LECTURE 4

Connections

Unlike concrete whose members are constructed monolithically, steel structures are held together
at the joint with designed connections. Usually in design more precedence is given to the design
of individual members with less attention been given to the design of the connections. This is due
to the complexities which is design the fabricators including the values of necessary forces at the
joints so they can provide adequate connections for the joint. Steels are easier to work with owing
to the ease and pace of being erectable but also requires high level of expertise especially when
dealing with connections.

The importance of good connections cannot be over emphasized and an embarrassing connection
if not designed properly would be a source of weakness in the finished structure not only in their
structural action but also because they may be a focus of corrosion and aesthetically unpleasing.

Requirement of a good connected in steel work include:

(a) Rigid – All Fluctuation which may cause fatigue failure should be avoided.
(b) Such that there is the least possible weaking of the parts to be joined.
(c) Easily installed, inspected and maintained.

Types of connections
Present two major types of connections are being used which include bolts & welds. The other
connection which is becoming obsolete is the Rivet. The rivet is currently phasing out with the
advent of bolts and this is due to the ease of installation of bolts without the need of certain
expertise unlike that of rivet installation and other factors. By checking through various books
design methodology for rivets can be seen their as well focus on bolts and welds in our class.

See BS5950 Part 6 for details on connection.

Bolt connection
Different types of structural bolts exist in UK and specifications have been supplied by the
International Standard Organization. Grade classification is often used to describe the material
from which the bolt has been made and the general grades been used are 4.6, 8.8 and 10.9. The 1st
figure from the grade represents one-tenth of the tensile strength in kgf/mm2, the second figure
represents the factor by which the first must be multiplied to give the yield stress or 0.2% proof
stress in kgf/mm2 as appropriate.

Bolt Connection Selection

Two types of bolts commonly used in steel structures are ordinary (or black) bolts and high-
strength friction grip bolts (HSFG). Black bolts resist shear load by the shear strength of the bolt
shank whereas the HSFG bolts rely on a high tensile strength which grips the parts together such
that no sliding will occur.

Three grades of ordinary bolts been used are 4.6, 8.8 and 10.9 diameters include 12, 16, 20, 22, 24
and 30mm. In design, 4.6 bolts with diameters less than 16mm are used for purlin deals while 8.8
bolts with diameter greater than 16mm are used on the other parts of the structure.

The nominal diameter of holes for ordinary bolts, Dh, is equal to the bolt diameter, db, plus 1 mm
for 12 mm diameter bolts, 2 mm for bolts between 16 and 24 mm in diameter and 3 mm for bolts
27 mm or greater in diameter (Table 33: BS 5950):
Dh = db + 1 mm for db = 12 mm
Dh = db + 2 mm for 16 ≤ db ≤ 24 mm
Dh = db + 3 mm for db ≥ 27 mm

Recommendations:

As a working principle, one should endeavor to provide similar bolt size across the structure or in
groups are the case may be. HSFG bolts commonly used in structural connections conform to the
general grade and may be parallel shank fasteners designed to be non-slip in service or waisted
shank fasteners designed to be non-slip under factored loads.

Fastener Spacing And Edge/End Distances

Recommendations regarding the distance between fasteners and edge/end distances to fasteners
are given in Clause 6.2 of BS 5950 which are summarized below:
1. Spacing between centers of bolts, i.e. pitch (p), in the direction of stress and not exposed
to corrosive influences should lie within
2.5db ≤ p ≤ 14t
where,
db is the diameter of bolts and
t the thickness of the thinner ply.

2. Minimum edge distance, e1, and end distance, e2, to fasteners should conform with the
following limits:
Rolled, machine flame cut, sawn or planed edge/end ≥ 1.25Dh
Sheared or hand flame cut edge/end ≥ 1.40Dh
where,
Dh is the diameter of the bolt hole.
Note: the edge distance, e1, is the distance from the center line of the hole to the outside
edge of the plate at right angles to the direction of the stress, whereas the end distance, e2,
is the distance from the center line to the edge of the plate in the direction of stress.

Figure 1: Rules for

fasteners spacing and
edge/end distances to
fasteners

3. Maximum edge distance, e1, should not exceed the following:

e1 ≤ 11t ε
where,
t is the thickness of the thinner part and ε = (275/py)1/2.
 Strength Checks
Bolted connections may fail due to various mechanisms including shear, bearing, tension and
combined shear and tension. The following sections describe these failure modes and outline the
associated design procedures for connections involving
(a) Ordinary bolts and
(b) HSFG bolts

Ordinary bolts
Referring to connection details shown in Figure 2. Summarily, the connection undergoes the
following:
(a) The bolt failing in shear
(b) Bolt failing in bearing
(c) The metal being joined failing in bearing.

Figure 2

These points show the various ways this connection fail. The bolts can fail in bearing when the
metal plates are harder and the plates will fail when the bolts are harder.
Designing for shear at the connection, the following should be stated in the code
1. Shear capacity of the bolt,
Ps = psAs (1)
2. Bearing capacity of bolt,
Pbb = dbtppbb (2)
3. Bearing capacity of connected part,
Pbs = kbsdbtppbs ≤ 0.5kbsetppbs (3)
Where,
ps = shear strength of the bolts (Table 1)
pbb = bearing strength of the bolts (Table 2)
pbs = bearing strength of the connected part (Table 3)
e = end distance e2
As = effective area of bolts in shear, normally taken as the tensile stress area, At (Table 4)
tp = thickness of connected part
kbs = 1.0 for bolts in standard clearance holes

Table 1: (Table 30, BS 5950) Table 2: (Table 31, BS 5950)

Table 3: (Table 30, BS 5950)

Table 4: Tensile Stress Area, At
 Double shear
As shown in Figure 3. If a column supports two beams the failure remains as discussed previously
except that bolts (B) will be in double shear. This means that failure of the bolts will only occur
on two faces of the column bringing about two shear planes on the bolts including x2–y2 and x3–
y3.

Figure 3: Double
Shear Failure

The shear capacity of bolts in double shear, Psd,

is given by
Psd = 2Ps (4)
Thus, double shear effectively doubles the shear
strength of the bolt.

Tension
As a result of excessive tension in the bolts, tension failure may arise. Refer to clause 6.3.4.3 of
BS 5950 for guidance on the more exact method.

Figure 4: Typical
Tension Failure
According to the simple method, the nominal tension capacity of the bolt, Pnom, is given by
Pnom = 0.8ptAt (5)
where
pt = tension strength of the bolt (Table 5)
At = tensile stress area of bolt (Table 4)
The tensile capacity of a flat plate is given by
Pt = αe py (6)
where effective net area, αe, is
αe = Keαn < αg (7)
in which
Ke = 1.2 for grade S275 steel plates
αg = gross area of plate = bt
αn net area of plate = αg – allowance for bolt holes (= Dht)

Table 5: (Table
31, BS 5950)

Combined shear and tension

In addition to checking the shear and tension capacities separately, this condition/relationship
should also be satisfied:
 Figure 5: Combined
Shear and Tension

𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑡
+ ≤ 1.4 (8)
p𝑠 𝑃𝑛𝑜𝑚

where
Fs = applied shear
Ft = applied tension
Ps = shear capacity (Eqn 1)
Pnom = tension capacity (Eqn 5)

Note that this expression should only be used when the bolt tensile capacity has been calculated
using the simple method.

HSFG Bolt
HSFG bolts, rather than ordinary bolts are used, failure would principally occur as a result of slip
between the connected parts, thus all connections utilising friction grip fasteners should be checked
for slip resistance. However, connection using parallel shank HSFG bolts designed to be non-slip
in service should additionally be checked for bearing capacity of the connected parts and shear
capacity of the bolts after slip.

Slip resistance: According to clause 6.4.2, the slip resistance of HSFG bolts designed to be nonslip
in service, PsL, is given by:
PsL = 1.1KsμPo (9)
and for HSFG bolts designed to be non-slip under factored loads by
PsL = 0.9KsμPo (10)
where,
Po = minimum shank tension (proof load) (Table 6)
Ks = 1.0 for bolts in standard clearance holes
μ = slip factor ≤ 0.5

Table 6:
Proof load of
HSFG bolts,
Po

Slip factor depends on the condition of the surface being joined according to table 35 of BS 5950.

Bearing
Bearing capacity of connected parts after slip, Pbg, is given by:
Pbg = 1.5dbtppbs ≤ 0.5etppbs (11)
where,
db = bolt diameter
tp = thickness of connected part
pbs = bearing strength of connected parts (Table 3)
e = end distance

Shear
As in the case of black bolts, the shear capacity of HSFG bolts, Ps, is given by:
Ps = psAs (12)
where,
ps = shear strength of the bolts (Table 1)
As = effective area of bolts in shear, normally taken as the tensile stress area, At (Table 4)
 Combined shear and tension
When parallel shank friction grip bolts designed to be non-slip in service, are subject to combined
shear and tension, then the following additional check should be carried out:

𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡
+ ≤1 (13)
𝑃𝑠𝐿 1.1𝑃𝑜

but,
Ftot ≤ At pt (14)
where,
Fs = applied shear
Ftot = total applied tension in the bolt, including the calculated prying forces = ptAt in which pt is
obtained from Table 5 and At is obtained from Table 4
PsL = slip resistance (Eqn 9)
Po = minimum shank tension (Table 6).

Example 1:
Design for the double angle web cleat beam-to-column connection shown below. Given a shear
force, V, of 450kN. Assume the steel is grade S275 and the bolts are M20, grade 8.8.
Check fastener spacing and edge/end distances
Diameter of the bolt, db = 20mm
Diameter of bolt hole, Dh = 22mm (Bolt + clearance hole)
Pitch of the bolt, p = 140mm and 60mm
Edge distance, e1 = 40mm
End distance, e2 = 60mm and 50mm
Thickness of angle cleat, tp = 10mm

Pitch ≥ 2.5db = 2.5 × 20 = 50 < 140 and 60 OK

Pitch ≤ 14tp = 14 × 10 = 140 ≤ 140 and 60 OK
Edge distance e1 ≥ 1.4Dh = 1.4 × 22 = 30.8 < 40 OK
End distance e2 ≥ 1.4Dh = 1.4 × 22 = 30.8 < 60 and 50 OK
e1 and e2 ≤ 11tpε = 11 × 10 × 1 = 110 < 40, 50 and 60 OK

Check strength of bolts connecting cleats to supporting column

Shear
As = 245mm2 (Table 4)
ps = 375 N/mm2 (Table 1)

To determine the number of bolts required. Shear capacity of a single bolt, Ps is given by,
Ps = psAs = 375 × 245 = 91875N = 91.9 × 10 = 91.9 kN

Therefore, total no of bolt required is,

450/91.9 = 4.9 ≈ 5
Hence, Provide 5+1 = 6 no of bolts.

Bearing
Bearing capacity of bolt, Pbb, is given by
Pbb = dbtpbb = 20 × 10 × 1000 = 200 × 103 = 200kN
Since thickness of angle cleat (= 10 mm) < thickness of column flange (= 23.8 mm), bearing
capacity of cleat is critical. Bearing capacity of cleat, Pbs, is given by
Pbs = kbsdbtpbs = 1 × 20 × 10 × 460 = 92 × 103 N = 92kN
≤ 0.5kbsetpbs = 0.5 × 1 × 60 × 10 × 460 = 138 × 103 N = 138kN

Bearing capacity of connection is

6 × 92 = 552 kN > V = 450kN

Therefore, bolts are adequate in bearing.

Check strength of bolt group connecting cleats to web of supported

beam
Shear
Since bolts are in double shear
Shear capacity of each bolt is,
2Ps = 2 × 91.9 = 183.8kN

Loads applied to the bolt group are vertical shear,

V = 450kN and moment,
M = 450 × 50 × 10−3 = 22.5kNm.
Outermost bolt (Al) subject to greatest shear force which is equal to the resultant of the load due
to the moment,
M = 22.5kNm and vertical shear force, V = 450kN. Load on the outermost bolt due to moment,
Fmb, is given by

𝑀 22.5 × 103
𝐹𝑚𝑏 = 𝐴= 𝐴 = 53.6𝑘𝑁
𝑍 420𝐴

where
A is the area of bolt and
Z the modulus of the bolt group given by
𝐼 63000
= 𝐴 = 420𝐴𝑚𝑚3
𝑦 150

in which I is the inertia of the bolt group equal to

2A(302 + 902 + 1502) = 63000Amm4

Load on outermost bolt due to shear, Fvb, is given by

Fvb = V/ No. of bolts = 450/6 = 76.7kN

Resultant shear force of bolt, Fs, is

Fs = (Fvb2 + Fmb2)1/2 = (76.72 + 53.62)1/2 = 93.57kN

Since Fs (= 94kN) < 2Ps (= 183.8 kN) the bolts are adequate in shear.

Bearing
Bearing capacity of bolt, Pbb, is
Pbb = 200kN (from above) > Fs OK
Bearing capacity of each cleat, Pbs, is
Pbs = 92kN (from above)

Bearing capacity of both cleats is

2 × 92 = 184kN > Fs OK

Bearing capacity of the web, Pbs, is

Pbs = kbsdbtwpbs = 1 × 20 × 10.6 × 460 × 10−3 = 97.52kN > Fs OK

Hence bolts, cleats and beam web are adequate in bearing.

 Shear Strength Of Cleats
Shear capacity of a single angle cleat, Pv, is
Pv = 0.6py Av = 0.6 × 275 × 3600 × 10−3 = 594kN
where
Av = 0.9Ao (clause 4.2.3 of BS 5950)
= 0.9 × thickness of cleat (tp) × length of cleat (lp) = 0.9 × 10 × 400 = 3600mm2.
Since shear force V/2 (= 225kN) < Pv (= 594kN) the angle is adequate in shear.

Bending Strength Of Cleats

𝑉 400
𝑀= × 50 × 10−3 = × 50 × 10−3 = 10𝑘𝑁𝑚
2 2

Assume moment capacity of one angle of cleat, Mc, is

Mc = pyZ = 275 × 266.7 × 103 = 73.3 × 106 N mm = 73.3kNm > M
Where
𝑡𝑝 𝑙𝑝2 10 × 4002
𝑍= = = 266.667𝑚𝑚3
6 6
Angle cleat is adequate in bending.

Local Shear Strength Of The Beam

Shear capacity of the supported beam, Pv, is
Pv = 0.6py Av = 0.6 × 275 × 6383.3 = 1053.2 × 103 N = 1053.2kN > V (= 450kN)
where
Av = twD = 10.6 × 602.2 = 6383.3mm2.
Hence supported beam at the end is adequate in shear.
 Welded Connection
Welding can be defined as the heating and melting of steel in and/or around the gaps between
pieces of steel. A steel rod which is surrounded by a flux helps to melt and flow into the joint.
There are various ways welding can be accomplished, the common one being using oxy-acetylene
equipment, although the easiest method is the electric arc welding. The two main types of welded
joints are fillet welds and butt welds which are highlighted in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Types of welded connection (a) butt weld (b) fillet

weld

Strength of welds
When welding, the resulting weld should be considerably stronger than the pieces of steel held
together. Variations in quality are however allowed. Table 7 gave an assumption for weld strength
of fillet welds.

Table 7: (Table
37, BS 5950)
However, the design strength of the weld can be taken as the same as that for the parent metal if
the joint is a butt weld, or alternatively a fillet weld satisfying the following conditions:
1. The weld is symmetrical
2. It is made with suitable electrodes which will produce specimens at least as strong as the
parent metal.
3. The sum of throat sizes is not less than the connected plate thickness.
4. The weld is principally subject to direct tension or compression

Design details
Figure 6 above also indicates the weld leg length, s, and the effective throat size, a, which should
not be taken as greater than 0.7s. The effective length of a run of weld should be taken as the actual
length, less one leg length for each end of the weld. Where the weld ends at a corner of the metal,
it should be continued around the corner for a distance greater than 2s. In a lap joint, the minimum
lap length should be not less than 4t, where t is the thinner of the pieces to be joined. For fillet
welds, the ‘vector sum of the design stresses due to all forces and moments transmitted by the weld
should not exceed the design strength, pw’.

Example 2:
A grade S275 steel 610 × 229 × 101 UB is to be connected, via a welded end plate onto a 356 ×
368 × 177 UC. The connection is to be designed to transmit a bending moment of 400kN m and a
shear force of 250kN. Show that the proposed welding scheme for this connection is adequate.
Leg length of weld, s = 10 mm.
Effective length of weld is
4(lw − 2s) + 2(hw − 2s) = 4(225 − 2 × 10) + 2(570 − 2 × 10) = 1920mm

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 250

𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = = = 0.13𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 1920
Weld second moment of area, Ixx, is
Ixx = 4[1 × (lw − 2s)]y12 + 2[1 × (hw − 2s)3/12]
= 4[(205)]293.52 + 2[1 × (550)3 /12]
= 98 365 812mm4

Weld shear (moment) is

𝑀𝑦 400 × 103 × 293.5
= = 1.19𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝑥𝑥 98365812
where y = D/2 = 587/2 = 293.5 mm

Vectored force = √1.192 + 0.132 = 1.19𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚

Since the steel grade is S275 and the electrode strength is 42, the design strength of the weld is
220N/mm2 (Table 4.25).

Weld capacity of 10mm fillet weld, pwc, is

pwc = apw = 0.7 × 10 × 220 × 10−3 = 1.54kN/mm > 1.19kN/mm OK
where throat thickness of weld, a = 0.7s = 0.7 × 10 mm

Hence proposed welding scheme is adequate.