CE 301 – Geology

MINERALOGY

MINERALS - are naturally occurring, inorganic solids with a definite chemical composition and a crystal lattice structure.
Although thousands of minerals in the earth have been identified, just ten minerals make up most of the volume of the
earth’s crust—plagioclase, quartz, orthoclase, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, calcite, biotite, garnet, and clay.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

COLOR - Color is often useful, but should not be relied upon. Different minerals may be the same color. Real gold, is very
similar in color to the pyrite.

Additionally, some minerals come in many different colors. Quartz, for example, may be clear, white, gray, brown, yellow,
pink, red, or orange. So, color can help, but do not rely on color as the determining property.

LUSTER - Luster describes the reflection of light off a mineral’s surface. Mineralogists have special terms to describe
luster. One simple way to classify luster is based on whether the mineral is metallic or non-metallic. Minerals that are
opaque and shiny, such as pyrite, have a metallic luster. Minerals such as quartz have a non-metallic luster. Luster is how
the surface of a mineral reflects light. It is not the same thing as color, so it crucial to distinguish luster from color.

STREAK - Streak is the color of a mineral’s powder. Streak is a more reliable property than color because streak does not
vary. Minerals that are the same color may have a different colored streak. Many minerals, such as the quartz, do not
have streak. To check streak, scrape the mineral across an unglazed porcelain plate. Yellow-gold pyrite has a blackish
streak, another indicator that pyrite is not gold, which has a golden yellow streak.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY - Density describes how much matter is in a certain amount of space: density = mass/volume. Mass is
a measure of the amount of matter in an object. The amount of space an object takes up is described by its volume. The
density of an object depends on its mass and its volume. For example, the water in a drinking glass has the same density
as the water in the same volume of a swimming pool. The specific gravity of a substance compares its density to that of
water. Substances that are denser have higher specific gravity.

HARDNESS - Hardness is the strength with which a mineral resists its surface being scraped or punctured. In working
with hand samples without specialized tools, mineral hardness is specified by the Mohs hardness scale. The Mohs
hardness scale is based 10 reference minerals, from talc the softest (Mohs hardness of 1), to diamond the hardest (Mohs
hardness of 10).

CLEAVAGE - Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes to make smooth surfaces. Halite breaks
between layers of sodium and chlorine to form cubes with smooth surfaces.

FRACTURE - Fracture is a break in a mineral that is not along a cleavage plane. Fracture is not always the same in the
same mineral because fracture is not determined by the structure of the mineral. All minerals have fracture. Fracture is
breakage, which occurs in directions that are not cleavage directions. Some minerals, such as quartz, have no cleavage
whatsoever.

CRYSTAL SHAPE - All minerals are crystalline, but only some have the opportunity to exhibit the shapes of their crystals,
their crystal forms. Many minerals in an introductory geology lab do not exhibit their crystal form. If a mineral has space
while it grows, it may form natural crystals, with a crystal shape reflecting the geometry of the mineral’s internal crystal
lattice.
Some minerals have other unique properties, some of which are listed in the table below.

CLASSES OF MINERALS

• Silicates
• Sulfides
• Carbonates
• Oxides
• Halides
• Sulfates
• Phosphates
• Native elements

SILICATES - Based on the polyatomic anion, (SiO4)4–, which has a tetrahedral shape. Most minerals in the earth’s crust
and mantle are silicate minerals. All silicate minerals are built of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra (SiO4)4– in different bonding
arrangements which create different crystal lattices.

• In nesosilicates, also called island silicates, the silicate tetrahedra are separate from each other and bonded
completely to non-silicate atoms. Olivine is an island silicate.
• In sorosilicate or paired silicates, such as epidote, the silicate tetrahedra are bonded in pairs.
• In cyclosilicates, also called ring silicates, the silicate tetrahedra are joined in rings. Beryl or emerald is a ring
silicate.
• In phyllosilicates or sheet silicates, the tetrahedra are bonded at three corners to form flat sheets. Biotite is a
sheet silicate.
• In single-chain inosilicates the silicate tetrahedra are bonded in single chains. Pyroxenes are single-chain
inosilicates.
• In double-chain inosilicates the silicate tetrahedra are bonded in double chains. Amphiboles are double-chain
inosilicates.
• In tectosilicates, also known as framework silicates, all corners of the silicate tetrahedra are bonded to corners of
other silicate tetrahedra, forming a complete framework of silicate tetrahedra in all directions. Feldspar, the most
common mineral in earth’s crust, and quartz are both framework silicates.

SULFIDES - These are based on the sulfide ion, S2–. Examples include pyrite, FeS2, galena, PbS, and sphalerite, ZnS in its
pure zinc form. Some sulfides are mined as sources of such metals as zinc, lead, copper, and tin.

CARBONATES - These are based on the carbonate ion, (CO3)2–. Calcite, CaCO3, and dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, are carbonate
minerals. Carbonate minerals tend to dissolve relatively easily in water, especially acid water, and natural rain water is
slightly acid.

OXIDES - These are based on the oxygen anion, O2–. Examples include iron oxides such as hematite, Fe2O3 and magnetite,
Fe3O4, and pyrolusite, MgO.

HALIDES - These have a halogen element as the anion, whether it be fluoride, F–, chloride, Cl–, bromide, Br–, iodide, I–, or
astatide, At–. Halite, NaCl, is a halide mineral.
SULFATE - These have the polyatomic sulfate ion, (SO4)2–, as the anion. Anhydrite, CaSO4, is a sulfate.

PHOSPHATE - These have the polyatomic phosphate ion, (PO4)3–, as the anion. Fluorapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F, which makes your
teeth hard, is a phosphate mineral.

NATIVE ELEMENTS - These are made of nothing but a single element. Gold (Au), native copper (Cu), and diamond and
graphite, which are made of carbon, are all native element minerals. Recall that a mineral is defined as naturally
occurring. Therefore, elements purified and crystallized in a laboratory do not qualify as minerals, unless they have also
been found in nature.