ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

An alternating current or voltage is one which varies periodically with time in magnitude and direction.
When an alternating p.d is applied to a conductor it causes the direction of the charge carriers to reverse many
times per second (at the frequency of the alternating voltage).
An a.c source is represented by

In a conductor it causes heating and produces around it a magnetic field that fluctuates with time. Since
alternating voltages and currents vary in magnitude and direction, they are treated as vector quantities.

Sinusoidal alternating currents and voltages

Sinusoidal voltage is a periodic voltage whose time dependence is given by a sine function

The voltage is of the form 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡, where

where V is the voltage at time t, 𝑉𝑂 is the amplitudes or peak value of the voltage and 𝜔 the angular velocity
given by 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 where f is the frequency of the alternating voltage

V(V)

V0

0 t(s)

When applied to a circuit the alternating voltage produces an alternating current given by 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 where I
is the current at time t and 𝐼𝑂 is the amplitudes or peak value of the alternating current.

Definitions

(i) Peak value of alternating current: this is the maximum value of alternating current
(ii) Peak value of alternating voltage: this is the maximum value of alternating voltage
(iii) Frequency f: this is the number of complete cycles made by an alternating current per second
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
(iv) Period T: this the time taken for an alternating current to make one complete cycle
2𝜋
𝜔= 𝑇

Root mean square value of alternating current or voltage ( 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 or 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )

The root mean square value of alternating current is the value of steady current which dissipates heat in a
resistor at the same rate as the alternating current.
The root mean square value of alternating voltage is the value of steady voltage which dissipates electrical
energy in a resistor at the same rate as the alternating voltage.

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 Relationship between 𝐼𝑂 and 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

Consider a resistor in series with a.c source of electrical energy.

R 𝐼 2𝑅
〈𝑃〉 𝑇 = 〈𝐼𝑂 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉 𝑇 𝑅 = 𝑂
I=I0sinwt
2
For direct current, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 passing through the same
resistor,
2
power dissipated by the steady current = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
The instantaneous current I is given by, 2 𝐼𝑂 2 𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅= 2
The instantaneous power dissipated in the 𝐼𝑂
resistor, 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = (𝐼𝑂 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡)𝑅 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
The average power over one cycle,
𝑉𝑂
similarly, 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

Alternative derivation
Consider the average value of I2 over a cycle of Since the period, 𝑇 =
2𝜋
we can now write
the a.c. 2𝜋
𝜔
𝜔𝐼𝑜2
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐼 2 < 𝐼 2 >= 4𝜋 0
∫ 𝜔 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋
1 𝜔𝐼 2
< 𝐼 2 >= ∫ 𝐼𝑜2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡 < 𝐼 2 >= 4𝜋𝑜 ∫0𝜔 (𝑡−)𝑑𝑡
𝑇−0 0 2𝜋
𝐼𝑜2 𝑇 2 𝜔𝐼2 1
< 𝐼 2 >= ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡 < 𝐼 2 >= 4𝜋𝑜 [𝑡 − 2𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡]0𝜔
𝑇 0 𝑜
𝜔𝐼2 2𝜋
𝜔𝐼𝑜2 𝑇 2 2 < 𝐼 2 >= 4𝜋𝑜 × 𝜔
< 𝐼 2 >= ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0 𝑜 𝐼2
Recall the identity: 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 But Ir.m.s = √< 𝐼 2 >= √ 𝑜
2
1 𝐼𝑜
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡) Thus Ir.m.s =
2 √2

Examples
1. The r.m.s value of the domestic mains p.d is 240 V. Determine the peak value of the mains p.d.
Solution
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 240 𝑉 𝑉𝑜 = √2 × 240
𝑉0
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 2 𝑉𝑜 = 339.4 𝑉
√
2. What is the peak value of the voltage from a 220V a.c mains?
solution
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 220 V 𝑉𝑜 = √2 × 220
𝑉
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 02 𝑉𝑜 = 311.127 𝑉
√
3. An electric kettle draws 3000W from a 240V mains supply. Find the peak value of the current drawn
by the kettle if the voltage is sinusoidal.
Solution
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝐼𝑜 = √2 𝑥𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
3000 𝐼𝑜 = √2 × 12.5 = 17.68𝐴
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = = 12.5𝐴
240
4. An alternating p.d that varies sinusoidally is represented by 𝑉 = √5000𝑠𝑖𝑛1000𝑡
Determine,
(i) The r.m.s value of the voltage

228
 (ii) Frequency of the p.d
Solution
(i) Comparing 𝑉 = √5000𝑠𝑖𝑛1000𝑡 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 50 𝑉
with 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (ii) 𝜔 = 1000 rad s-1
𝑉𝑜 = √5000 V. 𝜔 1000
𝑓= =
𝑉0 √5000 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = = 𝑓 = 159.2 Hz
√2 √2

Measurement of a.c
Moving -coil ammeter is not suitable for measureing a.c.
Explanation
When an a.c is passed through a moving – coil ammeter, the direction of the couple changes each time
the current reverses. The pointer therefore vibrates at the frequecncy of the a.c about the zero position
hence the value of the current can not be read.

Instruments used to measure alternating current

1. Hot wire ammeter
Non linear scale  When alternatin current is passed through the
fine resistance wire XY, it heats up, expands
and sags.
Pointer X P Y  The sag is taken up by the wire PQ, which is
held taut by a spring.
Fine resistance wire  The pulley moves and hence pointer attached
pulley to the pulley turns over the scale.
Q Spring
 The deflection of the pointer is proportional to
the rate at which heat is developed in the wire
xy
 The deflection of the pointer is proportional to
the average value of the square of the current
in the coil.
Note:
If current to be measure is passed through the wire XY, then the conclusion should be deflection is
proportional to the square of the value of the current

2. Moving Iron Ammeter (Repulsion type)

229
 Non linear scale  When the alternating current is passed through
the coil via terminals P and Q, whatever the
direction of the current , the iron rods are
magnetized in the same sense, and so they
repel each other.
Coil (solenoid)  This causes the pointer to deflect over the scale
Pointer until it is stopped by the restoring couple of
fixed iron
the hair spring
rod  The force of repulsion is proportional to the
Hair spring average value of the square of the current in
the coil.
 The deflection of the pointer is proportional to
P Movable iron rod the average value of the square of the current
Q in the coil.

3. Moving Iron Ammeter (attraction type)

Non linear  If alternating current is passed through the

scale solenoid, the soft – iron armature gets
magnetized and is attracted towards the coil
Hair spring
whatever the direction of the current
 This causes the pointer to deflect over the scale
pointer
until it is stopped by the restoring couple of
the hair spring
Coil
Soft iron
 The attractive force is proportional to the
armature average value of the square of the current.
 The deflection  of the pointer is therefore
proportional to the average value of the
square of the current,   I  .
2

Advantages of moving iron ammeter

- they are cheap
- can be used to measure both a.c and d.c.
Disadvantages of moving iron ammeter
- they have non-linear scales.
- They are not sensitive like moving coil galvanometers
- Can easily be affected by stray magnetic fields like earth’s magnetic field unless shielded by an
iron case
4. Thermocouple meter

230
  Pand Q are different metals joined at R
A  Alternating current is passed through wire AB
Hot junction
Q and it heats the junction R of the
R Moving coil
mA micrometer thermocouple.
P  An electric e.m.f is generated causing a direct
current to flow through the micro ammeter
Evacuated bulb B already calibrated to measure r.m.s value of
Wire carrying a.c
current.

A.c through a Resistor

Consider a resistor in series with a.c source of electrical energy.

R If the alternating voltage is 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡,
V=V0sinwt
then the current I is given by
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
When an alternating p.d is applied to a pure 𝐼=
𝑅
resistor its magnitude rises to a maximum in 𝑉𝑂 𝑉
But is the maximum value of I i.e. 𝐼𝑂 = 𝑂
the same time as that of the current. Thus at 𝑅 𝑅
any instant in a resistor I and V are said to be Hence 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
in phase. For a resistor current and voltage are in phase
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡,

Variation of V and I with t in a resistor.

V, I
V=V0sinwt I=I0sinwt
V0
I0

0 t(s)

Phasor Diagrams/Vector Diagram for a resistor

Phasor a diagram is a vector diagram showing variation of voltage with current.
For a resistor voltage and current are in phase. When voltage is maximum currents also maximum
VR
IR

Power absorbed in a resistor

Instantaneous power absorbed, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 Mean power (average power) = 𝑉𝑂 𝐼𝑂 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜔𝑡〉
𝑃 = (𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡)(𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡) 1
but 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜔𝑡〉 = 2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑂 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜔𝑡

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 𝑉𝑂 𝐼𝑂 (√2 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 )(√2 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )
〈𝑃〉 = 〈𝑃〉 =
2 2
Since 𝑉𝑂 = √2 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
and 𝐼𝑂 = √2 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Examples
1. A sinusoidal alternating voltage 𝑉 = 170𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝜋𝑡 is applied across a resistor of resistance 100 Ω.
Determine
(i) the r.m.s value of the current which flows;
(ii) the frequency of the current through the resistor
Solution From 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =
𝐼𝑜
, it follows that
√2
(i) Instantaneous current through R is given by 1.7
𝑉
𝐼= 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = = 1.2 𝐴
𝑅 √2
170𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝜋𝑡 (i) 𝜔 = 120𝜋 rad s-1
𝐼=
100 But 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
∴ 𝐼 = 1.7𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝜋𝑡 2𝜋𝑓 = 120𝜋
Comparing 𝐼 = 1.7𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝜋𝑡 with 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑓 = 60 Hz
we have;
𝐼𝑜 = 1.7 𝐴
2. A sinusoidal a.c 𝐼 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛100𝜋𝑡 flows through a resistor of resistance 2.0 Ω. Find the mean power
dissipated in the resistor. Hence deduce the r.m.s value of the current.
Solution
Mean power, < 𝑃 >= 〈(4𝑠𝑖𝑛100𝜋𝑡)2 〉 × 𝑅 42 ×2
< 𝑃 >= = 16 W
42 ×2 1 2
< 𝑃 >= = 16 W since 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛100𝜋𝑡〉2 = 2
Power dissipated by d.c< 𝑃 >= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
2 2
2
< 𝑃 >= 16𝑊 16 = 2𝑥𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
OR 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =8
𝐼02 𝑅 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2√2𝐴
Average power = 2
, but𝐼0 = 4𝐴

Questions
1. A sinusoidal a.c 𝐼 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝜋𝑡 flows through a resistor of resistance 2.5 Ω. Find the mean power
dissipated in the resistor. An(11.25W)
2. A sinusoidal alternating voltage 𝑉 = 340𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝜋𝑡 is applied across a resistor of resistance 40 Ω.
Determine
(i) Amplitude of the current which flows;
(ii) the average power developed in the resistor An[8.5A, 1445W]
3. What is the rms value of alternating current which must pass through a resistor immersed in oil in a
calorimeter so that the initial rate of rise of temperature of the oil is three times that produced when a
direct current of 2A passes through the resistor under the same conditions? An[3.46A]
4. A current I = 8.0 sin 100 t amperes is maintained in a heating coil immersed in 20kg of water. The
resistance of the coil is 50. Find the temperature rise obtained in 5 minutes
5. An a.c circuit of a resistor of resistance R and it is connected to a source of p. d given by 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
(a) Derive and expression for current at any time, t
(b) Sketch the variation of current with time on the same axes and use your graph to explain the
phase difference between I and V

232
Capacitors in a.c circuits

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C, connected to an a.c source so that the p.d V acroos the
capacitor at time t is given by 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡

C 𝐼 = 𝐶𝑉𝑂 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 … … … … … . (2)

If 𝐼𝑂 is the peak value of the current, then we
V=V0sinwt
can write
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
where. 𝐼𝑂 = 𝐶𝑉𝑂 𝜔
The charge Q on the plates at time t is given by 𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + )
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 … … … … … (1) Thus the current (cosine curve) through a
At any time t, the current I, in the circuit is capacitor leads the p.d (sine curve) across the
equal to the rate of flow of charge. capacitor by a quarter of a cycle or 90° or 2
𝜋
𝑑𝑄
𝐼= radians. i.e the current reaches its maximum
𝑑𝑡 value one quarter of a cycle before the p.d
𝑑
𝐼 = (𝐶𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡) reaches its peak value.
𝑑𝑡

Variation of I and V of a capacitor with time

Phasor Diagrams/Vector Diagram for a capacitor


For a pure capacitor in an a.c circuit the current I, leads the applied p.d V by 90o or radians.
2
The vector diagram for a capacitor is as follows
IC

VC

Capacitive Reactance, 𝑋𝐶
The capacitive reactance is the non- resistive opposition to the flow of a.c through a capacitor.
Its symbol is 𝑋𝐶 and is defined by the equation
𝑉𝑂 Since 𝑉𝑂 = √2𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 and 𝐼𝑂 = √2𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 , it
𝑋𝐶 =
𝐼𝑂
follows that

233
 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐶 =
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
The S.I unit of 𝑋𝐶 is the ohm (Ω) when f is in
From, 𝐼𝑂 = 𝐶𝑉𝑂 𝜔 = 𝐼𝑂 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉𝑂 since 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 hertz and C in farad.
𝑉𝑂 𝑉 1
but 𝑋𝐶 = 𝐼𝑂
= 2𝜋𝑓 𝑂𝐶𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑂
1 1
Thus for a given frequency, 𝑋𝐶 ∝ 𝐶 and for a given capacitance, 𝑋𝐶 ∝ 𝑓 .

Variation of 𝑋𝐶 with f Variation of 𝑋𝐶 with C

XC(Ω) XC(Ω)

O f(Hz) O C(F)

A.c power in a capacitor

 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
In a pure capacitor V lags on I by . 2
2
𝐼𝑂 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
If the p.d applied to the capacitor is, 𝑃 =
2
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 then the current I, is given 𝐼 𝑉 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉
Average power 〈𝑃〉 = 𝑂 𝑂 2 but
by 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡.
Instantaneous power absorbed, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉 = 0
𝑃 = (𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 )(𝐼𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 ) Average power 〈𝑃〉 = 0
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 Thus mean power absorbed by a capacitor
But 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 over a cycle is zero.

Explanation for zero power

 During the first quarter cycle, the capacitor charges and energy is drawn from the source and
stored in the electric field of the capacitor.
 During the second quarter cycle, the capacitor discharges and energy is returned to the source.
 During the third cycle, the capacitor charges in the opposite direction, again energy is stored in
the electric field in the capacitor
 In the last quarter, the capacitor discharges and energy returns to the source. Therefore in one
cycle, there is no net energy stored in the capacitor.

Question: Explain why a capacitor allows the flow of a.c but not d.c.
 When a capacitors is connected to a d.c source, the capacitor charges and when fully charged
current stops flowing
 When the capacitor is connected to an a.c source, the capacitor charges when the voltage is
increasing, and the capacitor also discharges when the voltage is decreasing. Since increase and
decrease in voltage is continuous, there is continuous flow of current (charge) in the circuit
hence capacitor appears to allow flow of a.c

234
 Examples
1. A capacitor of capacitance 1𝜇𝐹 is used in a radio circuit where frequency is 1000Hz and current is
2mA. Calculate the voltage across capacitor.
Solution
1 1 𝑉 = 159𝑥2𝑥10−3 = 0.32𝑉
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐶 = = 159Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋𝑥1000𝑥1𝑥10−6
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶
2. A capacitor of capacitance 2𝜇𝐹 is connected to an a.c source of current 4mA (r.m.s) and frequency
50Hz. Calculate the ;
(i) Capacitive reactance
(ii) Voltage across the plates of the capacitor
Solution
1 1 𝑉 = 1592𝑥4𝑥10−3 = 6.37𝑉
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐶 = = 1592Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋𝑥50𝑥2𝑥10−6
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑋𝐶
6. A capacitor of capacitance 2𝜇𝐹 is connected to an a.c source of voltage 20V and frequency 50Hz.
Calculate the Current which flows
Solution
1 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑋𝐶
𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 20 = 1592𝑥𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
1 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 12.6𝑚𝐴
𝑋𝐶 = −6
= 1592Ω
2𝜋𝑥50𝑥2𝑥10

Exercise
1. A capacitor of capacitance 2𝜇𝐹 is connected to an a.c source of current 2mA and frequency 100Hz.
Calculate the ;
(i) Capacitive reactance
(ii) Voltage across the plates of the capacitor
(iii) Reactance if the frequency is 140Hz
An( 795.8Ω, 1.6V, 568.4Ω)
2. A 240 V, 60Hz alternating voltage is applied across a capacitor of capacitance 10 F. Calculate the
(i) root mean square value of the current which flows
(ii) power expanded An( 0.63A, 0W)

3. A capacitor of capacitance C and infinite resistance is connected across a source of an a.c source whose
p.d is given by 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 and frequency f.
(i) find the expression for the charge and current
(ii) using the same axes, show how the applied voltage and current in the circuit may vary
with time and comment on this variation
(iii) find the expression for reactance of the circuit and sketch is variation with frequency

A.c through an inductor

A pure inductor is a coil of negligible resistance.

235
 𝑑
= −𝐿 (𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑂
𝐸𝑏 = −𝐿𝐼𝑂 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
I=I0Sinwt

V, f
But for finite current across a pure inductor
𝑉 = −𝐸𝑏
𝑉 = −(−𝐿𝐼𝑂 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)
𝑉 = 𝐿𝐼𝑂 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
Consider an inductor of negligible resistance, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
inductance L, through which an alternating Where 𝑉𝑂 = 𝐿𝐼𝑂 𝜔
current I flows where 𝜋
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + )
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 ……………………………….1 2
The a.c produces a changing magnetic flux in Thus the voltage (cosine curve) across an
the inductor and sets up a back e.m.f 𝐸𝑏 in the inductor leads the current (sine curve) through
𝜋
coil. an inductor by 90° or radians.
𝑑𝐼 2
The back e.m.f is given by 𝐸𝑏 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡

Phasor Diagrams/Vector Diagram for an inductor


For a pure inductor in an a.c circuit the voltage leads the current by 90o or radians.
2
The vector diagram for a capacitor is as follows
VL

IL

Inductive Reactance, 𝑋𝐿
The Inductive reactance is the non- resistive opposition to the flow of a.c through an inductor.
Its symbol is 𝑋𝐿 and is defined by the equation
𝑉 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑋𝐿 = 𝐼 𝑂
𝑂 𝑉𝑂 2𝜋𝑓 𝐿 𝐼𝑂
but 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐼 = 𝐼 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝐿
Since 𝑉𝑂 = √2𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 and 𝐼𝑂 = √2𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 , it follows 𝑂 𝑂
that . 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝐿
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 The S.I unit of 𝑋𝐿 is the ohm (Ω) when f is in
𝑋𝐿 =
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 hertz and C in farad.
From, 𝑉𝑂 = 𝐿 𝐼𝑂 𝜔 = 𝑉𝑂 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝐼𝑂 since
Thus for a given frequency, 𝑋𝐿 ∝ 𝐿 and for a given capacitance, 𝑋𝐿 ∝ 𝐿 .

Variation of XL with L

236
 XL(Ω) XL(Ω)

O f(Hz)
O L(H)

Variation of XL with f

Variation of V and I with t for an inductor

Power in the inductive coil

 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
In a pure inductor V leads I by 2
2 𝐼𝑂 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
If current through the inductor is, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡. 𝑃 =
then the p.d 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 2
𝐼𝑂 𝑉𝑂 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉
Instantaneous power absorbed, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 Average power 〈𝑃〉 = but
2
𝑃 = (𝑉𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 )(𝐼𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 ) 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉 = 0
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 Average power 〈𝑃〉 = 0
But 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 Thus mean power absorbed in an inductor over
a cycle is zero.
Explanation for zero power
 During the first quarter cycle, current increases and magnetic field linking the coil builds up to the maximum
value. Energy supplied by the source is stored in the magnetic field associated with the coil
 During the second quarter cycle, the current decreases, magnetic field collapses and the energy that was
stored in the magnetic field of the coil is restored back to the source
 During the third cycle, current supplied by the source increase in the reverse direction. Energy supplied by
the generator is stored in the magnetic field.
 In the last quarter, an equal amount of energy is restored back to the source. Therefore power dissipated in
an inductor over one cycle is zero.

Examples

237
1. An inductor of 2H and negligible resistance is connected to a 12V mains supply, frequency 50Hz. Find the
current flowing.
Solution
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝐿 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑋𝐿 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 0.019𝐴
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑥50𝑥2 = 628Ω 12 = 628𝑥𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
2. A coil of inductance 5H has negligible resistance and is connected to a 12V (r.m.s) supply source of frequency
50HZ.
(a) Calculate the inductive reactance of the coil
(b) Find the maximum current which would flow when the inductance changes to 10H An [1570.8,
5.4mA]
3. A pure inductor of self inductance 1H is connected across an alternating voltage of 115V and frequency 60Hz.
Calculate the;
(i) inductive reactance
(ii) inductive current
(iii) peak current
(iv) average power consumed. An [377, 0.31A. 0.44A, zero]
4. An a.c circuit f an inductor of inductance L and it is connected to a source of p. d given by 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
(c) Derive and expression for current at any time, t
(d) Sketch the variation of current with time on the same axes and use your graph to explain the phase
difference between I and V

Self-Induction

This is the process of generating an 𝑒𝑚𝑓 in a coil due to changing current in the same coil

This e.m.f is called a back e.m.f and creates a current which opposes the flow of current in the coil its self.

Example

1. A coil of many turns of wire is connected in parallel with an electric bulb an a.c supply as shown below
Coil

Bulb
switch

Explain what happens to the bulb when the switch is;

(i) Closed
(b) Opened
 When switch is closed, the bulb will light brightly and then it will go dim after some time. This is because
when the switch is closed, current begins to flow through the coil and the changing magnetic flux due to the
changing current induces a back e.m.f in the coil which opposes the flow of current through it and hence
most of the current passes through the bulb making it very bright.
 After a short time the back e.mf reduces to zero and all the current flows through the coil and hence bulb
stops lighting.
 When the switch is opened, the bulb keeps the light for some time before going off. This is because as
current decays from the coil. The back e.m.f is induced in it to oppose the decay. This e.m.f creates current
which lights the bulb for some time

238
2. A bulb is concede in series with an inductive coil a d.c source as shown below

Coil

Bulb
switch

What happens to the brightness of the bulb when an iron core is inserted in the coil?
Solution
Bulb dims and then becomes bright again. When the iron core is introduced into, the magnetic flux linkage with the
coil increases. The rate of change of magnetic flux linkage with the coil increase and hence an increase in the
induced back e.mf. This leads to a reduction in the current flowing though the bulb. Hence the bulb dims

Mutual Inductance
This is the process of generating an 𝑒𝑚𝑓 in a coil due to changing current in the neighboring coil
Primary coil Secondary coil

switch
Bulb

 When switch is closed, the bulb light momentarily. This is because the a.c in the primary coil creates a
varying magnetic field in the primary.
 The magnetic field links up with the secondary coil. When this magnetic field changes, a back emf is induced
in the secondary coil which opposes the varying magnetic field linking it. This e.m.f creates a current in the
secondary which lights the bulb
 When the switch is opened, the bulb lights momentarily before going off. This because as the current decays
in the primary coil, the back e.m.f is created to oppose the decay.
 The varying magnetic field lines then link the secondary. The back e.m.f produced in the secondary
produces the current which lights up the bulb.
RECTIFICATION
Rectification is the process of converting Alternating current to Direct current.
This can be done by use of
 Thermionic diodes.  Semiconductor diode
When a rectifier is connected to a supply its supposed to conduct and when it does so its said to be forward
biased. And when connected in a reverse way it fails to conduct therefore its said to be reverse-biased.

a) Half wave Rectification

239
  Current to be measure is fed to the meter through
the rectifier diode which conducts current in only one
Diode
direction.
mA Moving coil Ammeter  So a direct current of varying magnitude flows
through the meter.
 The moving coil meter is calibrated to measure the
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

N.B: The Arrow head in the rectifier symbol shows the direction of flow of current through the circuit.
A graph of I against t is drawn
I

b) Full wave rectification

A R in the direction x to y and diode 𝐷3 and 𝐷4 do not
D3 D1
conduct in this half cycle
x  During the next half cycle when B is positive and A is
D2
R
negative diodes 𝐷3 and 𝐷4 conduct while 𝐷1 and 𝐷2
D4 do not conduct in this cycle and current (I) flows
B through R in the direction x to y.
y  Hence current flows through R is in the same
 In the half cycle when A is positive and B is negative, direction throughout.
diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 conduct and current flows through
I

Why rectify?

Many electrical appliances such as radios, televisions and computers require direct current for their
operation. Alternating e.m.f.s are easy and cheap to generate and to use it for these devices it must be
converted to direct current by the use of rectifiers.

Capacitor Smoothing

240
 B A large electrolytic capacitor C is connected in
parallel with the load resistor R such that its
A D3 D1 positive terminal is connected to the positive
output of the bridge rectifier.
F
D x
C The voltage increases to a peak at A as the
D2 capacitor charges. When the p.d begins to
R drop, the capacitor supplies charge to the load,
D4 To C.R.O thus rising the p.d across the load. The resultant
E drop in p.d across the load is thus small. As the
pd begins to increase as the capacitor charges
and the cycle is repeated and thus fluctuation
y
in p.d is effectively reduced

Smoothed output of a full – wave rectifier

V/V
A

0 t/s

Uneb 2016
(a) Define root mean square(rms) value of an alternating voltage. (01mark)
(b) A resistor of resistance 100Ω is connected across an alternating voltage 𝑉 = 20 𝑠𝑖𝑛 120𝜋𝑡
(i) Find the frequency of the alternating voltage. (01mark)
(ii) Calculate the mean power dissipated in the resistor. (03marks)
(c) (i) Show that when an inductor is connected to an a.c supply voltage of 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡. The
resulting current lags the current by 90°. (04marks)
(ii) Sketch on the same axes the variation with time of the voltage and current if a capacitor is
connected to the voltage supply in (c) (i). (02marks)
(d) (i) Describe how a thermocouple meter works. (04marks)
(ii) Explain the precautionary measure taken in the desing of the thermocouple meter. (02marks)
(e) A capacitor of capacitance 60𝜇𝐹 is connected to an a.c voltage supply of frequency 40Hz. An a.c
ammeer connected in series with the capaciot reads 2.2A. find the p.d across the capacitor. (03marks)
Uneb 2015
(a) (i) Define root mean square(rms) current of an a.c. (01mark)
(ii) Derive an expression for capacitive reactance. (04marks)
(iii) Sketch on the same axes, the graphs showing variation of applied p.d and current when aan
inductor is connected to an a.c supply. (02marks)
(b) (i) A capacitor of capacitance, C and an ammeter are connected in series across an alternating
voltage, V, of frequency f. Explain why current apparently flows through the capacitor. (03marks)
(ii) a sinusoidal p.d of rms value of 20V and frequency 50Hz is applied across a 100𝜇𝐹 capacitor.
Calculate the capacitive reactance of the circuit. (02marks)
(c) Describe the mode of operation of a transformer. (04marks)

241
(d) A transformer connected to a.c supply of peak voltage 240V is to supply a peak voltage of 9.0V to a
mini- lighting system of resistance 5Ω. Calculate the
(i) Rms current supplied to the lighting system (02marks)
(ii) Average power delivered to the lighting system. (02marks)

242
SECTION D: ELECTROSTATICS, CAPACITORS AND ELECTRICITY
Electrostatics (static electricity) is the study of electric charges at rest, the forces between them, and the
electric fields associated with them.
Static electricity occurs when positive (+) or negative (−) electrical charges collect on an object's surface.
There are several methods through which this condition can be caused.
One way is by rubbing certain materials together or pulling them apart. Another way is by bringing a
charged material near to a neutral material, and also by sharing the charge on a body with another
neutral insulated body when they come into contact with each other.

Electrification by friction / charging by rubbing or friction

 When two dissimilar bodies are rubbed together, heat is generated due to friction
 The heat is sufficient to make the material of lower work function to release some electron, which
are taken up by other material.
 The one which lost electrons become positively charged while the one which gained electrons
becomes negatively charged
 The number of electrons lost is equal to the number of electrons acquire therefore two insulating
bodies rubbed together acquire equal and opposite charges.

Examples of charging by friction

 When a polythene rod (ebonite rod) is rubbed with fur (woolen duster), the ebonite rod becomes
negatively charged while the duster becomes positively charged.
 If a glass rod (cellulose acetate) is rubbed with silk, a glass rod becomes positively charged while
the silk becomes negatively charged.

Insulators, semiconductors and conductors

Conductor
This is a material with free electrons and it can allow electricity and heat to pass through it.
Examples: Copper, bronze

Insulator
This is a material without free electrons and it cannot allow electricity and heat to pass through
it.
Examples: Dry wood, plastic

Semiconductors
These are materials which allow electric charges to pass through them with difficulty.
Examples: Moist air, paper
Law of electrostatics
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

Precautions taken when carrying experiments in electrostatics

(i) Apparatus must be insulated
(ii) The surrounding must be free from dust and moisture

Attraction of neutral body by charged body

Consider the uncharged conductor being brought near a negatively charged ebonite rod.
Negative charges on the ebonite rod repel the free electrons on the conductor to the remote
end and positive charge is thus left near the end of the metal adjacent to the ebonite rod. So
the conductor is now attracted by the ebonite rod.

243
 GOLD LEAF ELETROSCOPE (GLE)
Insulator
Brass cap
Uses of GLE
(i) Test for the presence of charge
Glass window
Brass rod
(ii) Test the sign of the charge
Metal case (iii) To test the magnitude of charge
Gold leaf
Brass plate (iv) Measure 𝑝. 𝑑
Earthing

Electrostatic induction
It’s a phenomenon that describes the formation of charges on a conductor when a charged body
is brought near it.
The charge acquired is opposite to that of inducing body.

Charging a gold leaf electroscope by induction

(a) Charging G.L.E negatively
Positively charged induced on the brass cap and positive charges
rod on G.L and brass plate. The gold leaf diverges.
+ + + + + + + +  With glass rod still in position, the G.L.E is
earthed. Free electrons flow from the earth to
Brass cap e the brass plate and gold leaf thus collapses.
Gold leaf
 With the rod still in position, the earthing wire
++ is removed.
Brass plate + +  Glass rod is removed, the negative charges
then redistribute themselves to the brass cap,
 A positively charged glass rod is brought near plate and gold leaf thus causing he leaf to
the cap of the G.L.E, negative charges are diverge. The electroscope is now negatively
charged.

(b) Charging G.L.E negatively

Negatively charged on the brass cap and negative charges on G.L

rod
and brass plate. The gold leaf diverges.
- - - -
+ + + +
-
+
- -
+ +
-
+  With glass rod still in position, the G.L.E is
earthed. Free electrons flow from the plate
e
Brass cap
and leaf to the earth thus the leaf collapses.
Gold leaf
- -  With the rod still in position, the earthing wire is
Brass plate - -
removed.
 The rod is removed, the positive charges then
 A negatively charged rod is brought near the redistribute themselves to the brass cap, plate
cap of the G.L.E, positive charges are induced and gold leaf thus causing he leaf to diverge.
The electroscope is now positively charged

Testing for the sign of charge on a body

 Charge an electroscope negatively and the divergence noted. Bring the body under test near the
cap of GLE. If the leaf divergence increases then that body is negatively charged, but if the
divergence of the leaf decreases, then that body has either positive charge or it is neutral body
 To differentiate between the two alternatives, discharge the GLE and now charge it positively
 Bring the same body under test near the cap of appositively charged GLE. If the leaf divergence
increases again, then that body has positive charges but if the leaf divergence decreases then that
body is neutral.

244
 Note: Repulsion is the only confirmatory test for the sign of the charge

Summary
Charge on GLE Charge brought near cap Effect on leaf divergence
Increase(repulsion)
+
+

- - Increase(repulsion)

+ - Decrease (attraction)

- Decrease (attraction)
+

+ or - Uncharged body Decrease (attraction)

Charging a conductor by induction

a) Positively

Negatively electrons in the metal sphere are repelled to

- -
charged - - A++ the far end of the sphere.
++ --
-- B B
rod - A++ - ++  The sphere is earthed while the charged body is
- - still in position. Free electrons move from the
Metal Electronsflowtothe sphere to the earth.
Insulating sphere earth  The earthing wire is removed while the charged
stand rod is still in position
 The charged body is removed and charges
distributes themselves all over the sphere.
 Metal sphere on an insulating stand is placed Hence the metal sphere is now positively
near the negatively charged body. Free charged.

b) Negatively
positively electrons in the metal sphere are attracted to
+ + the near end of the sphere.
charged + +A - -
-- ++ B B  The sphere is earthed while the charged body is
rod + A -- ++ + -- still in position. Free electrons move from the
+ +
Electrons flow from earth to the sphere.
Metal  The earthing wire is removed while the charged
Insulating sphere the earth rod is still in position
stand  The charged body is removed and charges
distributes themselves all over the sphere.
Hence the metal sphere is now negatively
 Metal sphere on an insulating stand is placed charged.
near the positively charged body. Free

Separation of conductors
i)
A B
Two identical brass spheres A and B are placed
together so that they touch one another.

ii)

245
 + -
A B
+ A positively charged rod is now brought near
- +
+
+
-
- +
+ end A and as a result negative charge is
+
induced at A and positive charges repelled to
B.

iii)
+
+
-
-
A B
+
+
Keeping the positive rod in position, sphere B
+
+
--
+
+
is moved a short distance away from B

iv)
-
A
-
-
+
B
+ The charged rod is now removed and
charges redistribute
- + +

Explain how two spherical conductors made of brass can be changed oppositely and
simultaneously by induction.

How to distinguish a conductor and an insulator using an electroscope

 An electroscope is given charge and the divergence noted. The material is brought near
the cap of the electroscope
 If there is no change in divergence, the material is an insulator. If the leaf divergences
material is a conductor

Charging a body negatively at zero potential

 A positively charged glass rod is brought near end A of the conductor. Negative charges are
induced at the near end and positive charges at the far end of the neutral body.
 With the glass rod still in position, body is earthed. Body is now negatively charged at zero
potential
Electrophorus
This an instrument for produce unlimited supply of charge but it is not source of energy though
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy

Distribution of charge over the surface of a conductor.

Surface charge density:
This is the quantity of charge per unit area over the surface of the conductor.
Charge is mostly concentrated at sharp points.
Spherical conductor Rectangular conductor

Triangular conductor

Note:
Charge only resides on the outside of a hollow conductor

Investigating charge distribution on a pear shaped conductor

246
  A proof plane is placed on the surface of the conductor. A sample of charge acquired by the proof
plane is then transferred to a hollow metal can placed on the cap neutral electroscope and the
deflection of the electroscope is noted
 The proof plane is then used to pick samples charges from different parts of the conductor and
each time the deflection of the electroscope is noted
 The greatest deflection is obtained when the sample of charge are picked from the pointed end of
the conductor. Therefore the surface charge density of charges is greatest where the curvature is
greatest
Experiment to show distribution of charge in a hollow conductor.
(Faraday’s ice pail experiment)
Insulating thread  S is withdrawn, the leaf of the electroscope
collapses
Gold leaf  S is again lowered inside the metal ( without
electroscope
touching it), the leaf of the electroscope
diverges to the same extent as before.
Metal can
 S is then allowed to touch the can. The
S insulator divergence of the leaf remains unchanged
 S is withdrawn and on testing , it is found to
have no charge
 There must have been charge inside the can
equal and opposite to the charge on S. since
 A positively charged metal sphere, S is the leaf remains diverged, the charge on the
lowered into a metal can ( without touching can must be residing on the out side of it. This
it) connected to a gold leaf electroscope. The charge is equal to that which was originally on
leaf of the electroscope diverges S

Action at sharp points [Corona discharge]

The high electric field intensity at the sharp points of a charged conductor, ionizes the air molecules
around the sharp points. The ions of opposite charge are attracted to the sharp point and neutralize
the charge there. This way the conductor loses charge and the process is called corona discharge.

Applications of action at sharp points

(a) Lightening Conductor
Action of a ligtening conductor
Negatively charged cloud  When a charged cloud passes over a
lightening conductor, it induces opposite
+ + + Space charge charge on the spikes of the conductor which
results to high electric field intensity
+
+
+ +
+ Spike  The high electric field intensity on the spikes
+
ionizes the air around it. Charge similar to
those on the spikes is repelled to the clouds
and neutralize charge on the cloud, while
Copper strip those opposite are attracted and discharged
at the spikes
Copper plate  This way charge from the cloud is safely
conducted to the ground

Effect of Lightening
Clouds in relative motion become charged due to friction. The resulting charge builds up leading to
a high p.d between the clouds and the earth. Large discharge currents through the building can
cause them to burn

247