in a non-wetting liquid, the liquid falls in
the capillary tube. This is called capillary depression.
The rise of a wetting liquid and fall of non-wetting liquid in a capillary tube is called
capillarity.
Applications of capillarity :
 A blotting paper or a cotton cloth absorbs water, ink by capillary action.
 Oil rises up the wick of an oil lamp and sap rises up xylem tissues of a tree by
capillarity.
 Ground water rises to the open surface through the capillaries formed in the
soil. In summer, the farmers plough their fields to break these capillaries and
prevent excessive evaporation.
 Water rises up the crevices in rocks by capillary action. Expansion and
contraction of this water due to daily and seasonal temperature variations
cause the rocks to crumble.
[Note : The rise of sap is due to the combined action of capillarity and transpiration.
The transpiration pull considered to be the major driving force for water transport
throughout a plant.]
Phenomenon of capillarity (Capillary action ):
(1) When a capillary tube is partially immersed a wetting liquid, there is capillary rise
and liquid meniscus inside the tube is concave, as shown in Fig. (A).

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Consider four points A, B, C, D, of which point is just above the concave meniscus
inside the capillary and point B is just below it. Points C and D are just above and
below the free liquid surface outside.

Let PA, PB, PC and PD be the pressures at point A, B, C and D, respectively.

Now, PA = PC = atmospheric pressure

The pressure is the same on both sides of the free surface of a liquid, so that
PC = PD
∴ PA = PD
The pressure on the concave side of a meniscus is always greater than that on the
convex side, so that
PA > PB
∴ PD > PB (….PA = PD)
The excess pressure outside presses the liquid up the capillary until the pressures at
B and D (at the same horizontal level) equalize, i.e., PB becomes equal to PD. Thus,
there is a capillary rise.

(2) For a non-wetting liquid, there is capillary depression and the liquid meniscus in
the capillary tube is convex, as shown in Fig. (B).

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Consider again four points A, B, C and D when the meniscus in the capillary tube is
at the same level as the free surface of the liquid. Points A and B are just above and
below the convex meniscus.
Points C and D are just above and below the free liquid surface outside.

The pressure at B (PB) is greater than that at A(PA). The pressure at A is the
atmospheric pressure H and at D, PD  H = PA. Hence, the hydrostatic pressure at
the same levels at B and D are not equal,
PB > PD.
Hence, the liquid flows from B to D and the level of the liquid in the capillary falls.
This continues till the pressure at B’ is the same as that D’, that is till the pressures
at the same level are equal.

An expression for capillary rise for a liquid having a concave meniscus.


Consider a capillary tube of radius r partially immersed into a wetting liquid of
density p. Let the capillary rise be h and  be the angle of contact at the edge of
contact of the concave meniscus and glass (Fig. 2.23).
If R is the radius of curvature of the meniscus then from the figure, r=R cos .

Surface tension T is the tangential force per unit length acting along the contact line.
It is directed into the liquid making an angle  with the capillary wall. We ignore the
small volume of the liquid in the meniscus. The gauge pressure within the liquid at a
depth h, i.e. at the level of the free liquid surface open to the atmosphere, is

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P— Po = gh ………. (1)
By Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane, this gauge pressure is
P— Po = 2T/R …….(2)

2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 
hg = 2T/R =
𝑟
2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 
∴h= …….(3)
𝑟𝑔

Thus, narrower the capillary tube, the greater is the capillary rise.
From Eq. (3),
ℎ𝑟𝑔
T= ………(4)
2𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Equations (3) and (4) are also valid for capillary depression h of a non-wetting liquid.
In this case, the meniscus is convex and  is obtuse. Then, cos is negative but so is
h, indicating a fall or depression of the liquid in the capillary. T is positive in both
cases.
[For capillary rise, Eq. (3) is also called the ascent formula.]
[Note : If the small volume of the liquid in the meniscus is also taken into account,
𝑟
then h must be replaced by (ℎ + 3) , so that the above formula becomes

𝑟𝑔 𝑟
T= (ℎ + ) which reduces to Eq. (4) for r << h.]
2𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 3

Fluids in motion
Hydrodynamics : Hydrodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with fluid
dynamics, i.e., the study of fluids in motion. Since the most basic fluid motion is
highly complex, we consider only ideal fluids-non-viscous and incompressible, i.e.,
fluids whose internal friction is negligible and density is constant throughout.

Steady flow : When a liquid flows slowly over a surface or through a pipe such that
its velocity or pressure at any point within the fluid is constant, it is said to be in
steady flow.

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Streamline : Consider point A, as shown in Fig., within a fluid. The velocity v at A
does not change with time.

Hence, every particle passes point A with the same speed and in the same direction.
The same is true about the other points such as B and C. A curve which is tangent or
parallel to the velocity of the fluid particles at every point will be the path of every
particle arriving at A. It is called a streamline. A fluid particle cannot cross a
streamline but only flow along it.
Streamline flow : When a liquid flows slowly over a surface or through a pipe with
a velocity less than a certain critical velocity, the motion of its molecules is orderly.
All molecules passing a given point proceed with the same velocity. This kind of fluid
motion is called streamline or steady flow.

Examples : Smoke rising from an incense stick inside a wind-less room, air flow
around a car or aeroplane in motion are some examples of streamline flow, Fish,
dolphins, and even massive whales are streamlined in shape to reduce drag.
Migratory birds species that fly long distances often have particular features such as

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long necks, and flocks of birds fly in the shape of a spearhead as that forms a
streamlined pattern.
Flow tube: A bundle of adjacent streamlines form a tube of flow or flow tube
through which the fluid is flowing. In a flow tube, where the streamlines are close
together the velocity is high, and where they are widely separated, the fluid is
moving slowly.
No fluid can cross the boundary of a tube of flow.

Turbulent flow : Turbulent flow or turbulence is a non-steady fluid flow in which


streamlines and flow tubes change continuously. It has two main causes.
 First, any obstruction or sharp edge, such as in a tap, creates turbulence by
imparting velocities perpendicular to the flow.
 Second, if the speed with which a fluid moves relative to a solid body is
increased beyond at certain critical velocity the flow becomes unstable or one
of extreme disorder.
In both cases, the fluid particles still move in general towards the main direction as
before. But now all sorts of secondary motions cause them to cross and recross the
main direction continuously. The orderly streamlines break up into eddies or vortices
and the result is turbulence. In a turbulent flow regions of fluid moves in irregular,
colliding paths, resulting in mixing and swirling (Fig.)

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Example : Turbulence is commonly seen in washing machines and kitchen mixers.
Turbulence in these devices is desirable because it causes mixing.
Advantages of turbulence :
 The turbulent agitation in the layers of air near the ground and in the waters of
the oceans cause the diffusion of heat and matter, and provide a mechanism
for very efficient mixing. Without turbulence, the air at the ground level would
either be intolerably hot or very cold and either extremely humid or very dry or
smoke would cling to the ground for days.
 Turbulence is also extremely important for bird and insect flights, and for air
pollination.
Disadvantages of turbulence :
 Turbulence is undesirable in mechanical flights (aircraft), water navigation,
ballistics, high-speed cars, etc., because of increased resistance.
 To reduce turbulence, and hence fluid resistance, these bodies are given a
streamlined or aerodynamic shape.
Streamline flow Turbulent flow
1-The steady flow of a fluid, with 1- A non-steady irregular fluid flow in
velocity less than certain critical velocity which streamlines and flow tubes
is called streamline or laminar flow. change continuously with a velocity
2-In a streamline flow, the velocity of a greater than certain critical velocity.
fluid at a given point is always constant. 2-In a turbulent flow, the velocity of a
3-Streamlines do not change and never fluid at any point does not remain
intersect. constant.
4-The fluid flow is laminar over a 3-Streamlines and flow tubes change
surface, and is in the form of coaxial continuously.
cylinders through a pipe. 4-Fluid particles still move in general
towards the main direction as before.
But now all sorts of secondary motions
cause eddies or vortices.

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Reynolds number: Osborne Reynolds found that if the free-stream velocity of a
fluid increases when it moves relative to a solid body, a point is reached where the
steady flow becomes turbulent. From experiments, he found that the transition from
𝑣0 𝑑𝜌
steady to turbulent flow depends on the value of the quantity

where vo is the free-stream velocity, d is some characteristic dimension of the


system,  the density of the fluid and  its coefficient of viscosity.
For a sphere in a fluid stream, d is its diameter; for water in a pipe, d is the pipe
diameter.
This dimensionless number, defined as
𝑣0 𝑑𝜌
Re = is called the Reynolds number.

The flow of a fluid, whether streamline or turbulent, is differentiated on the basis of


velocity of the flow. The velocity beyond which a streamline flow becomes turbulent
is called critical velocity.
According to Osborne Reynolds critical velocity is given by

Re
𝑣𝑐 =
ρd
In a system of particular geometry, transition from steady to turbulent flow is given
by a certain value of the Reynolds number called the critical Reynolds number.
Steady flow takes place for Re up to about 1000.
For 1000 < Re < 2000, there is a transition region in which the flow is extremely
sensitive to all sorts of small disturbances. For Re > 2000, the flow is completely
turbulent.
Viscosity: Suppose a constant tangential force is applied to the surface of a liquid.
Under this shearing force, the liquid begins to flow. The motion of a thin layer of the
liquid at the surface, relative to a layer below, is opposed by fluid friction. Because of
this internal, fluid friction, horizontal layers of the liquid flow with varying velocities.
This also happens in a gas. When a solid surface is moved through a gas, a thin
layer of the gas moves with the surface. But its motion relative to a layer away is
opposed by fluid friction.

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The resistance to relative motion between the adjacent layers of a fluid is
known as viscosity.

Viscous drag : When a fluid flows past a solid surface, or when a solid body moves
through a fluid, there is always a force of fluid friction opposing the motion. force of
fluid friction is called the drag force or viscous drag.
It is a property of the fluid. The resistive force in fluid motion is called the
viscous drag.
Reason of viscous drag : In liquids, the viscous drag is due to short range
molecular cohesive forces while in gases it is due to collisions between fast moving
molecules.
 For laminar flow in both liquids and gases, the viscous drag is proportional to
the relative velocity between the layers, provided the relative velocity is small.
 For turbulent flow, the viscous drag increases rapidly and is proportional to
some higher power of the relative velocity.
Velocity gradient: The rate of change of velocity (dv) with distance (dx) measured
from a stationary layer is called velocity gradient (dv/dx).
When a fluid flows past a surface with a low velocity, within a limiting distance from
the surface, its velocity varies with the distance from the surface, see Fig. The layer
in contact with the surface is at rest relative to the surface. Starting outwards from
the surface, the next layer has an extremely small velocity; each successive layer
has a slightly higher velocity than its inner neighbour, as shown.
Finally, a layer is reached which has approximately the full, or free-stream, velocity
v0 of the fluid.
The situation is reversed if a body is moving in a stationary fluid : the fluid velocity
reduces as the distance of a layer from the body increases. Thus, the velocity in each
layer increases with its distance from the surface.

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Consider the layer of thickness dx at x from the solid surface. Let v and v + dv be the
velocities of the fluid at the base and upper edge of this layer.
The change in velocity across the layer is dv.
Therefore, the rate at which the velocity changes between the layers is dv/dx. This is
called the velocity gradient.
Newton's law of viscosity : ln a steady flow of a fluid past a solid surface, a
velocity profile is set up such that the viscous drag per unit area on a layer is directly
proportional to the velocity gradient.
When a fluid flows past a solid surface in a streamline flow or when a solid body
moves through a fluid, the force of fluid friction opposing the motion is called the
viscous drag. The magnitude of the viscous drag of a fluid is given by Newton's law
of viscosity.
If dv/dx is the velocity gradient, the viscous drag per unit area on a layer,
𝐹 𝑑𝑣 𝐹 𝑑𝑣
∝ ∴ =
𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝑑𝑥

where the constant of proportionality,  is called the coefficient of viscosity of the


fluid.

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The coefficient of viscosity of a fluid is defined as the viscous drag per unit area
acting on a fluid layer per unit velocity gradient established in a steady flow.
SI unit : one pascal-second (abbreviated Pa-s),
1Pa.s =1 N-m-2s
CGS unit : dyne.cm-2s, called the poise [symbol P, named after Jean Louis Marie
Poiseuille (1799-1869), French physician].
 = [ML-1T-1]
Stokes’ Law: “The viscous force (Fv) acting on a small sphere falling through a
viscous medium is directly proportional to the radius of the sphere (r), its velocity
(v) through the fluid, and the coefficient of viscosity (η) of the fluid”.
Fv   r v
The empirically obtained constant of proportionality is 6 .

Fv = 6  r v
This is the expression for viscous force acting on a spherical object moving through a
viscous medium. The above formula can be derived using dimensional analysis.
Derivation : Since the viscous force Fv depends on , v and v0
we can write
Fv = —b r v0

where b is a dimensionless proportionality constant.


Therefore,
[ Fv] = [ ]  [r ]  [v0 ] 

With [ ] = ML—1T—1, [r ] = L, [Fv ] = ML1T—2 and [v0 ] = LT—1, we get,

ML1 T—2 = (ML—1T—1) (L)  (LT—1) 

 ML1 T—2 == M-L-+ + T--

Homogeneity of the above dimensional equation requires that


𝛼 = 1, −𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = 1, −𝛼 − 𝛾 = −2
On solving, we get,
𝛾 = −𝛼 + 2 = −1 + 2 = 1
𝛽 = 1+𝛼−𝛾 =1+1−1= 1

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Thus 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 1

Fv = -b r v
inserting the value of b from theory and experiments,
Fv = -6  r v
This is called Stokes’ law, after Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903), British
physicist and mathematician.

Terminal speed of a body falling through a viscous fluid and expression for
the terminal speed :
Consider a small sphere of radius r, falling through a fluid with coefficient of viscosity

. Initially, as the sphere falls through the fluid under gravity, its speed increases.
According to Stokes’ law, the magnitude f of the viscous force on the falling sphere is
proportional to its speed v. The direction of this force is upward since the velocity of
the sphere is downward. Also, the fluid exerts an upthrust or buoyant force on the
sphere. As soon as the speed reaches a value, v1, the magnitude of f becomes equal
to that of the gravitational force on the sphere minus the upthrust. Then, the net
force acting on the sphere becomes zero. It’s subsequent downward motion is at this
constant speed. This is called its terminal speed : v1 represents the highest speed
which a body can attain when freely falling through a fluid with coefficient of

viscosity .

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If the sphere and the fluid have densities  and L, respectively, the total downward
force on the sphere is the sum of the downward gravitational force and the upward
buoyant force.
Viscous force = gravitational force—buoyant force
= mg - mL g
4
where m = mass of the sphere = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 and
4
mL = mass of the liquid displaced = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝐿 .

At its terminal speed v1, the magnitude of the viscous force by Stokes’ law is

Fv = 6  r v1
6  r v1=43 𝜋𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜌𝐿 )𝑔
2 𝑟 2 (𝜌−𝜌𝐿 )
v1 = 𝑔
9 

[Note : Theoretically, v —> v1 as time t —>  In practice, if  is appreciable, then v


tends to v1 in a very small time interval.]

Equation of continuity

Volume flow rate : The volume of fluid passing by a given location per unit time
through an area is called the volume flow rate. or simply flow rate Q.
Q = dV/dt

Consider an ideal fluid flowing with velocity v through a uniform flow tube of cross

section A. lf, as shown in Fig. the shaded cylinder of fluid of length x and volume V

flows past point P in time t,

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𝑑𝑥
𝑣= and V = Ax
𝑑𝑡

Then the volume flow rate is


𝑑𝑉 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑄= = (𝐴𝑥) = 𝐴 ( ) = 𝐴𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
which is the required relation.
The SI unit for volume flow rate is the cubic metre per second (m3/s).
Another common unit in SI is liter/minute (L/min)
Mass flow rate or mass flux : The mass of fluid passing by a given point per unit
time through an area is called the mass flow rate dm/dt
See above fig.
Consider an ideal fluid of density  flowing with velocity v through a uniform flow

lube of cross section A. If as shown an Fig the shaded cylinder of fluid of length x

and volume V flows past point P in time t,


𝑑𝑥
𝑣= and V = Ax
𝑑𝑡

Then the mass flow rate is


𝑑(𝜌𝑉) 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑄= = 𝜌 (𝐴𝑋) = 𝜌𝐴 ( ) = 𝜌𝐴𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
This is the required relation.

Flow speed is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of a flow


tube :
Consider a fluid in steady or streamline flow. The velocity of the fluid within a flow
tube, while everywhere parallel to the tube, may change its magnitude. Suppose the
velocity is v1 at point P and v2 at point Q. If A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas

of the tube and 1, and 2 are the densities of the fluid at these two points, the mass

of the fluid passing per unit time across A1 is A11 v1 and that passing across A2 is

A22v2. Since no fluid can enter or leave through the boundary of the tube, the

conservation of mass requires


A11 v1 = A22v2 …..(1)

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Equation (1) is called the equation of continuity of flow. It holds true for a
compressible fluid, (like all gases) tor which the density of the fluid may differ from

point to point in a tube of flow. For an incompressible fluid (like all liquids), 1 = 2

and eq. (1) takes the simpler form


A1 v1 = A2 v2 ……. (2)

 v1/ v2 = A2/A1
that is the flow speed is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of a flow
tube. Where the area is large the speed of flow is small, and vice versa.
Equations (2) is the equation of Continuity for an incompressible fluid for which
density is constant throughout.

Q. Explain why flow speed is greatest where streamlines are closest


together.
Ans. By the equation of continuity, the flow speed is inversely proportional to the
area of cross section of a flow tube. Where the area of cross section is small, i.e.,
streamlines are close, the flow speed is large and vice versa.

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Expression for conservation of mass starting from the equation of continuity
:
Consider a fluid in steady or streamline flow, that is its density is constant. The
velocity of the fluid within a flow tube, while everywhere parallel to the tube, may
change its magnitude.

Suppose the velocity is v1 at point P and v2 at point. Q. If A1, and A2, are the cross-
sectional areas of the tube at these two points,
𝑑
the volume flux across A1, (𝑉1 ) =A1v1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
and that across A2, (𝑉2 ) =A2v2
𝑑𝑡

By the equation of continuity of flow for a fluid,


A1v1 = A2v2
𝑑 𝑑
i.e. (𝑉1 ) = (𝑉2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

If 1 and 2, are the densities of the fluid at P and Q, respectively, the mass flux
𝑑 𝑑
across A1, (𝑚1 ) = (1 𝑉1 ) = A11v1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑
and that across A2, (𝑚2 ) = (2 𝑉2 ) = A22v2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Since no fluid can enter or leave through the boundary of the tube, the conservation
of mass requires the mass fluxes to be equal, i.e.
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑚1 ) = (𝑚2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

A11v1 = A22v2

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i.e. Av = constant

is the required expression.

Bernoulli equation, Applications


Bernoulli's principle: Where the velocity of an ideal fluid in streamline flow is high,
the pressure is low, and where the velocity of a fluid is low, the pressure is high. OR
At every point in the streamline flow of an ideal (i.e., non-viscous and
incompressible) fluid, the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential
energy of a given mass of the fluid is constant at every point.
Note: The above principle is equivalent to a statement of the law of conservation of
mechanical energy as applied to fluid mechanics. It was published in 1738 by Daniel
Bernoulli (1700-82), Swiss mathematician.

Bernoulli's equation of fluid flow : Consider an ideal fluid incompressible and


non-viscous of density  flowing along a flow tube of varying cross section. The
system under consideration is the flow tube between points 1 and 2, and the Earth
(Fig.). From the continuity equation it follows that pressure and speed must be
different in regions of different cross section. If the height also changes, there is an
additional pressure difference.

The fluid enters the system at point 1 through a surface of cross section A1, at speed
v1. The point 1 lies at a height h1 with respect to an arbitrary reference level y = 0,

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and the local pressure there is p,. The fluid leaves the system at point 2 where the
corresponding quantities are A2, v2, h2 and p2.

Consider a small fluid element, of volume V and mass m=V, that enters at

point 1 and leaves at point 2 during small time interval t. In the absence of internal
fluid friction, it can be shown that the work done on the fluid element by the
surrounding fluid is
W: (p1-p2) V
This is sometimes called the pressure energy.
During t, the changes in the kinetic energy and potential energy are
1 1
KE = 2 ∆𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) = 2 𝜌∆𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )

PE = ∆𝑚𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 𝜌∆𝑉𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )


Since W is the work done by a non-conservative force,

W = KE + PE
1
(p1-p2) V = 2 𝜌∆𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) + 𝜌∆𝑉𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) ….. (1)
1
 p1-p2 = 2 𝜌(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
1 1
 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝2 + 2 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2
1
Or 𝑝 + 2 𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = constant ….. (2)

This is known as Bernoulli's equation.


Note that in writing W = KE + PE we have assumed principle of
conservation of energy.
Dimensionally, pressure is energy per unit volume. Both terms on the right side of
Eq. (2) also have the same dimensions. Hence, the term (p1-p2) is often referred
to as pressure energy per unit volume or pressure head.
1
The first term on the right, 𝜌(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ), is called the velocity head and the second
2

term, 𝜌𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ), is called the potential head.

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Limitations of Bernoulli’s principle : Bernoulli’s principle and his equation for
fluid flow is valid only for an ideal fluid, i.e.,
 It is incompressible and non-viscous, so that the density remains constant
throughout a flow tube and there is no viscous drag which results in energy
dissipation or loss.
 It is a streamline flow.
Applications of Bernoulli's principle :
Venturi meter: It is a horizontal constricted tube that is used to measure flow speed
in a gas.
Atomizer ; It is a hydraulic device used for spraying insecticide, paint, air perfume,
etc.
Aerofoil; The aerofoil shape of the wings of an aircraft produces aerodynamic lift.
Bunsen’s burner ; Bernoulli effect is used to admit air into the burner to produce an
oxidising flame.
Law of efflux (Torricelli’s theorem) : The Speed of efflux for an open tank
through an orifice at a depth h below the liquid surface is equal to the speed
acquired by a body falling freely through a vertical distance h.

Consider a tank with cross—sectional area A1 holding a static liquid of density . The
tank discharges through an opening (of cross-sectional area A2) in the side wall at a
depth h below the surface of the liquid. The flow speed at which the liquid leaves the
tank is called the speed of efflux.

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The pressure at point 2 it is the atmospheric Pressure po. Let the pressure of the air
above the liquid at point 1 be p We assume that the tank is large in cross section
compared to the opening (A1 >> A2), so that the upper surface of the liquid will drop
very slowly. That is we may regard the liquid surface to be approximately at rest
(v1 0) Bernoulli's equation, in usual notation, states
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2
2 2
Substituting p1 = p, p2 = po, v1 0 and y1-y2=h
𝑝 − 𝑝0
𝑣22 = 2 + 2𝑔ℎ
𝜌
If the tank is open to the atmosphere, then p = P0,
𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉 , which is the law of efflux.
Venturi meter : ventury tube is used to measure the speed of flow of a fluid in a
tube. It has a constriction in the tube. As the fluid passes through the constriction,
its speed increases in accordance with the equation of continuity. The pressure thus
decreases as required by the Bernoulli equation.
The constricted part of the tube is called the throat. Although a Venturi meter can be
used for a gas, they are most commonly used for liquids. As the fluid passes through
the throat, the higher speed results in lower pressure at point 2 than at point 1.
This pressure difference is measured from the difference in height h of the liquid
levels in the U—tube manometer containing a liquid of density m (Fig). The following
treatment is limited to an incompressible fluid.
Consider a horizontal constricted tube.

Let A1 and A2 be the cross-sectional areas at points P1 and P2, respectively.

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Let v1 and v2 be the corresponding flow speeds.
 is the density of the fluid in the pipeline.
By the equation of continuity,
A1v1 = A2v2 ... (1)
v2/ v1 = A1/A2 > 1 (…A1>A2)
Therefore, the speed of the liquid increases as it passes through the constriction.
Since the meter is assumed to be horizontal, from Bernoulli’s equation we get,
1 1
p1 + ( )v12 = p2 + ( )v22
2 2

1 1 𝐴1 2
 p1 + ( )v12 = p2 + ( )v12 ( ) ……..putting value of v2 from Eq. (1)
2 2 𝐴2
1 𝐴
 p1 - p2 = 2 𝜌𝑣12 [(𝐴1 ) − 1] …. (2)
2

Since A1>A2 the bracketed term is positive so that p1 > p2. Thus, as the fluid
passes through the constriction or throat, the higher speed results in lower
pressure at the throat.
The pressure difference is equal to mgh, Where h is the differences in liquid levels in
the manometer.
Then,
1 2 𝐴1
𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣 [( ) − 1]
2 1 𝐴2

2𝜌 𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑣12 = √ 𝐴𝑚1 ……(3)
𝜌[( )−1]
𝐴2

Equation (3) gives the flow speed of an incompressible fluid in the pipeline. The flow
rates of practical interest are the mass and volume flow rates through the meter.
Volume flow rate = A1v1

And
Mass flow rate = density X volume flow rate = A1v1

Q. Explain aerodynamic lift on the wings of an aeroplane. OR


Explain why the upper surface of the wings of an aeroplane is made convex
and the lower surface concave. (2 marks)

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Ans. An aeroplane wing has a special characteristic aerodynamic shape called an
aerofoil. An aerofoil is convex on the top and slightly concave on the bottom. Its
leading edge is well rounded while the trailing edge is sharp. As an aeroplane moves
through air, the aerofoil shape makes the air moving over the top and along the
bottom of a wing in a certain way.

When an aeroplane runs on a runway, due to aerodynamic shape of its wings, the
streamlines of air are crowded above the wings compared to those below the wings.
 Thus, the air above the wings moves faster than that below the wings.
 According to the Bernoulli’s principle, the pressure above the wings decreases
and that below the wings increases.
 Due to this pressure difference, an upward force called the dynamic lift acts on
the bottom of the wings of a plane.
 When this force becomes greater than the weight of aeroplane, the aeroplane
takes off.
For an aeroplane to stay in level flight, the lift is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the force of gravity.
For an airborne aeroplane to get to the ground, the direction of F must be reversed.
Then, the upper surface should be more concave than the lower surface such that air

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above the wing travels slower than the air below it, decreasing the air pressure
below the wing. This is achieved by small flaps, called ailerons attached at the
trailing end of each wing.
Working of an atomizer : An atomizer is a device which entraps or entrains liquid
droplets in a flowing gas. It’s working is based on Bernoulli’s principle. A squeeze
bulb or a pump is used to create a jet of air over an open tube dipped into a liquid.
By Bernoulli's principle, the high-velocity air stream creates low pressure at the open
end of the tube. This causes the liquid to rise in the tube. The liquid is then
dispersed into a fine spray of droplets. This type of system is used in a perfume
bottle, a paint sprayer, insect and perfume sprays and an automobile carburetor.

Blowing off of roofs by stormy wind: A cyclonic high wind blowing over a roof
creates a low pressure above it, in accordance with Bernoulli's principle.
 The pressure below the roof is equal to the atmospheric pressure which is now
greater than the pressure above the roof.
 This pressure difference causes an aerodynamic lift that lifts the roof up.
 Once the roof is lifted up, it blows off in the direction of the wind.
 Wind speeds in a tornado may be much higher and thus create much greater
pressure differences. Sometimes, wooden houses hit by a tornado explode

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