SALALE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

MASTER’S THESIS WRITING AND REPORTING GUIDELINE

December, 2021
Fitche, Ethiopia
 SALALE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

MASTER’S THESIS WRITING AND REPORTING

GUIDELINE

By:

1. Didha Bacha (Ph.D.)

2. Haile Girma (Assistant Professor)
3. Melaku Awoke(Assistant Professor)
4. Teshome Kafala (Senior Lecturer)

December, 2021

Fitche, Ethiopia
DECLARATION

This guideline is prepared by College of Business and Economics, Salale

University as part of the efforts of the college to facilitate uniformity and
standardization in master’s thesis writing and reporting. Thus, only the College
Academic Commission has the mandate to suspend, revise and modify this
guideline when it is deemed to be necessary.
 Table of Content

Contents page

FOREWORD.........................................................................................................................1
PART ONE.............................................................................................................................2
GENERAL GUIDING ISSUES............................................................................................2
1.1. Quality Requirement of a Master’s Thesis.................................................................2
1.2. Plagiarism...................................................................................................................3
1.3. Thesis Proposal Approval Processes..........................................................................5
1.4. Thesis Approval Process.............................................................................................6
1.5. Oral Presentation........................................................................................................6
PART TWO..........................................................................................................................10
THESIS WRITING STYLES AND FORMATING.........................................................10
PART THREE.....................................................................................................................13
TEXT CITATION, REFERENCE LISTS AND APPENDICES....................................13
3.1. Text Citation.............................................................................................................13
3.1.1. Single Author............................................................................................................13
3.1.2. Two Authors.............................................................................................................14
3.1.3. Three and more than three Authors..........................................................................14
3.1.4. Citing of two or more works to support the same point...........................................14
3.1.5. Citing Same Author and Same year Published Works.............................................15
3.1.6. Referencing another source which you want to include, but haven't read it (A
secondary reference)..............................................................................................................15
3.1.7. Personal Communications........................................................................................15
3.1.8. Direct Quotations......................................................................................................15
3.2. References.................................................................................................................16
3.3. Appendices...............................................................................................................20
PART FOUR........................................................................................................................21
COMPONENTS OF THESIS.............................................................................................21
CHAPTER ONE..................................................................................................................42
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................42
1.1. Background of the Study..........................................................................................42
1.2. Statement of the Problem..........................................................................................43
1.3. Research Questions...................................................................................................44
1.4. Objectives of the Study.............................................................................................44
1.4.1. General Objective.....................................................................................................45
1.4.2. Specific Objectives...................................................................................................45
1.5. Research Hypotheses................................................................................................46
1.6. Significance of the Study..........................................................................................48
1.7. Scope of the Study....................................................................................................48
1.8. Limitation of the Study.............................................................................................48
1.9. Operational Definitions of Key Variables................................................................49
1.10. Organization of the Paper.........................................................................................49
CHAPTER TWO.................................................................................................................50
LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................................50
Introduction......................................................................................................................50
2.1. General Principles on Writing Style of Literature....................................................50
2.2. Aspects you should include in a Literature Review.................................................51
2.3. How to Compile a Literature Review.......................................................................52
2.4. Signals of Poor Literature Review............................................................................53
2.5. Structuring a Literature Review................................................................................54
2.5.1. Theoretical Literature Review............................................................................54
2.5.2. Empirical Literature Review...............................................................................56
2.5.3. Summary of Related Literature and Research Gaps...........................................57
2.5.4. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework...................................................................58
CHAPTER THREE.............................................................................................................60
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................60
Introduction.........................................................................................................................60
3.1. Description of the Study Area..................................................................................60
3.2. Research Design.......................................................................................................61
3.3. Types and Sources of Data.......................................................................................62
3.4. Methods of Data Collection......................................................................................62
3.4.1. Ethical considerations in Collection of Data............................................................64
3.5. Sample Design..........................................................................................................64
3.5.1. Target Population......................................................................................................64
3.5.2. Sampling Technique.................................................................................................65
3.5.3. Sample size Determination.......................................................................................65
3.6. Pre-Testing (Validity and Reliability)......................................................................66
3.7. Methods of Data Analysis........................................................................................67
3.7.1. Descriptive Analysis...........................................................................................67
3.7.2. Inferential Analysis.............................................................................................68
3.7.3. Econometric Model............................................................................................68
3.7.4. Definition of Variables and Expected Sign........................................................69
4. WORK AND BUDGET PLAN..............................................................................70
CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ON THE RESULTS.......71
Introduction...........................................................................................................................71
4.1. Response Rate...........................................................................................................71
4.2. Background Information of the Study Participants..................................................72
4.3. Presentation of Results.............................................................................................72
4.4. Discussion on the Results.........................................................................................73
CHAPTER FIVE.................................................................................................................75
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................75
Introduction...........................................................................................................................75
5.1. Conclusions..............................................................................................................75
5.2. Recommendations.....................................................................................................76
 FOREWORD
A master thesis is a written scientific report that deals with concerns related to a problem or
series of problems in one's area of research. The thesis is the culmination of student’s work on
the master’s program and it is one of the most important means by which master’s quality is
identified and assessed.

All masters’ students must take a thesis normally as the final assessment item. It is an individual
undertaking, and the final responsibility for its successful planning and completion rests on
students, though supervisory guidance is expected to be given at the required standards. The
thesis; therefore, requires graduate students to display evidence of their ability to work
independently and ethically in both researching and presenting a topic of their own choice, and
to sustain these skills in an extended exercise. Thus, thesis indicates students’ independent
attainment of the intellectual and methodological skills appropriate to a Master Degree at the
culmination of the study with the program.

A master’s thesis provides opportunities for graduate students to propose, complete, interpret,
and report research. The Thesis and its part must not have been published previously, and must
be conducted and written under the supervision of academic staff. Master’s thesis should be the
result of work that is independently conducted, and that represents original research and critical
analysis.

The work should also reflect the student’s awareness and understanding of important current
work in the field; ability to plan a research activity; knowledge and motivation to carry out the
planned research activity; ability to analyze the results of the research; ability to draw
reasonable conclusions from the research; ability to complete a written description of the work
in the form of a well-written, properly organized thesis and ability to complete a thesis with
potential for presentation at and/or participation in professional meetings and/or publication in
scholarly journals.

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 PART ONE
GENERAL GUIDING ISSUES
1.1. Quality Requirement of a Master’s Thesis
For students seeking to complete graduate degrees at master’s levels, the college emphasizes
quality of academic research. Quality is generally defined as conformance to requirements or
fitness for purpose. The master level thesis demonstrates the student’s readiness to join the
community of scholars and practitioners in advancing the knowledge and practice in the real
world of Business and Economics.

Consequently, master students are expected to produce quality thesis that:

 Make contribution to the knowledge in the discipline

 Address current problems of interest to the practitioners
 Demonstrate a mastery of a specialization area within the program of study
 Reflect the integration of practice and scholarship, and
 Fulfill publishable quality

The DGC assigns thesis supervisors who direct students to research areas that satisfy these
requirements and ensure that the thesis work provides the foundations for high-quality work.
The research strategy, scope and academic rigor should be consistent with the highest level of
the research project that is expected in the discipline of study for each candidate.

A good thesis should have the following characteristics:

 It should be contestable; that means, it should propose an arguable point with which
people could reasonably disagree.
 It should be provocative in the sense that it takes a stand and justifies the discussions and
conclusions the author presents, but also allows readers to analyze the findings and make
their conclusions either in support or against.
 It should be specific and focused. There is a systematic link from the research title,
problem statement, objectives, data collection and analysis and the conclusion.

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  It should be flexible. The evidence may lead one to a conclusion which has not been
expected.
 It avoids vague language (like "it seems") and avoids the first person ("I believe"; "In my
opinion"; “We expect” …. etc.).

1.2. Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the presentation of someone else’s ideas or words as your own. Whether deliberate
or accidental, plagiarism is a serious and punishable offense in the research agenda. A thesis to
be presented by the candidate must be an original research work characterized either by the
discovery of new facts or by a fresh interpretation of facts or theories or should consist of
applied work such as developing and modifying special instruments or apparatus and should
show the candidate's capacity for critical examination or judgment and lucid presentation.

Deliberate or accidental plagiarism occurs when a writer draws words, phrases, or passages
from someone else’s work and presents them exactly as his/her work without providing
complete documentation or source citation.

Deliberate plagiarism may include:

 Copying and pasting portions of text from online journal articles or websites without proper
citation.
 Downloading a free paper from a website or paying to download a paper and submitting it as
your work.
 Paraphrasing of another’s work by simply changing a few words or altering the order of
presentation without clear identification of appropriate reference and acknowledgment.
 Copying or submitting someone else's written or creative work (in the form of words,
images, ideas, opinions, graphics, formula….etc.).
 Submitting a work/document that had been submitted previously by other candidates.
 Submitting a work that had been prepared by falsification/fabrication of data.
 Submitting collaborative work without obtaining consent from the concerned collaborator.
 Submitting a cross-language content translation and use without reference to the original
work.
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 Using work of a third party (for a fee/free) and represented by a student as his or her own
work (Ghost writing).

Plagiarism is a high crime in academia; a graduating master’s student is supposed to follow the
research professional ethical standards.

Guidelines for avoiding any case of plagiarism are given below:

 Ensure that master’s thesis is original; has not been published and has not been submitted
for publication or the award of any degree elsewhere or in Salale University.
 If you are quoting from a published work in your master’s thesis, you need to submit a
copy of the permission obtained from the respective copyright holder.
 If you are quoting a table or a figure or a photograph in your thesis which is not the result
of your original fieldwork; it is a must to cite the original source of the item. If any
modifications are made in the original figure or table or photographed by you; it must be
indicated as: “Modified from the name of author/organizations (year)”.
 All other quotations, reviewed literature, tables, figures, photographs…etc. must be cited
in proper “citation style” as postulated in this guideline.
 If any table or figure or photograph is the result of your fieldwork; you must mention it
as a source; for example, Own Field Survey, 2021 or Own Field Study, 2021.

If one fails to follow the above rules; there will be several serious consequences in the form of
termination, withdrawal of graduation degree, cancellation of master’s thesis, etc., based on the
severity of plagiarism.

To avoid plagiarism in the thesis, a master's student is required to acknowledge the sources of
words, facts, or ideas taken from other scholars.

It is the responsibility of the graduate student to ensure that the thesis is free of plagiarism
which means that no part of the thesis has been copied from other sources, and all sources used
for the thesis have been properly cited. All students are required to check their thesis through
plagiarism detection software.

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The advisors/supervisors are required to sit with their students and run the thesis through
plagiarism detection software in order to guide any revisions that may be required as a result of
this process.

In general, plagiarism is unethical, a crime and not acceptable at all. When one or more of
examininig board members identified the thesis is plagiarized, student will be penalized based
on the severity of the problem.

All students are required to submit a signed statement that they are aware of the plagiarism
policy and no part of their thesis work is copied in any form and it is their work result. If
plagiarism is established, the quantum of punishments might be taken based on the senate
legislation of our university like:

 The candidate will be asked to revise the thesis report;

 The thesis report will be rejected;
 The student will be debarred and also the supervisor will be debarred from supervising
master theses; or
 The college academic commission can take any other decisions as per the University
senate legislation.

1.3. Thesis Proposal Approval Processes

The student should submit a soft copy and two hard copies signed by him/her and the advisor/s.
The proposal should be written in accordance with this guideline and submitted to the
department within the time frame. The department shall assign at least two professionals to
review and forward their comments/suggestions and questions during the proposal presented by
the student. The presentation is a learning-teaching process where the student will have an
opportunity to let others know what he/she plans to research and why. Based on the evaluations
by selected professionals, the proposal may be accepted as it is or accepted with minor/major
revision. With out approval of these proffesionals, in collaboration with the advisor/s, the
student is not allowed to proceed to the next research process.

The student who is suggested to revise should include all agreed corrections and suggestions

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during the presentation. The corrected version of the proposal should be signed by the student
and his/her advisor/s and submitted to the department in both soft and hard copies (one copy for
each).

The reviewers thoroughly check for the inclusion of the agreed corrections and suggestions and
put their signature with full name on the cover page of the corrected proposal.The final proposal
shall be approved by both the department and the college graduating program. Once the
proposal is approved, the student is given a confirmation letter by the department that describes
the student who submitted the final proposal, and he/she can continue his/her thesis work.

1.4. Thesis Approval Process

All master graduate students are required to produce an original thesis individually as per this
guideline in consultation with their thesis advisor/s. Once students’ thesis is approved by the
respective supervisor/s, they will submit a soft copy and two hard copies to the department for
presentation/evaluation. Finally, A master’s thesis shall be defended openly in the presence of
internal and external examiners and a chairperson. Based on the approval of examining board
members and adviser/s, the candidate should submit final thesis report with a soft copy and two
hard copies to the department within 10 working days after defense.

1.5. Oral Presentation

1.5.1. Stylistic Issues: The Slide

Even though it is commonly called “oral presentation” An oral presentation is equally visual as
it is an auditory medium. Therefore emphasis should also be given to the way the slides are
designed and presented. The slide should be clearly visible and legible to the audience members
sitting at the very back of the room. Therefore there are certain points to consider:

Layout: The background color of the slide and the color of the text should have a sharp
contrast. If the background of the slide is dark then the text should be light in color and provide
ample contrast (“light” does not necessarily mean “bright”). For example, if the background is
midnight blue, then the text could be white or bright yellow. At times even different hues of
color do not provide sufficient contrast. For example, using orange on the black background is
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tiring to the eye, and not sufficient contrast is available. If unsure about what color combination
to use for the text and background, the safest choice is to use black text on white background.

Background: After you have chosen an appropriate background for your slides. Stick to your
choice and use the same background throughout the presentation. Also, particularly for
scientific presentations, a plain background is preferred (a gradient of the shades of the same
color is also acceptable). If you are inclined to add a graphic, picture, etc. in your background,
make sure that it is subject-appropriate and does not draw attention away from the text and
figures that you are attempting to communicate. Party balloons, a motorcycle flying off a
cliff, etc are not deemed appropriate.

Recommended Fonts and Sizes: The type and size of the font are equally important. Do not
use script fonts; they may seem fancy on an invitation card, but are unsuitable for professional/
scientific presentations. Select a font type that is easily legible and has sufficient spacing
between letters (do not use condensed fonts, where one letter appears to overlap with the next).
Using standard fonts, such as Arial, Tahoma, Gill Sans and Garamond are recommendable for
effective slides. As to the font size, Titles 36 pt, Main bullets 28 pt, Sub-bullets 28 pt if room,
otherwise 24 pt is recommendable. There is also a strong inclination to use bold font types
throughout. A student should have Keep text/title size consistent across slides.

Effective text slides: As stated earlier, the oral presentation is a visual as well as an auditory
medium. Most of your slides should contain figures (whether images, graphs, or tables)
whenever possible. You should limit the use of text-only to state the problem, frame the
problem in the appropriate context, and summarize results, and state major conclusions. Even in
cases where you need to use text, a slide with more than a few lines of text will bore your
audience. The number of lines per slide should not be more than 8-10. State key concepts in
bulleted phrases or short declarative statements and cover the details verbally.

Minor errors such as misspelled words, grammatical errors, punctuation mistakes, etc.
convey to the audience that you have not put enough attention to the work that you planned to
present in public. The corollary of these types of errors in the audience will be skeptical about
the soundness of the work you are presenting. If you did not pay attention to the material
displayed in public, can you be trusted to pay due diligence during the actual conduct of the
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research? Errors that you could have easily corrected in a few minutes will taint the entire body
of your work. Avoid such errors at all costs! If you’re spelling and grammar is not up to par,
you can always make use of the built-in spelling and grammar checker in the presentation
software, or even better consult a friend or an advisor.

1.5.2. The Presenter

An oral presentation is not only a presentation of the body of the students' work, but students
are also presenting them as the person who conducted the research project. So students should
pay attention to their presentability as they do their work. Oral presentations, such as seminars
and defenses are venues that provide students with an opportunity to impress their
colleagues, and fellow scientists. Who knows, perhaps their future prospective employer may be
in the audience!

There are accepted norms that a presenter should generally follow. Primary among these is
physical appearance. Try and dress appropriately. There is no defined dress code, but there are
certain “don’ts” that you should always follow.

o Do not dress shabbily

o Do not come with unkempt hair
o Do not wear slippers
o Do not wear jeans and a T-shirt, or other extremely casual attire

The audience has taken the time and effort to attend your presentation; proper attire
returns that show of respect. Further, shabby dress unnecessarily draws the attention of the
audience away from the slides and the core ideas you are trying to communicate.
students’ clothing and grooming, certain mannerisms may be magnified and in full display
when standing in front of an audience. Students may already have these mannerisms, or they
may be the symptoms of standing nervously in front of an unfamiliar crowd. Regardless,
students are not alone, anxiety over public appearances is all too common in persons who have
little or no experience in public speaking. The mannerisms could be manifested in many ways,
for example, gestures such as scratching your nose or behind the ear, straightening your

8
eyebrows, vigorously rubbing the palms, etc.; or they could be vocal such as clearing your
throat frequently, pausing with “umms”, mumbling, etc.; or they could be motions, such as
pacing back and forth, swaying on your heals, etc.

The presenter, may not be aware of these symptoms of anxiety. It usually takes another person
to point them out to you. But once students are made aware of the peculiarities, you
should consciously try to suppress them while rehearsing your presentation. In time, as your
exposure and experience in public speaking grow, you will gain confidence and will overcome
the anxiety and the symptoms that go along with it.

1.5.3. Contents of the Oral Presentation

The presentation should include a short introduction, research hypotheses/objective, a brief

description of the methods, tables and/or graphs related to findings, and an interpretation of the
data. The presentations schedule should be no more than 15 minutes long. That’s not much
time. Plan how many minutes you are going to spend per slide. The trick to giving good
presentations is distilling your information down into a few bulleted lists, diagrams, tables and
graphs. You don’t want to be rushed while presenting.

Title slide (1 slide). One the title of the slide student will include the topic of the thesis, the
names of students and advisors, degrees, department, the college and university names, ets

Introduction: Under introduction, the postgraduate student is expected to brief orally present:

 Background of the study (1-2 slides)

 Statement of the problem (2-3 slides)
 Research questions/hypothesis (1-2 slide)
 The objective of the study (1 slide)
 Materials and Methods (typically 4-6 slides)
 Results and Discussion (7-10 slides)
 Conclusion and Recommendation(2-3 slides)

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 PART TWO
THESIS WRITING STYLES AND FORMATING

It is known that there are various styles and formats in scientific writing. What is important is;
however, being consistent in using styles and formatting. This means that rules need to be
followed consistently in writing a proposal and thesis. The following rules are selected for
simplicity and formality, and students should follow them strictly in preparing a proposal and
thesis.

2.1. Font Type and Size

Texts for both the research proposal and thesis should be presented with font size 12 and Times
New Roman font face except the texts for the title/cover page, headings, sub-headings, and
caption labels for figures, tables, and graphs where different line spacing and font size are used.
The first-level heading (Heading 1) in the research proposal and thesis are written in bold, upper
case and 16 font size. Second-level headings (Heading 2) are written in bold title case with 14
point font size, and the first letter of each major word of the heading (except particles) is written
in uppercase letters. The third level headings (Heading 3) are written in bold title case in 12
point font size. The fourth level and all remaining lower-level headings are written in 12 point
font size in sentence case unless required by grammatical or nomenclatural rules.

Apart from this variation in font size and formatting, all caption labels, column headings of
tables are written in the same way with heading 3. For headings 1-3, the texts should be aligned
at the center. The entire text in the research proposal and thesis are written in 12 point font size
with justified alignment. Underlining of headings, sub-headings, or captions of tables or figures
is not necessary.

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2.2. Margins, Indentation Level, and Alignment

Margins: One by one inch (top, bottom, and left) but the right margin shall be with 0.75 inch.
The same margins should be applied to all pages including those of the figures and tables.

2.3. Headings and Sub-headings

The texts for each title of the preliminary sections and the chapters are written in 16 point bold
uppercase letters and are aligned at the center. Texts for second and third-level headings are
written in bold with 14 and 12 font sizes respectively and are aligned at the center. The chapter
headings should be placed without a number. The second-level headings are numbered
consecutively with Arabic numbers in an outline numbering system (e.g. 1.1., 1.2. … etc. for
subheading of chapter one and 2.1., 2.2. … etc. for subheadings of chapter two … etc.) to have
a numbered subheading, there ought to be at least two subheadings (Heading 2 and Heading 3)
under a higher level heading.

2.4. Line Spacing and Paragraph Format

Line spacing for the text should be 1.5. There must be (auto) line spacing between paragraphs
and above and below all headings, subheadings and caption labels. All paragraphs of the text
should be in block paragraph format. This means, starting new paragraphs with indention is not
necessary.

2.5. Page Numbering and Setup

Each component of the preliminary section, each chapter of the thesis, the references and the
appendices must start on the new page. Except for the cover page of the proposal and the title
page of the thesis, every page is assigned a page number.

Page number of the main body of the thesis, references, and appendices should be in Arabic
number (1, 2, 3, etc.) and that of prefaces should be in lower case Roman numbers (i, ii, iii,
etc.).
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2.6. Tables and Figures

Tables should be used when displaying of exact values is important or when clear patterns are
not apparent in the numerical values. Figures should be used to indicate trends and patterns of a
given facts, models, or theories. However, it is not acceptable to use both tables and figures to
present the same data. Tables and figures should be single line spaced. Tables and figures
should be consistent in format throughout the document. Tables and figures which are more
than one page length are discouraged. If a table and figure continues on to the next page, the
word table or figure with its number and the word “continued” should head the table or figure.
But the column heading should appear on the continued page.

2.7. Other Style and Formatting Issues

Apart from the above principal style and formatting issues, the following style and formatting
cases should also be carefully handled. All measurements must be in metric or standard
international units. Only the Ethiopian Birr (ETB) shall be used for budget and other currency
related discussions. Commas should be used in presentation of the amount of ETB based on
national standards. The numeric value of ETB should be stated in words in braces. Complicated,
long or awkward sentences should be avoided. Correct grammatical rules should be followed.
Contractions such as shouldn’t, can’t and won’t are not recommended to be used. Personal
pronoun such as I, you and we should be avoided, instead better to use the researcher, the study,
and the like. Technical jargons and personal symbols should not be used.

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 PART THREE
TEXT CITATION, REFERENCE LISTS AND
APPENDICES
3.1. Text Citation

The researcher should use the (author, year) method for citations in body text of a proposal or
thesis. There are two possible ways of citations, namely, subject centered and author centered.
In the subject centered citation, the author last name followed by comma, a space and the year
of publication are written in parenthesis usually at the end of the sentence. In the author
centered citation, only the year of publication is placed in the parenthesis and comma is not
required after the author name.

In the case of Ethiopian names, the first name of the author should be used if the first name
Ethiopian authors are not given or are simply abbreviated in the cited materials, the name that
appeared in the article shall be cited. For example, if the full name of the Ethiopian author is
Bekele Gebre the cited name should be Bekele. Subject centered and author centered in text
citations are presented below:

3.1.1. Single Author

When citing the work of an author, cite as shown below:

Subject centered citation: (Amandeep, 2009)
Author centered citation: Amandeep (2009)
Subject centered citation: (Bekele, 2009)
Author centered citation: Bekele (2009)
When citing the work of an organization as author, use the acronym of the organization as
shown below:
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 Subject centered citation: (WHO, 2010)
Author centered citation: WHO (2010)
When the work has no named author, cite it as “Anonymous”
Subject centered citation: (Anonymous, 2011)
Author centered citation: Anonymous (2011)
When the author is not dated, cite the year of publication as “n.d.”
Subject centered citation: (Taylor, n.d.)
Author centered citation: Taylor (n.d.)
Subject centered citation: (Anonymous, n.d.)
Author centered citation: Anonymous (n.d.)

3.1.2. Two Authors

Subject centered citation: (Smith and Brown, 2010)

Author centered citation: Smith and Brown (2010)
Subject centered citation: (Bekele and Hailu, 2010)
Author centered citation: Bekele and Hailu (2010)

3.1.3. Three and more than three Authors

Subject centered citation: (Rashid et al., 2008);

Author centered citation: Rashid et al. (2008) \

et al. is an abbreviation of the Latin phrase et alia, which means 'and others'. It's used when a
source has more than three authors to avoid having to cite a long list of names in the text.
Remember, et al. is an abbreviation, so researcher need a full stop. It's not usual to use et al. in
a reference list or bibliography; all authors should be listed in the order they appear in the
source.

3.1.4. Citing of two or more works to support the same point

If a number of different sources that provide the same information are referred, all sources
should be listed in chronological order. When citing two or more works that provide the same
information, the subject centered citation is commonly used; the works must be listed
14
alphabetically. The listed citations should be separated by semi-colon in the case of subject
centered citation and by comma in the case of author centered citation.

Publications by the same name are to be listed chronologically.

Subject centered citation: (Sophia, 2006; Tiruneh, 2006; Bohn et al., 2011);
Author centered citation: Sophia (2006), Tiruneh (2006) and Bohn et al. (2011)

3.1.5. Citing Same Author and Same year Published Works

If two (or more) sources written by the same author in the same year are used, letters shall be
used to differentiate between the sources; for example,
Subject centered citation: (Abebe, 2010a) or (Abebe, 2010b) or (Abebe, 2010c);
Author centered citation: Abebe (2010a) or Abebe (2010b) or Abebe (2010c)

3.1.6. Referencing another source which you want to include, but haven't read it (A
secondary reference)

If researcher need to refer an author who appears in the work of another author, he should refer
both authors:
Smith (Jones 2008) reports that..., or you could write,
Smith (cited in Jones 2008) reports that.... Or, even can be referenced as:
In his 1999 study, Smith (quoted in Jones 2008) found that....

Only the source which can be accessed (in this case, Jones 2008) in the reference list are
included. If you haven't read the original Smith study, you can't put it in the list of references.

3.1.7. Personal Communications

When citing interviews, phone conversation, letters or e-mail messages, student should include
the communicated person’s name that ideally should be an authority in the field.
Example: Abebe Petros, personal communication (November, 2021).

3.1.8. Direct Quotations

Direct quotations should be accurate and cited with the page of the source. If there is need to

15
omit some words within a quotation, the writer should use three ellipses (...) to indicate the
omissions. If the quotation is short, that is, a maximum of three sentences then use quotation
marks within the text. Longer quotations are usually indented, typed in single spacing and
italicized without quotation marks.

In both longe and short quotation, the pages from which the quotation comes must be indicated
at the end of the quotation. For example,

“… primarily responsible for policing the world trading system and making sure nation-states
adhere to the rules laid down in trade treaties signed by WTO member states.” (Charles,
2013:9).

The most global markets currently are not markets for consumer products-where national
differences in tastes and preferences are still often important enough to act as a brake on
globalization-but markets for industrial goods and materials that serve a universal need the
world over. These include the markets for commodities such as aluminum, oil, and wheat;
for industrial products such as microprocessors, … If a firm moves into a nation not
currently served by its rivals, many of those rivals are sure to follow to prevent their
competitor from gaining an advantage. As firms follow each other around the world, they
bring with them many of the assets that served them well in other national markets-their
products, operating strategies, marketing strategies, and brand names creating some
homogeneity across markets. (Charles, 2013:9).

3.2. References

In research, the term "reference" applies to materials that have been referred to or quoted in the
study. References are briefly cited within the text, and then given in full at the end of your work
in a reference list. References do not mean bibliography. References refer to only those sources
cited in the study; whereas the bibliography refers to the list of materials that were read whether
they were cited or not. Therefore, reference is mandatory and bibliography is optional for
research report.

Reference List

16
This section lists the references that have been cited in the thesis. It gives credit to any authors
the researcher referred to. Good referencing allows readers to check, the foundations of the
researcher's additions to the structure of knowledge in the discipline. This enhances work
reliability. Good referencing also tells the reader which parts of the thesis are descriptions of
previous knowledge and which parts are the researcher's additions to that knowledge. Thus, in
using materials from books, articles, website, or other sources, it is important to establish the
reputability and reliability of the website they are making reference to.

References are used to enable the reader to locate the sources you have used; help support your
arguments and provide your work with credibility; show the scope and breadth of your research;
acknowledge the source of an argument or idea. Failure to do so could result in a charge of
plagiarism. Thus, researchers must give references to all the information that they obtain from
books, papers in journals, and other sources. References may be made in the main text using
index numbers in brackets (Vancouver style), American Psychological Association (APA) style,
Chicago style, Harvard style or any one of other styles. The American Psychological
Association (APA) format is the most commonly used by social scientists as compared to other
styles and it is highly recommended in this guideline. The style of depicting or listing references
in this section should be in line with the citation formatting within the body of the text.

The reference list is a compilation of the books, reports, articles and other secondary data
referred to. It should start on a new page. The list should use the hanging indent method where
all lines after the first one are indented 1.3 centimeter or one tab. The researchers need to place
a list of references in alphabetically ordered manner. However, when the same author has more
than one publication, the references should be listed chronologically. It is the responsibility of
the researchers to strictly adhere to referencing styles shown below for different categories of
the cited sources. Specially, the student should take care regarding the use of spacing; proper
punctuations such as periods, semi-colons, colons; parenthesis; initials of author names; volume
and issue numbers of journals; page ranges and required italic forms of words or titles. Journal
titles should be written in full. In addition, the Ethiopian authors‟ name should be fully written;
not abbreviated. For instance, if the full name of an Ethiopian author is Desta Hagos Gamechu,
the name should not be written under reference list as ‘Desta H.G.’ full name, Desta Hagos

17
Gamechu, should be written. Examples of the referencing styles must be followed by the
researchers for different types of sources are given below.

APA Style of referencing Books

A book is referenced by writing name of the authors, year of publication in

bracket, title
of the book (in italics), edition, publisher, and place of publication
respectively. For
example: Gitman, L. (2003). Managerial Finance. Dryden Press, Hinsdale
Illinois. If the
book has no author then you need information regarding title of the book,
city where the
book was published, and publisher. Oxford Dictionary, (2nd ed.), (1991).
Oxford
University Press, USA. Similarly, citation of an online book, journal, or any
other online
material for that matter has to include the date it was viewed. For instance:
Trochim,
W.M. (2004). The research methods knowledge base, 2 nd ed. Retrieved
November 14,
2009, from http://www.socialresearchmethods.met/kb/index.htm.

APA Style of referencing Journal Articles

A journal article can be referenced by writing name of the authors, year of

publication,
‘title of article’ (in single quotation marks), title of the journal (in italics),
volume
number, issue number, and page numbers. For example: Gebregziabher
(2009b).
‘Financing preferences of micro and small enterprise owners in Tigray: does

18
POH hold?’
Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 16 (2), 322-334. If a
journal
article has no author then it can be cited as follows: ‘Building human
resources instead of
landfills’ 2000. Biocycle, 41 (12), 28–9.

APA Style of referencing Magazines and Newspapers

Magazine and newspaper articles can be used to support an empirical fact.

Magazine
articles are cited similar to that of journal articles except that the date of
publication
should be written. For example: Kluger, J. (2008, January 28). Why we love.
Time, 171
(4), 54-60. Newspaper article can be cited as: Tesfaye, K. (2010, September
10).
Unchanged Trade Flows May Nullify Impact of Devaluation. Addis Fortune,
11 (541).
Retrieved from http://www.addisfortune.com/economic_commentary.htm.

Similarly, articles from web 2.0 services such as Wikipedia can also be cited
as: Research Funding.
(2010, August 27). In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved,
September 16, 2010,
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_funding. Using Wikipedia as a
reference is not recommendable because everyone can edit documents on
it at any time.

APA Style for Internet Based Sources:

Internet Based Sources are referenced by including: Author’s name and initials
or name of organization; Year of item or date the page was last updated; Full title
19
of the article/ page/ item (in single speech marks); ‘Available at’ followed by the
complete website link; ‘Accessed’ followed by the date you accessed the
information. Forexample: BBC (2007) ‘Crime ‘stable’ but Robbery Rises’ (Internet)
Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6905769.stm, Accessed: 10/05/10 ;
Home Office (2010) ‘Crime’ (Internet) Available at:
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/crime/, Accessed: 17/10/10
APA Style of referencing Audio-Visual Media

Sometimes, audio-visual media can also be referenced. Audio-visual

references shall
include the following: name and function of the primary contributors (e.g.,
producer,
director), date, title, the medium in brackets, location or place of
production, and name of
the distributor. For example: Anderson, R., & Morgan, C. (producers). (2008,
June 20).
60 Minutes [Television broadcast]. Washington, DC: CBS News.

Follow standardized citation and referencing style for detail application in

your research work.
Order of References
The researchers should follow the following points in ordering the references.
 Orders of the references should be alphabetized by names.
 If there are several works by the same author, references should be arranged by year.
 One author-entry precedes multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname.
 References with the same first author but different subsequent authors are arranged
alphabetically by the second author or third author if the two first authors are the same
 If a work uses an agency as the author, use the full name (sometimes, both abbreviation
and full name) of the agency.
 If there is no author, the title moves to the author position and the entry is alphabetized by
the first significant word of the title.

20
  If the author is anonymous, spell out “Anonymous” for the author and alphabetize it as
though ‘Anonymous’ were a true name.

For further information on citation and reference, researchers should consult the APA citation
and referencing manual (2020), 7th edition.

3.3. Appendices

This contains the information that the researcher does not deem necessary to include in the main
body of the report. These are things that make the report unnecessarily long and non-value
adding and appending them is the only option. These may include instruments used (in different
languages, if relevant), statistical tables, correspondence related to the study, charts, graphs,
illustration, maps, budgets, activity schedules, data coding sheets, Research
permits/authorization letter (from university and higher officials of the studied organization),
special documents, the consent form, etc.

If the study uses organizational or institutional documents as a basic type of data (like short-
term and long-term plans, physical reports, financial reports, and other performance reports),
scripts, list of sampled institutions or places at each stage, and any other secondary data for
further analysis, the researchers should attach these documents under appendices section.
Appendices should be numbered based on their main and sub-headings. The main heading for
an appendix should be numbered as “APPENDIX-I”, “APPENDIX-II”, etc. If an appendix has
different sub-headings, it must be written as follow:

APPENDIX-I: QUESTIONNAIRES

A. English Version Questionnaire

B. Local Language Version Questionnaire

21
 PART FOUR
COMPONENTS OF THESIS

The research proposal and thesis should consists of four major parts; namely: Preliminary,
Body, References, and Appendices.

 The Preliminary Section: Includes cover page, title page (only for thesis), declaration on
plagiarism, certificate of submission, dedication, approvals, Abstract, Acknowledgements,
Table of contents, List of Tables, List of Figures, List of Appendices and List of
acronyms/Abbreviations.
 Body Part: must have Chapter one to Chapter five.
 References Part: Must consist of the details of all cited sources in body part of the thesis.
 Appendices Part: consists of attachments such as questionnaires, interviews items, budgets,
activity schedules, consent forms or letters, and other supplementary information.

22
Components of a proposal Components of a thesis
Preliminaries Preliminaries
- Cover page - Cover page
- Certificate - Title page
- Approval - Declaration
- Acknowledgement (optional) - Certificate
- Table of contents - Dedication (Optional)
- List of tables (if any) - Approval
- List of figures (if any) - Acknowledgement
- List of acronyms/abbreviations (if any) - Table of contents
- Abstract (Optional) - List of tables (if any)
Main body - List of figures (if any)

Chapter 1: Introduction - List of acronyms/abbreviations (if any)

Chapter 2: Literatures Review - Abstract

Chapter 3: Research Methodology Main body

4.Work Plan and Budget Chapter 1: Introduction

References Chapter 2: Literatures Review

Chapter 3: Research Methodology
Appendices
Chapter 4: Data analysis and Discussion of results
- Questionnaire (where applicable)
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
- Interview Items (where applicable)
References
- Any supplementary document
Appendices
- Questionnaire (where applicable)
- Interview items (where applicable)
- Data coding sheets
- Statistical tables, graphs, illustration … etc.
- Letters of information and/or signed forms of consent
- Permission letter
- Any supplementary documents

23
The title page

The title page is the first page of the thesis and a page number is not assigned. It should include
the title of the thesis, the degree for which the work is conducted, full name of the students and
the month, year and place of submission of the thesis. It is not necessary in the proposal (see
sample below).

24
 Logo of the University

16 pt, bold, uppercase

TITLE OF THE THESIS
14 pts, 1st Letter of each word upper case, bold

A Thesis Submitted to Department of -----------, College o f

Business and Economic, Salale University for the Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Award of Masters of…………………

By: 14 pt, bold

Full Name of the Student

14 pt, bold, italicized

Month, Year
Fitche, Ethiopia

25
Thesis Topic

According to SLU Senate Legislation the student should select three thesis topics on the basis of
the broad needs of the country and/or the priority areas of research topics as determined by the
concerned academic unit. The topic should be specifically on the area of the student’s area of
specialization. The topic of the thesis of each candidate shall be approved by the DGC as early
as possible as and not later than the time of the candidate's enrolment into the second half of the
program.

Note that the title of the research proposal/thesis should be clear, specific and concise. Words
such as “an investigation …, analysis on…..” are not essential. The title should capture and
reflect the essence of the proposed study. It should be fully explanatory when standing alone.
Abbreviation should not be included in title of the study.

The cover page

The cover page should contain name of the university, the college, name of the department, title
of the research proposal/thesis, student’s name and registration number, names and tittles of
advisor/s, statement about the purpose of the proposal like “A proposal/thesis is submitted to
the... ”. Finally, the cover page should have a month and year the proposal/thesis is submitted
(See sample below).

Note that the title of the research proposal/thesis should be clear, specific and concise. Words
such as “an investigation …, analysis on…..” are not essential. The title should capture and
reflect the essence of the proposed study. It should be fully explanatory when standing alone.
Abbreviation should not be included in title of the study.

26
 16pt, uppercase, bold

27
 SALALE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
DEPARTMENT OF …………

16pt, upper case, bold

TITLE OF THE PROPOSAL/THESIS

14 pt, each first word uppercase, bold

A Proposal/Thesis Submitted to Department of ---, College of Business and
Economics, Salale University for the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Award of Masters of Science ……...
By:
14 pt, bold
Full Name of the Students
Under the Supervision of: 14 pt, bold

Title and Name of Advisor (Academic Rank)

14 pt, bold, italicized

Month, Year
Fitche, Ethiopia

28
 DECLARATION

I, , ID. No. , do hereby declare that this

proposal/thesis entitled “ ” is my original
work and that it has not been submitted partially or in full by any other person for an award of
degree or publication in any other university/institution.

Submitted by:

Full Name Signature Date

29
 CERTIFICATE

The certificate of submission states that the proposal/thesis has been submitted for examination
with the approval of the advisors(s) and it carry their signature(s) and date. The title should be
14 fonts size, times new roman, uppercase, and bold centered. (See sample below).

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “__________________________________” submitted to

Department of ------ College of Business and Economics, Salale University by
_____________________ (Name of the student) for the degree of Masters of science/Masters
of Business Administration in _____________ (Area of Specialization), is original work done
by the candidate under my supervision. I further certify that the entire thesis represents the
independent work of _______________ (Name of the student) and all the research works were
undertaken by the candidate under my supervision and guidance.

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval.

Name of main advisor Signature Date

Name of co-advisor Signature Date_

30
DEDICATION (Optional)

The candidate may wish to dedicate his/her work to a specific person or a number of persons. If
this is the case, the name(s) must be indicated. It must be with 14 font size and italicized.
However, including a dedication is not mandatory.

31
APPROVAL

The student must incorporate all comments and suggestions forwarded by examining board at
the time of thesis presentation. Once the required revisions and modifications have been
completed, all the members of thesis examining board members and advisor/s must approve it
before the final submission. They are supposed to read the corrected thesis, check that the thesis
is corrected in accordance with comments given by the examining board members, and finally
recommend the department to accept and document the final version of the thesis. All parties
involved in the approval of the revisions or modifications must sign the thesis Approval Form.
(See sample of approval sheet below)

32
 SALALE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
DEPARTMENT OF -----
BOARD OF EXAMINERS THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

The undersigned certify that I have read and hereby recommend Department of -----, Salale
University, to accept the thesis entitled “ __________ ” which had been submitted by
_________ (Candidate full name) in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of a Master Degree in .

Submitted by:

Name of the Student Signature Date

Approved by:

Name of Main advisor Signature Date

_______________________________ _________ _________

Name of Co-advisor Signature Date

_______________________________ _________ _________

Name of External Examine Signature Date

_______________________________ _________ _________

Name of Internal Examiner Signature Date

_______________________________ _________ _________

Name of Chairperson Signature Date

_______________________________ _________ _________

Name of Department Head Signature Date
33
_______________________________ _________ _________

34
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The acknowledgement entails recognition of mentors, colleagues, individuals, sponsors and

institutions, which supported the research. This is to appreciate the people who have assisted
you direct or indirect the course of your study. You should begin with appreciating your
supervisors who have walked with you the entire journey of your study. This part should not
exceed one page. It is optional for proposal.

35
TABLE OF CONTENTS

The words “TABLE OF CONTENT” is in capital letters and bold print and centered on top of
the page. The word “Page” is aligned to the right. This part shows the list of headings,
subheadings and their corresponding page numbers. It must include all sections and sub-
sections of the report, starting with the declaration and ending with a list of appendices.
Heading 1, Heading 2, and Heading 3 in the main body of the thesis/proposal must be included
in this part. (See sample below).

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS Page
DECLARATION -------------------------------------------------------------------------
CERTIFICATE
DEDICATION
APPROVAL
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.1. Background of the Study
1.2. Statement of the Problem
1.3. Research Questions
1.4. Objective of the Study
1.4.1. General Objective
1.4.2. Specific Objectives
1.5. Significance of the Study
1.6. Scope of the Study
36
1.7. Limitations of the Study
1.8. Operational Definitions of the Key Terms
1.9. Organization of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES
Introduction
2.1. Theoretical Literature Review
2.2. Empirical Literature Review
2.3. Summary of Related Literature Review and Research Gap
2.4. Conceptual Framework
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
3.1. Description of the Study Area
3.2. Research Design and Approach
3.3. Type and source of data
3.4. Methods of data collection
3.5. Sample design
3.5.1. Study population
3.5.2. Sampling technique
3.5.3. Sample size determination
3.6. Pre-testing (validity and reliability Tests)
3.7. Data analysis
3.7.1. Descriptive Analysis
3.7.2. Inferential Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Introduction
4.1. Response Rate
4.2. Background Information of the Study Participants
4.3. Presentation of Results

37
4.4. Discussion of Results
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
5.1. Summary of Major Findings
5.2. Conclusions
5.3. Recommendations
REFERENCES
APPENDICES

38
 LIST OF TABLES

This comprises of a complete list of all tables presented in the proposal/thesis and the
corresponding pages. It comes next to tables of contents. (See sample below)

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Table 1.1: Sample rural households.....................................................................................................21
Table 1.2: Sex and marital status of sample HHs................................................................................26
Table 3.1: Age of sample respondents.................................................................................................27
Table 3.2: Family size of respondents….............................................................................................27
Table 3.3: Education level of sample respondents...............................................................................28
Table 4.1: Economic characteristics of sample respondents...............................................................28
Table 4.2: Food security situation in the study area............................................................................30
Table 4.3: Livelihood strategies of sample HHs..................................................................................32

39
LIST OF FIGURES

This comprises of a complete list of all figures presented in the proposal/thesis and the
corresponding pages. It should come next to list of tables. (See sample below)

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study

Figure 2: Location of the study area
Figure 3: Gini-coefficient and Lorenz curve of income inequality for Treatment groups
Figure 4: Gini-coefficient and Lorenz curve of income inequality for control groups
Figure 5: Combined Lorenz Curve for income inequality of treatment and control groups
Figure 6: Model Sketch of Normality test result
Figure 7: Common Support Condition of Propensity score histogram
Figure 8: Kernel Density Distribution of Propensity score before Matching
Figure 9: Kernel Density Distribution of Participants in common support after matching
Figure 10: Kernel Density Distribution of Non-Participants in common support after matching

40
 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND/OR ABBREVIATIONS

This is a complete list of acronyms and abbreviations used in the report. Acronyms and
abbreviations are written in alphabetical order of the words when written in full. Standard
International (SI) units and elementary or obvious abbreviations and acronyms such as et al.,
etc., e.g., Ph.D. and prof. should not be listed. In the text, each abbreviation other than standard
international units and each acronyms should be defined when they are first used and followed
by their abbreviations or acronyms in parentheses. Once defined, acronyms and abbreviations
shall be used in place of the full term except at the beginning of the sentence. Acronyms and
abbreviations are used only when they have to appear several times (more than twice) in the
text. Where they are used once or twice in the main body, their full words can be used there.
(See sample below)

ACRONYMS AND/OR ABBREVIATIONS

ADLI Agricultural Development Led Industrialization

APRA Agricultural Policy Research in Africa
CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program
COMESA Common Market in Eastern and Southern Africa
EIC Ethiopian Investment Commission
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute ILO
International Labor Organization
LLM Local Linear Matching
MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
PIF Policy and Investment Framework
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
PSM Propensity Score Matching
SADC 41
Southern African Development Community
LIST OF APPENDICES

The appendix is the last part of the thesis. It may include information such as questionnaires,
focus group discussion guidelines, check lists, additional graphs, figures, formula, raw data,
data coding, ANOVA tables, and other relevant additional information to the study which are
not appropriate to be placed in the main text of the thesis. Appendix should be conveniently
listed in the preliminary sections of the thesis in similar way of list of tables and list of figures.

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page
Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire
Appendix B: Interview Guide Questionnaire
Appendix C: Hosmer Lemeshow Goodness of fit test Result
Appendix D: Multicollinearity Test Results
Appendix E: Heteroskedasticity Test Result
Appendix F: Omitted Variables Test Result
Appendix G: Propensity Score Estimation and Balancing Property Test Results
Appendix H: The ATT results of nearest neighbor matching (NNM)
Appendix I: The ATT results of caliper matching (CM)
Appendix J: The Summary of PSM Quality Test Results
Appendix K: Sensitivity Analysis Test Results

42
 ABSTRACT

The abstract is a short summary of the complete content of the study (never exceed one page). It
must start with the description of the main objective of the study, and summarize the
methodology used, the main findings and recommendations. It should be in one paragraph,
Italic, and 1 point line space which answers the following basic questions:

 What was the study about and what were your research objectives or questions?
 How did you go about answering the research questions?
 What did you find out in response to your research objectives or questions?
 What conclusions did you draw regarding your research questions and what are the key
recommendations?

The abstract should be objective, precise and easy to read. This should normally be about 300 -
400 words. Do not cite figures, tables, or references in the abstract and do not use abbreviations.
Abstract should be a complete synopsis so as to enable the reader to judge the value of the thesis
and whether or not to continue to read it completely. It is expected to put some key words below
the abstract. The key words should not less than three and not exceed seven in number, which
are separated by comma.

43
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

The introduction part of a research proposal and thesis provides the background information
and rational for the thesis, and should establish the framework for the research. It should not
be confused with the background of the study. Introduction tells the reader what the study is
about, the key variables of the study and how the chapter is organised. Writing an
introduction part has no fixed rules to follow, rather its writing is both an art and science.
Ideally, it should not exceed four pages in length. In social sciences this chapter deals with
Background statement, Statement of the problem, objectives of the study, Research
questions/Hypothesis, Significance of the study, Scope/Delimitations of the study,
Limitations of the study and organization of the paper.

1.1. Background of the Study

Under this section the student should give sufficient background information to
allow/motivate the reader understand the context and significance of the issue/question
that you are trying to address. It will deal with the rationale providing evidence and
conditions of the existing situation to make the reader feel the urgency of the problem
and the need to study it in order to solve it or contribute to its solution. It must be
consistently and carefully written.

As much as possible, the background should be organized under:-

i. Globally, what key debates and (gaps) exist on the subject area to be investigated
in terms of the variables?
ii. Regionally, what key debates (and gaps) exist on the subject area to be investigated
in terms of the variables?
iii. Nationally, what key debates and (gaps) exist on the subject area to be investigated
in terms of the variables?
iv. Contextually (related to study area), what key problems (gaps) exist on the subject
area?

44
This approach would therefore entail the adoption of the Broader-Narrow perspective as
suggested by Mugenda and Mugenda (1999). Even if there is logic of triangulation, the
historical, conceptual, theoretical and contextual perspectives can be addressed using this
broader-narrow perspective. Authoritative sources or citations should be provided in the
section. It’s important to the following:

Should show origin of the problem.

Should be approximately not more than 3 pages
Why are you undertaking the project?
Why is the research needed?
Background section should contain a rationale for your research.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Under Statement of the problem the student should clearly and precisely define the problem,
showing the severity of the problem, presenting the extent of the problem and figuring out the
gaps in the past studies. Four basic qualities of the research problem need to be considered
namely: researchable, theoretically/empirically investigated or practically significant (should
contribute to the improvement of knowledge), clear and ethical (Amin, 2005).

In writing statement of the problems, the following issues should be emphasized:

How the study is important

How and what methods the paper employed to answer the research questions
Research Gap: This explains how the thesis differs from what has been done before. It is
important to explain how the paper fits in the existing literature.
State what the study are going to contribute to the existing knowledge.

The research problem is defined by asking a question to which the answer is unknown, and
which you will explore in your research. A well-articulated statement of the problem establishes
the foundation for everything and will render less problematic in most of the conceptual,
theoretical and methodological obstacles typically encountered during the process of proposal
development.

45
Condition necessary to say that there is a problem:

- There must be one who has the problem (decision maker) e.g. could be an org. student etc.
- At least when there are two unequally efficient course of action which has chances of
yielding the desired objectives/results.
- When there is a state of doubt in decision maker which course of action is best
- An outcome /desire by a decision maker
- Symptoms that a problem exist in business
- Performance is presently not meeting present objectives
- When its anticipant that performance will not continue present objectives
- Objectives for the future are changed and present operating procedures if continued
would not achieve the required goals

To identify the problem: Ask expert in particular area of business and economics, search
literature e.g. reading journals in your area of specialization, observe the environment to
identify area of dissatisfaction, look for current development and trends, etc. Finally carefully
state the problem in written form before proceeds with the design of the study.

1.3. Research Questions

Under this section the student should set the questions which he/she would like to answer
by undertaking the study (Mugenda &Mugenda 1999). The number of research questions
should correspond with that of research specific objectives in all cases. It is suggested
that the term “research questions‟ rather than “research hypotheses”” be used for
research that takes a qualitative, exploratory approach (Perry, 1992) . The term question
implies an interrogative statement that can be answered by data, which is logically
related to the same conceptual framework, but which does not necessarily stem from that
framework through logical deduction.

1.4. Objectives of the Study

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The objectives of a research rephrase the problem into operational or analytical terms, i.e. put
the problem in specific terms as possible. In this section the specific activities to be performed
should be listed.

Objectives should be

 Simple (not complex),

 Not vague (meet the purpose of the study) and
 Stated in advance (not after the research is done),
 Feasible;
 Realistic considering local conditions

In general objective should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound –

that is, SMART. Usually, research objectives are classified into general objective and specific
objectives.

1.4.1. General Objective

General objective is a broad statement which provides a short statement of the specific
goals achieved by the research. A given study should have one general objective which
should be in line with the title. Generally, the general objective is usually related to the
statement of the problem and it tells us what we need to do.

1.4.2. Specific Objectives

The specific objectives are operational and should indicate the type of knowledge to be
produced, audiences to be reached, etc. Specific objectives shall be Specific, Measurable,
Relevant and Realistic, Achievable, and Time bound in the context of fitting with the model
specification or the time period of the study data covers. Since the number of specific objectives
will influence the volume of the literature review and data to be collected, one should limit the
number of specific objectives to be investigated. As a guide, the specific objectives shall be
recommended not less than three and not more than six for a thesis.

The specific objectives should focus on practical outcomes or products of the study. For
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example, “The purpose of this study will/was to determine (measure, examine, or evaluate)
factor that influence consumption behavior of household in the case of………………… ”.

1.5. Research Hypotheses

Hypotheses and questions are linked to the speculative proposition of the problem
statement, can be inferred from the overall conceptual framework of a study, and are of
critical importance to data analysis and interpretation. In research studies, the term
hypothesis implies a derivation, within a hypothetic-deductive theoretical system, of a
particular assertion or prediction.

Hypotheses are typically used only in quantitative inquiry. It shows a clear and careful
distinction between the dependent and independent variables and researchers also certain
as they are clear to the reader. Hypotheses are thus tentative statements that should either
be acknowledged (accepted) or rejected by means of research. Because hypotheses give
structure and direction to research, the following aspects should be kept in mind when
formulating a hypothesis:

 Hypotheses can only be formulated after the researcher has gained enough
knowledge regarding the nature, extent and intensity of the problem.
 Hypotheses should figure throughout the research process in order to give
structure to the research.
 The research problem does not have to consist of one hypothesis only. The type of
problem area investigated, the scope of the research field are the determinate
factors on how many hypotheses will be included in the research proposal.

Purpose of hypothesis in research

 They provide direction, they bridge the gap between the problem and evidence
needed for it solution
 Sensitizes the investigation to certain aspects of the situation that is relevant

48
 regarding the problem at hand
 Permits the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity and use the
data collected to find solution of the problem
 Guides the collection of data and provides the structure for their meaningful
interpretation in relation to problem under investigation
 Forms the frame work for ultimate conclusions as solution
 Helps to determine what is to be studied
 Suggests the most appropriate research design

A research hypothesis is usually stated in an explanatory form, because it indicates the

expected reference of the difference between two variables. The research hypothesis may
be stated in a directional or non-directional form. A directional hypothesis statement
indicates the expected direction of results, while a non-directional one indicates no
difference or no relationship.

It may be based on previous experience or may be derived theoretically. In this sense, a

hypothesis contains a possible solution to the research problem, and as such is expected
to be verified or falsified (accepted or rejected) by the evidence gathered by the study
(Sarantakos, 1998). An experimental research hypothesis states expected relationships
between independent and dependent variables.

For example, a teacher notes that students who complete the Financial Accounting
examinations half an hour before the expected time usually perform poorly as compared
to those who complete in the expected lime. The teacher may decide to investigate the
relationship between the number of minutes needed to complete an examination and the
score on the examination. The teacher may use the data to determine whether there is a
significant negative relationship between these two variables. The research hypothesis
may be formulated as: The length of time needed to complete the examination will be
negatively correlated with the score on the examination for students.

Types of Hypothesis

1. Null hypothesis (Ho)- Null hypothesis: Statement that no difference exists between the
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 parameter and the statistic being compared to it
2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha)
Note: if we do not accept Ho we “fail to reject” it:
 The null hypothesis cannot be proved and therefore cannot be accepted.
 Research gives only a chance to reject Ho/Fail to reject Ho.

1.6. Significance of the Study

Under significance of the study the student should focus on the contribution of the study to the
society, who are going to be benefited from the study, the contribution of the study to the
existing literatures/knowledge in the area, etc. The researcher must tell the reader the reasons
why and how she/he thinks the findings might change policies, theory or practice. In short the
student should indicate who will benefit (e.g. the organization, policy makers, customers, other
organization, other researchers and students) from the findings of the study and how.

1.7. Scope of the Study

Scope of the study focus on specific geographical area on which the research focus on,
conceptual scope (study variables), time span (time period over which and for which data is
collected) and population covered by the study. Generally, the scope of the researcher describes
the focus or scope of the study to enable an enthusiastic reader to make generalization of the
findings.

1.8. Limitation of the Study

Under this section the researcher is expected to state potential weakness of the study that
is beyond control of the researcher and which may have implications or restrictions on
study or results of study. Emphasis should be made on sampling, data; literature related
limitations and instruments of data collection related limitations. It should also show the
suggested methods which are supposed to deal with the problem. The limitations should
not be stated in terms of time or financial resources constraints. Researchers are expected
to plan and implement research projects within the available time and financial resources.

50
1.9. Operational Definitions of Key Variables

This segment of the introduction is used to provide a sort of working definition to all the
items, which would be operationally used in the study. The idea is that there are some
terminologies, which have been “adapted” and so used restrictively for the purpose of the
research project. This means that such terminologies would mean something slightly
different from the one adapted under a different situation; hence the name operational
definition of terms. In defining terms operationally, individual terms/words to be so
defined are identified and then itemized. Thus, operational definitions are usually given
in such a way that will suggest that they are not the generally accepted or standard
definitions (not a dictionary definition) but those peculiar to the study in particular. This
segment is mandatory only for MBA and MSc. in Project Management students.

1.10. Organization of the Paper

This part of the introduction lists the contents included in the paper. It is always
important to provide structure on the organization of the proposal/thesis sections. For
example: This thesis is structured as follows: Chapter one provides the research
background, statement of the problem, research questions/hypotheses research
objectives, significance of the study, scope, limitations encountered in the course of the
study, operational definitions of the key terms, and organization of the study. Chapter
two presents literature review and a conceptual framework. Chapter three deals with the
methodology employed in the study; data analysis and presentation of results are
presented in chapter four; while chapter five has conclusions of the study and
recommendations.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to your thesis. The
purpose of a literature review is to “look again” (re + view) at what other researchers have done
regarding a specific topic (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005:70). A literature review is a means to an end,
namely to provide background to and serve as motivation for the objectives and hypotheses that
guide your own research (Perry et al., 2003:660). In writing a literature review, you are not
expected to merely summarize available previous researches. Rather, you should be able to
critically evaluate, re-organize and synthesize the work of others.

As an academic researcher, you should not simply accept what others say. You shouldn’t afraid
to critically evaluate the literature you read. Do you agree with the arguments and conclusions
of other researchers if you disagree, why? Can you identify contradictory arguments or
findings? How could one explain these contradictions? Do the findings of previous studies
apply in all contexts or are the findings context- specific? What are the criticisms against the
conceptual models or measurement approaches discussed in the literature? Which limitations
should be considered when interpreting the results of previous research?

This chapter presents the review of related literature that incorporate the general principles on
writing style of literature, aspects you should include in a literature review, how to compile a
literature review, signal of poor literature review, and structure of literature review.

2.1. General Principles on Writing Style of Literature

 Avoid using difficult and unfamiliar (jargon) words.

 Maximum number of pages for literature review should be 10-20pages (3,000-4,500)
words.
 You should, as far as possible, paraphrase and explain things in your own words and
52
 minimize the use of direct quotations (but remember to acknowledge the source!).
 You should provide the source for every ideas, definitions, concepts and discussions that
are not yours but are incorporated into your research.
 Be careful not to repeat the same information or arguments in different paragraphs or
sections of the research.
 Always provide the reader with an overview of the contents to follow at the start of each
major section in your literature review.

2.2. Aspects you should include in a Literature Review

1. A brief discussion of where the specific topic under consideration fits into the “bigger
picture” of the overall academic discipline
2. Conceptual definitions: you should provide formal conceptual definitions for all the key
concepts/constructs included in the study the first time they are introduced in your
writing. Providing clear definitions for the abstract constructs/concepts in a study will
help you to avoid misunderstanding and confusions of readers. Some points to
consider in defining constructs/concepts:
 It is not necessary to define a term that is generally used in every day conversation
(such as gender) and that has a single, well-accepted meaning.
 Specify the construct’s conceptual theme, in unambiguous terms, in a manner that is
consistent with prior research, and that clearly distinguishes it from related
constructs.
 Be consistent in how you use constructs and terminology with in and across the
different sections of your research. Do not use different words or synonyms for the
same concept interchangeably, as this may confuse the reader.
 For multidimensional construct a clear definition of its dimensions is required
3. A focused and synthesized discussion of relevant previous research findings involving the
constructs/concepts relevant to your study (both the theoretical and empirical frame
works). Previous research may indicate:
 Possible relationships between the chosen constructs, possible mediating and/or
moderating variables that influence the relationship between the chosen constructs,
 Possible differences between groups on the chosen constructs,
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  The contexts in which the constructs and relationships have previously been tested
(e.g., among students or in a specific industry),
 Possible gaps, inconsistencies, controversies and/or unanswered questions in the
literature that could form the basis of a new study,
 The results of previous hypothesis tests involving the selected constructs/concepts or
relationships, and possible untested hypotheses or propositions involving the chosen
constructs.
4. A literature review must always provide a summary of existing approaches to the
measurement of the relevant constructs. In other words, you must explain how
other researchers have measured the constructs that you intend to measure.
5. Finally, if your study has hypothesis, the literature review must provide sufficient
theoretical and empirical support for the hypotheses to be tested.
 Your advisor and evaluator will, look for all five of these elements when evaluating the
literature review section of your research paper.

2.3. How to Compile a Literature Review

Writing of a good literature review highly depends on the type and relatedness of material you
collect, your ability to synthesize information, and the way you structure the different concepts
with in it. Methods and ways for finding, synthesizing and structuring a literature review are
discussed below.
A. Finding an Appropriate/Related Literature

Finding an appropriate literature is a tedious work especially for first time researchers. There
are different options for you to search for literatures. One, you can find articles in Ethiopia from
journals published in different professional associations and organizations (e.g., Ethiopian
journal of science and sustainable development (EJSSD, Ethiopian Economics Association,
Ethiopian Marketing Professional Association, etc.). The other is, you can find articles
published in international academic journals (e.g. from, Emerald, EBSCO host, Jstor, etc.).
Another option is to find articles published in international academic journals using Google
scholar.

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NB: it is highly recommended that the articles you search should be peer reviewed/scholarly
articles and should be recently published.

B. Synthesizing Information in a Literature Review

The most difficult activity in compiling a literature review is to synthesize, existing knowledge.
Many student researchers often copy and paste information without “digesting” the information
at all this is totally unacceptable! You have to synthesize on the different definitions, lists of
attributes, factors and opposing viewpoints on a specific issue.

When you search for a definition of constructs/concepts in the literature, you may find different
definitions provided by different authors for the same construct. In such a case you should never
merely list these different definitions one after the other in a literature review. Rather “dissect”
the definitions and then try to show the main similarities and differences between them (if there
are different school of thoughts). In case where there is no historical approaches or schools of
thought with regard to the definitions of a construct/concept, you may list them chronologically
(based on the date of publication of the sources consulted).

Different authors often list different attributes, factors, criteria, elements, characteristics or
issues when discussing the same topic. For example, different authors may list different factors
that influence customers‟ satisfaction with the service provided by a salesperson in a retail
store. What you definitely should not do, is to merely report such lists of attributes, factors or
criteria developed by different authors separately one after the other in the literature review.
You should rather “digest” the information and provide a synthesized summary in your
literature review. You can do this by making comparisons of the factors, attributes or criteria
developed by different authors. If there are conflicting points raised by different authors, you
should again present their difference and your position.

2.4. Signals of Poor Literature Review

 Lacking organization and structure

 Lacking focus, unity and coherence
 Being repetitive and verbose
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  Depending too much on secondary sources
 Failing to keep up with recent developments
 Failing to cite influential papers
 Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
 Citing irrelevant or trivial references.

2.5. Structuring a Literature Review

A good literature review will always have a logical structure. This means that the different
sections and sub-sections of the literature review are logically linked to one another. When
structuring a literature review, use a “funnel approach” (where you will start the review by
placing the specific topic being discussed in an appropriate broader context and then focus your
discussion on more specific issues). Review of related literature has the following structure

2.5.1. Theoretical Literature Review

A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated ideas based on theories. It is a reasoned

set of prepositions, which are derived from and supported by data or evidence. A theoretical
framework accounts for or explains phenomena. It attempts to clarify why things are the way
they are based on theories. A theoretical framework is a general set of assumptions about the
nature of phenomena.

Importance of Theoretical Literature Review

Theoretical framework plays a major role in research. These include the following:

A) It introduces the researcher to a new view of the research problem. This enables the
researcher to understand the total realm of the problem.
B) It enables the researcher to conceptualize the topic in its entirety as an outgrowth of the
larger society. This helps the researcher to acknowledge the problem from a wider
perspective and not from a narrow personalized self-interest approach. This enhances the
researcher's objectivity.

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Qualities of Effective Theoretical Literature

An effective theoretical Literature should:

a) Account for and explain a phenomenon,

b) Be specific and well-articulated.
c) Reflect the research problem being addressed.
d) Be measured in a practical situation.
e) Provide tentative answers to questions, issues and problems addressed in the research
problem.
f) Should systematically address the various aspects of the problem, particularly the key
factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.

Guidelines in Formulating a Theoretical Literature

In formulating an effective theoretical framework, the researcher should adhere to the

following:

A) Reflect - On the existing theories for the purpose of identifying a fitting context.
B) Analyze the research title to identify the independent and dependent variables. The
researcher should then reflect on the relationship between these variables.
C) Find out which theories best explain the relationship between the variables. This can be
achieved by using the library and reading books and articles related to the topic selected. The
researcher should read through various theories related to one's research topic. The sources
include professional publications, journals in education, theses, abstracts from doctoral
dissertations and masters' theses and psychological abstracts. These readings will present
various studies related to one's study area. This will assist in the formulation of the
theoretical framework.
D) Formulation - The researcher should then write down the theories applicable, link the ideas
and identify the relationship. After this the researcher should formulate the theoretical
framework. This will involve discussing the selected theories in an attempt to answer the
research question.
E) Evaluation - After formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher should evaluate it
57
 to find out if it addresses all sections of the research problem.

2.5.2. Empirical Literature Review

It consists of the review of empirical data on the subject matter. It includes comparing and
contrasting of different interpretation on the same subject by different scholars. While doing the
empirical literature review, researcher should relate the literature to each objective of the
research. Moreover the empirical literatures that are used by a given researcher should not be
outdated and related with the study that the researcher going to investigate.

The researcher should demonstrate thoroughness in the field being investigated by critically
reviewing empirical studies that have been done in the same or related study. This should be
done at a global, African and Ethiopian context. This analysis should be critical clearly
identifying where the studies were conducted, the sampling issues, the key findings and
observed weaknesses in the studies.

Example: - A study entitled with Determinants of Commercial Banks Financial

Performance review the related articles in the following manner:

Melaku (2016) investigate determinants of bank profitability in Ethiopian private banks using
Secondary data. The data were obtained from audited financial statements of six sampled
private commercial banks for the period of 2004 to 2011 and national bank of Ethiopia. Both
descriptive statistics and econometrics model specifically fixed effects estimation were used to
analyze the relationships between dependent and explanatory variables. The study used return
on assets (ROA) as dependent variable and asset size, capitalization, labor productivity,
liquidity and non-interest income, credit risk, loan and overhead efficiency, GDP growth rate,
inflation and market share as explanatory variables. The regression result reveled that asset size,
capitalization, labor productivity, liquidity and non-interest income, showed a positive
magnitude and significant impact on the financial performance of private banks in Ethiopia
measured in ROA whereas credit risk and overhead efficiency has significant and negative
relationship with the financial performance of Ethiopian private banks. More over the
regression result reveled that GDP growth rate has significant positive effect on the financial
performance of private commercial banks in Ethiopia.
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Sufian and Habibullah (2009) work on 37 commercial banks from Bangladesh to assess the
performance for a period ranges from 1997 to 2004. They find that credit risk, loans intensity
and cost have a significant and positive impact on performance of banks and non-interest
income has a negative impact on bank performance. They don‟t find uniform impact from size
to different measures of profitability. According to their findings, bank size is positively related
with return on average assets and net interest margin. Opposite result is found for return on
average equity. Regarding macroeconomic factors, they don‟t find any significant impact on
profitability without for inflation that has a negative impact on banks performance during the
period under study.

2.5.3. Summary of Related Literature and Research Gaps

After reviewing the literature the researcher should summarize shortly both the theoretical and
empirical literatures and identify the gaps in it. For instance, a researcher intends to do research
on capital structure summarize the theories in the following manner:

The question of the optimal capital structure has remained unresolved despite the numerous
theories and empirical works. The propositions of Modigliani and Miller (1958; 1963) analyzed
the effect of tax benefits on determining the capital structure of a firm. The tradeoff theory
focused on the effect of external factors on limiting the advantages of debt and suggested that an
optimal capital structure is obtained by trade-off between the advantages and cost of debt. The
agency theory implies that the interests of the management of the company play an important
role in determining the capital structure which in turn affects performance. The study adopted
the pecking order theory to underpin the research work. This is because the theory underlies the
positive association between the firm’s financial performance and capital structure.
Additionally, the theory postulates that firms prefer internal sources of finance.

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 Table 2.1 Summery of Research Gaps

Authors Focus of the study Findings Research Gaps

Gweyi and The effect of financial The relationship between The study only focused on
Karanja leverage on financial leverage and return on leverage and ignored the
(2014) performance of deposit assets and income growth element of equity. This study
taking SACCOs in was positive and weak. sought to fill the research gap
Nairobi. buy including equity.
Onyango The effect of external The study established that The study only evaluated
(2016) financing on the growth of external financing has a external financing and did not
Savings and Credit positive and significant take into consideration
Cooperative Societies effect on the growth of internal funds.
wealth in Nairobi County wealth of SACCOs in
Nairobi County

Source: Compiled by the Researcher (2021)

2.5.4. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework

Research is based on a conceptualization of a pertinent problem and relationships between

problem variables and how they affect one another. The conceptual framework is a
diagrammatic model or representation of the relationship between variables and how they
are operationalized for the purpose of research. It should indicate the independent and
dependent variables (cause/ effect relationship) or vice versa, moderating and intervening
variables (where applicable). It is not mandatory that every student must have a moderator
or intervening variable but it depends on the facts in the real world and logic as well as
student’s own conceptualization. Inclusion of such variables demands that the candidates
must test their effects in the thesis. The source of the variables/framework and an
explanation of the diagrammatic representation should be made. The framework must be
linked to the theory of the study. Variables and dimensions presented in the conceptual
framework must be derived from the appropriate theoretical framework or known authorities
who must be cited and acknowledged.

A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to

60
present a preferred approach to an idea or thought. Conceptual frameworks (sometimes
called theoretical frameworks by some authors) are a type of intermediate theory that
attempt to connect to all aspects of inquiry (e.g., problem definition, purpose, literature
review, methodology, data collection and analysis). Conceptual frameworks can act like
maps that give coherence to empirical inquiry. Because conceptual frameworks are
potentially so close to empirical inquiry, they take different forms depending upon the
research question or problem.

Proponents claim that when purpose and framework are aligned, other aspects of empirical
research such as methodological choices and statistical techniques become simpler to
identify. A conceptual framework is the researcher’s own position on the problem and gives
direction to the study. It may be an adaptation of a model used in a previous study, with
modifications to suit the inquiry. Aside from showing the direction of the study, through the
conceptual framework, the researcher can be able to show the relationships of the different
constructs that he wants to investigate.

Once the conceptual framework has been determined, the next for the researcher is to
determine what research methods to employ to best answer the research problem through the
proposed framework. The conceptual framework must clearly identify the key variables of
the study, the dimensions and measurable indicators for each of the variables as well as the
relationships that exist among the variables. The source of the variables should be clearly
indicated by the student through appropriate citations. The candidate must coherently
describe the conceptual framework to enable the reader understand what the study will cover
and the student must clearly operationalize all the study variables.

 Considering the above discussed points, students shall follow the following components
at the time of writing their literature review.

Fig 2.1 Componnts of review of related literature

Introduction
2.1. Theoretical Literature Review
2.2. Empirical Literature Review
2.3. Summary of Related Literature and Research Gaps
2.4. Conceptual Framework

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 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The research methodology section set out what approaches or methods will be used to
produce the desired outputs. This is very important because it tells the reader how you plan
to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities
necessary for the completion of your research.

The guiding principle for writing the Methodology section is that it should contain sufficient
information for the reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Adopting a certain
research method depends on a range of factors. Some of these are the nature of the problem
under study, the situation in which the research is conducted, availability of sources, and the
background and inclination of the researcher. The methodology section attempts to answer
the research question in the most rigorous way. Thus, in this section researchers must
explain how each specific objective will be achieved. DO NOT FORGET the following
three prerequisites for methodological design:-

a) Address the research questions

b) Be within your capacity
c) Be practical and doable

The suggested sub- sections can be the followings:-

3.1. Description of the Study Area

If the study is to be conducted in a given area, the main features of the area have to be
defined. The main agro-ecology, the average rainfall, temperature, Altitude, religion, ethnic
composition, Language, administrative division, demography, other socio-economic aspects
of the study area, have to be explained and linking them to the study are also required.
Remember: In this sub section the researcher should support its descriptions with the
fitting map of the study area.

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 3.2. Research Design

Research design is the science and art of planning procedures for conducting studies so as to
get the most valid findings. Determining your research design will give you a detailed plan,
which you will use to guide and focus your research. There are different research design
approaches depending on different criteria. Researcher will choose the one which is
appropriate for their study. The choice of research design depends on the type of research
being conducted and the research questions to be answered; e.g. exploratory designs,
descriptive designs, case study design or across- sectional survey design or correlation
research designs are used under different circumstances. The choice of a particular design
needs to be justified and the candidate after articulating the design must state in precise
approach or approaches that will be used in the study. The choice can be either qualitative or
quantitative or a mixed methods approach and whatever choice is made must be explained
and justified. The type of data to be handled by each design has to be stated with
justification through quoting appropriate authorities.

The followings are the most popular research design approaches:-

Classification criteria Types of research designs

Degree of problem a) Exploratory research – to develop hypotheses or questions for further
crystallization research
b) Formal research – to test the hypotheses or answer the research questions
posed
The method of data a) Observation – The researcher monitors and records information about
collection subjects without questioning them.
b) Survey – The researcher interrogates subjects and collects their responses.
Researcher’s control of a) Experimental design – The researcher attempts to control or manipulate the
variables variables in the study.
b) Ex post facto design – Investigators have no control over the variables in
sense of being able to manipulate them.
The purpose of the a) Descriptive research – concerned with answering who, what, where, when or
study how much questions
b) Casual research – concerned with learning why, i.e., how one variable
affects another
The time dimension a) Cross-sectional research – carried out once
b) Longitudinal research – repeated and studied changes over time
The topical scope a) Statistical study – emphasis on breadth of coverage and interested in the
frequency of certain characteristics or instances
b) Case study – emphasis on the detailed analysis a limited number of events or

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 conditions and their relationships
The research a) Field study
environment b) Laboratory study

3.3. Types and Sources of Data

In this subsection of the methodology, information required to attack the problem is

explained. Each variable or indicator identified by a researcher is explained and justified to
show how it is relevant to the current study. The source of the data, and time that will be
included (relevant time period) should also be specified. The two basic sources of data for a
study are primary sources and secondary sources. The researcher is expected to specifically
list the primary and secondary data source to be used. The student should recognize the
nature of the data (quantitative and/or qualitative; cross sectional and/or time series and/or
longitudinal/panel data).

3.4. Methods of Data Collection

Methods of data collection are how the data are obtained from earlier specified sources? All
available methods are expected to be considered by a researcher and the best one is selected.

There are different methods to collect primary data. The researcher may use the following
methods/instruments to collect primary data:- Survey; Key informants; Observation;
Interview (Personal or Telephone Interview or focus Group discussion or Group Interview);
Questionnaires (Mail Questionnaires); or Schedule (Interview Questionnaires) or any
combinations of these. But the researcher must explain and justify how the selection of a
particular method is relevant and appropriate to the study. Triangulation of data from
different groups and views is encouraged to obtain confirmation of findings through
convergence of different perspectives. Triangulation refers to the use of different data
collection techniques within one study in order to ensure that the data are telling you what
you think they are telling you. For example, qualitative data collected using semi-structured
group interviews may be a valuable way of triangulating quantitative data collected by other
means such as a questionnaire

Secondary data should be obtained from a reliable source and the researcher should mention
the possible sources of secondary data for example Reports of various kinds, books,
periodicals, reference books (encyclopedia), university publications (thesis, dissertations,

64
etc.), policy documents, statistical compilations, proceedings, the Internet, etc. These should
be appropriate to the problem area, i.e., the statement of the problem, the objectives and the
hypotheses. All should be stated carefully and precisely for each objective to be achieved or
hypothesis to be tested.

When dealing with secondary data you should ask:

a) Is the owner of the data making them available to you?

b) Is it free of charge? If not, how will you pay?
c) Are the data in a format that you can work with?
d) A description of the sampling technique, i.e., how the sample was collected is also
necessary.

The choice of method(s) of data collection largely depends on the efficiency and accuracy
with which the information will be collected and the method(s) practicability (the need for
personnel, skills, time, equipment and other facilities, in relation to what is affordable). In
making the choice, account must be taken of the importance of the information, in the light
of the purposes and objectives of the study.

In the process of collecting data, students are expected to take the following precaution:

1. The data must be relevant to the research problem.

2. It should be collected through formal or standardized research tools.
3. The data should be such as these can be subjected to statistical treatment easily.
4. The data should have minimum measurement error.
5. The data should be complete in itself and also comprehensive in nature.
6. The data should be collected through objective procedure.
7. The data should be accurate and precise.
8. The data should be reliable and valid

The thesis or the research report should include an appendix with a copy of the instruments
to be used or the interview protocol to be followed. Also include sample items in the
description of the instrument. For a mailed survey, researchers should identify steps to be
taken in administering and following up the survey to obtain a high response rate.

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 3.4.1. Ethical considerations in Collection of Data

Since the activities of the sample subjects are often closely associated with data collection
process, it is appropriate to consider ethical considerations here. As a general rule, students
have to consider the following points in the process of data collection:

i. The postgraduate student must guard against violation or invasion of privacy.

ii. The postgraduate student shall be aware of and adhere to ethical principles of justice
and veracity, and of respect for people and their privacies and avoidance of harm to
them as well as respect for non-human subjects of research;
iii. The postgraduate student shall participate only in work which conforms to accepted
ethical standards which he/she is competent to perform;
iv. The postgraduate student shall ensure the safety of all those associated with research
work;
v. The student shall not disclose or use confidential data obtained through research for his
personal advantage or that of a third party, unless requested by law; and
vi. All researches that involve human subjects should use an informed consent prior to
commencement of the study.
vii. The postgraduate student must refrain from all forms of academic misconduct such as
plagiarism, data fabrication, falsification of results and dishonesty.
viii. Advisors should play an important role in preventing possible academic misconduct
through close supervision and verification of raw data.

3.5. Sample Design

The key concern of sampling is representation, and to this venture, researchers must ask
themselves about, how representative the sample is to the target population. Among other
things, representation helps to establish validity, the extent to which interpretations of the
results correspond to the data itself. A well-structured sample design could improve
relevance and accuracy of research findings.

3.5.1. Target Population

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This is the description of the population and its objects/elements from which samples will be
drawn. A distinction or comparison could be made between the target population for the
research - the group to which the findings are applicable and the accessible population--the
population from which the sample is actually drawn.

The target population for the research should be defined, consistent with the statement of the
Problem and Objectives. In addition, the accessible population should be specified, and
evidence, available or to be gathered, as to population validity should be discussed briefly.
All categories of the likely population to be studied must be given and their numbers should
be appropriately given.

3.5.2. Sampling Technique

In this sub-section the researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample. Sampling
technique could be either probability or non-probability sampling. After starting the broader
sampling technique, researcher should state sub-category of the chosen sampling technique
i.e. simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling,
multistage sampling (for example, probability sampling, quota sampling, convenient
sampling, referral or snowball sampling etc.). To obtain a representative sample, therefore,
researchers have to select each unit of analysis logically and accurately; and this procedure
has to be explained in research reports that are based on quantitative method.

Researchers should follow any systematic approach of sampling but every time keeping
closely in view the idea of reducing sampling error.

3.5.3. Sample size Determination

Sample size is actually the total number of units which are to be selected for the analysis in
the research study. Researcher is supposed to justify why the particular sample size is
chosen.

A representative sample needs to have the same characteristics as the target population. In
most cases the appropriate sample size determination depends on the sampling design and
the indicator.

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Researchers should follow well accepted scientific procedures in determining the sample
size.

Researchers should be innovative through identifying new ways of determining the sample
size as documented by different authors rather than relying on what other researchers stated
in their manuscripts.

The sample size determination will among others be determined by:-

a) Degree of homogeneity: The size of the population variance is the single most
important parameter. The greater the dispersion in the population the larger the sample
must be to provide a given estimation precession.
b) Degree of confidence required: Since a sample can never reflect its population for
certain, the researcher must determine how much precision s/he needs. Precision is
measured in terms of an interval range in which we would expect to find the parameter
estimate, and the degree of confidence we wish to have in the estimate.
c) Number of sub groups to be studied: When the researcher is interested in making
estimates concerning various subgroups of the population then the sample must be large
enough for each of these subgroups to meet the desired quality level.
d) Cost: Cost considerations have a major impact on decisions about the size and type of
sample, as well as the data collection methods. All studies have some budgetary
constraint and hence cost dictates the size of the sample.

3.6. Pre-Testing (Validity and Reliability)

Data quality control, which refers to reliability and validity of instruments have to be
precisely described. Reliability refers to the extent to which your data collection techniques
or analysis procedures will yield consistent findings. It can be assessed by posing the
following three questions:

 Will the measures yield the same results on other occasions?

 Will similar observations be reached by other observers?
 Is there transparency in how sense was made from the raw data?

Validity refers to the extent to which the interpretations of the results of the study follow
from the study itself and the extent to which results may be generalized to other situations

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with other people. Sampling is critical to external validity-the extent to which findings of a
study can be generalized to people or situations other than those observed in the study. To
generalize validly the findings from a sample to some defined population requires that the
sample has been drawn from that population according to one of several probability
sampling plans.

Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal validity-the extent to
which the outcomes of a study result from the variables that were manipulated, measured, or
selected rather than from other variables not systematically treated. Students must ask
themself, "How representative is the sample of the survey population (the group from which
the sample is selected) and how representative is the survey population of the target
population (the larger group to which we wish to generalize)?" When a sample is drawn out
of convenience (a non-probability sample), rationale and limitations must be clearly
provided. If available, outline the characteristics of the sample (by gender, race/ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, or other relevant group membership).

3.7. Methods of Data Analysis

Once the data is collected how it will be processed and analyzed will also be explained,
particularly if the researcher uses econometric model, he has to show the mathematical
derivations and relations briefly to demonstrate their relevance for the current study. The
data is edited, coded and classified to complete the data processing tasks. Then the data
analysis will continue. Data analysis procedures, whether statistical or conceptual, should be
discussed specifically for each hypothesis or question. The data analysis procedure(s)
should also be appropriate to the problem on the basis of existing theory, past research and
resources (time, money, personnel, and facilities) available.

Basically data analysis produces two types of results: descriptive results and inferential
results.

3.7.1. Descriptive Analysis

Descriptive analysis produces output to describe a phenomenon. Both primary and

secondary data are analyzed and presented using statistical tools. The researcher can use the
following data analysis techniques: Tabulation, Percentage, Measurement of Central
Tendency (Mean, mode and median), and Measurement of Dispersion (Variance, Standard

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Deviation, Coefficient of Variation) and Data Transformation. In accounting, Ratio analysis
(Profitability Ratio, Liquidity ratios, Activity Management Ratios, Debt or Leverage
Management Ratios and market Value Ratios) is the most powerful and useful techniques in
Descriptive Analysis. Common size and Trend Analysis can also be used as part of
Descriptive analysis. Sometimes it is worth to mention how the outcome of the research
will be presented to consumers (general public).

3.7.2. Inferential Analysis

Inferential analysis is statistical and econometrics procedures that help making decision or
making position regarding the distribution of numerical values and their descriptive
representations. The students have to critically evaluate his/ her data to be able to make a
choice of the appropriate technique at different stages of the analysis.

3.7.3. Econometric Model

This subsection is compulsory for those students who joined department of Economics and
also recommended to other specializations. In this subsection students should start with
explaining a workable Economic theory that guides their topic of study. For example,
random utility framework, Cobb-Douglass production functions, and etc.

To specify the econometric model, students shall follow several schools of thought on
econometric methodology. Thus, when thinking about modeling, students may consider the
following themes.

o Developing a valid model in explicit stochastic equation form is a substantial task

and, as such, the use of previously validated models is encouraged. Doing this,
considering priori theoretical expectations about the sign of the parameters of the
function is imperative.
o When more than one way exists to achieve your research objectives you should
discuss the model or methods you rejected and why your selected approach is
superior
o Collection of data on the variables of the model and estimation of the coefficients
of the function with appropriate econometric technique
o Evaluation of the estimated coefficients of the function on the basis of economic,
statistical, and econometric criteria.

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When working with econometric models, several econometric problems are expected.

o Sample Selectivity
o Misspecification
o Omitted Variables
o Fixed Effects
o Endogenous Variables etc.

Thus, appropriate diagnostic test and remedial measures need to be considered for these
problems.

3.7.4. Definition of Variables and Expected Sign

At this stage, researchers are expected to turn their objectives or questions into operational
variables. Therefore, it is necessary to define all variables (Both the dependent and
the independents). In accordance with the proposed objectives and based on the types of
variables, researchers should specify how the variables were measured and set the
hypothesis which is statistically testable and related to observable and natural phenomenon.
The relationship between the dependent and the independent variables being tested must be
clear, specific and unambiguous. The expected effect/influence (sign) of independent
variable on the dependent variable should be explained.

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4. WORK AND BUDGET PLAN
4.1. Work Plan

The work plan refers to budgeting of time for the implementation of the research project.
This is to assign dates for the completion of various activities of the proposal. The act of
submitting the work plan in the research proposal systematizes the major activities of the
study and minimizes the natural tendency to procrastinate. A detailed work plan showing
jobs to be done in the main phases of the study and the time sequence (the operating
schedule), more of it conveniently presented in the form of table, is essential, if the
project is to be carried out smoothly and efficiently.

Another role of the work plan is to schedule the research project so that it can be
conducted in time to influence decisions and help decision. A realistic estimate of the
time involved for carrying out the research is also essential for the scheduling of the
various activities to ensure smoothness of operations, the monitoring of the project and
reviewing its progress. In estimating the time required for the research, the graduate
students should take into account the time required for the necessary organization and
arrangements, data collection, data analysis and report writing. It should be included
only in the thesis proposal.

4.2. Budget Plan

The logistics portion of a research proposal sets out the financial resources required for the
implementation of the project. This ensures that the necessary personnel, travel, per diem,
equipment, materials and associated services and expendable supplies (paper, stencil, ribbon,
literature, etc.) will be available for the project. The student should summarize towards the
end all the expenditure under various headings that may include unforeseen expenditure
(contingency allowance of 5 to 10%) as well. The budget estimate must, therefore, be
prepared with utmost care and thoroughness. It must be realistic, as both overestimation and
underestimation should be scrupulously avoided. It should be included only in the thesis
proposal.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ON THE
RESULTS

Introduction
Facts discovered during the research are presented in this part. It is vital to frame the
findings in a clear, logical, and easily understandable manner in order to promote targeted
communications of the answers to the study questions. This can be accomplished in a variety
of ways. Using research objectives, questions, or hypotheses is one of the easiest ways, and
the researcher has complete control over the process. This section consists of introduction,
response rate, demographic data, results or findings, and interpretation and discussion.

The introduction to this section of a thesis delineates the primary sections that will be
included in the chapter, and it may include a restatement of the study's main objective as
well as research hypotheses or research questions. This section gives readers an overview of
what they may expect to discover in the chapter. It explains how the researcher organized
the chapter for the readers. When it's appropriate, the response rate and demographics of
respondents are usually provided first, followed by the findings of data analysis for each
hypothesis or research question. Though some styles give the discussion a separate chapter,
in this case it should be incorporated into chapter 4, hence the need to have to major sections
of Results (findings) and discussion (interpretation) under chapter four.

4.1. Response Rate

The response rate should be indicated in survey research. This information allows users to
see how many questionnaires were given, how many were returned, and what the overall
response rate was to the survey. A response rate of at least 80% is recommended as a general
guideline. Alternatively, to get a 100 percent response rate, the response rate must be
considered while the questionnaires are distributed, and the number of questionnaires issued
should be equal to the sample size plus the predicted number of questionnaires not returned.

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4.2. Background Information of the Study Participants

This section will enable the researcher to analyze the background information or the
demographic composition of the study participants in terms of gender, age, level of
education, marital status, household type, livelihoods, etc. using the descriptive statistics. It
is helpful for the reader if some basic information accompanies the statistical results
presented in the text.

4.3. Presentation of Results

The goal of this section is to convey the study/analyzed research's data in a clear and
comprehensible manner. Researchers are expected to describe their results and observations.
They must avoid simply copying data from field notebooks or laboratories to manuscripts
without using statistical analysis tools and data-related illustrations. Tables, figures, pictures,
and other types of illustrations are among the illustrations. The researcher must write
descriptive paragraphs and assertions to go along with the illustrated tools. The tools for
statistical analysis should be able to convey meaning. The end output should be clear,
precise, and provide an answer to research questions or explain hypothesis. While the
researchers are presenting their results or findings ensure that it is coherent in respect to the
study objectives, research questions or hypotheses.

The researchers should use descriptive statistics such as frequency distributions,

percentages, measures of central tendency, and measures of dispersion to assess and present
all of the study's data. Graphical representations of the collected data can also be displayed
using histograms, bar graphs, pie charts, polygons, scatter diagrams, time series line graphs,
and other methods, depending on their importance. Furthermore, the objectives and research
question/hypothesis of the study should guide the usage of inferential analysis tools and then
appropriate pre and post regression tests must be conducted.

Tables should be numbered as Table-1: Table-2: etc. That is, the first table in the proposal or
thesis should be numbered as “Table-1: [Title of the table]”. Similarly, figures should be
numbered as Figure-1:, Figure-2:, etc. The first figure in the proposal or thesis should be
numbered as “Figure-1: [Title of the figure]”. Table and figure titles should be at the top of

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the table and figure. All tables and figures should have source written below them. The
source should be survey data and the month (if relevant) and year when the data was
collected. The description of results of data analysis from table or figure should be presented
below the table or figure. The description should focus on the major findings of the study
and should be organized or structured according to the research questions, specific
objectives or hypothesis.

Researchers should utilize quantitative analysis to assess and present the results of closed-
ended questions in a questionnaire or survey. Qualitative analysis, on the other hand, is used
to evaluate and display the findings of open-ended questions in a questionnaire or survey by
using content analysis to capture the frequent answers in the open-ended questions based on
their similarity. If a researcher employs both qualitative and quantitative methodologies for a
variable, he or she should conduct both qualitative and quantitative analyses at the same
time.

Some of the common mistakes in presenting the results of a scientific research report are:
1) raw data, 2) redundancy, 3) incorrect presentation of figures and tables, and 4) data and
methods reported. Presenting raw data is the most frequently occurring
common
mistake. Students in Ethiopian universities prefer to summarize the data
they collect
(even survey data) using percentages. Most student research papers in
Ethiopian
universities neglect the fact that numbers need to be interpreted.
Another common
mistake is redundancy. Depicting a result in Table and graph is one form
of redundancy. Therefore, due consideration should be given by students
while presenting research results.

4.4. Discussion on the Results

The outcomes of data analysis should be interpreted in light of the empirical literature that
has been evaluated. The results should be interpreted in the discussion by comparing them to
previous study findings or theoretical foundation offered in the literature review.

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It is critical for researchers to realize that the interpretation and discussion part does not
repeat the data or findings. This section provides an interpretation and discussion of the
observations made in the presentation of results section.

The findings are interpreted in terms of how they accord or differ with previously published
work. Researchers need to understand that this is the most important part of the research
since researchers are expected to describe the meanings of observations made. The
observations and findings must be compared with those of other researchers (i.e., there must
be a link with chapter two). The emerging findings have to be discussed in line of what is
stated in the literature.

The results must be presented or discussed in terms of principles, relationships, and

generalizations. The interpretation of observations and findings must point out exceptions or
lack of contrast correlations. A thorough examination of the theoretical implications and
practical applications of the findings is required. To ensure a logical flow, this part should be
organized according to the study's specific objectives, research questions, or research
hypotheses.

Common mistakes in writing discussion part of a scientific research

report are: 1) broad
statements, 2) failing to interpret the figures, 3) incorrectly discussing
inconclusive
results, 4) ambiguous data source, and 5) missing information. Hence,
due consideration is given by researchers. Hence, researchers should
take in to account the above problems while discussing the research
result.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This section presents an introduction, summary of major findings, conclusions, and

recommendations. The researcher summarizes the study undertaken, discusses the results
(exploiting cross-referencing and giving personal opinions), draws conclusions and then
makes recommendations based on the findings. The summary of major findings,
conclusions, and recommendations section of the study paper is written on the basis of
Chapter-4.The introduction part of this chapter contains and presents a brief summary of the
main substance of the chapter. Chapter 5 should have three primary sections: a summary of
the major findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

5.1. Conclusions

Conclusions are drawn from the summary of major findings. It is important to describe point
by point the major conclusions reached clearly for each specific objective or research
question/hypothesis. Conclusions provide answers to hypotheses or research questions posed
in chapter1. While conclusions can be stated in narrative form or listed one by one, stating
them one by one is often easier to understand and helps maintain clarity of focus for each
conclusion. Conclusions are not the same as findings and should not simply be restatements

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of findings from Chapter-4. A conclusion should be broader and more encompassing than a
specific finding, and several findings may be incorporated into one conclusion. While
several findings may be used to support one conclusion, it is also possible that one finding
might give rise to several conclusions (although this is somewhat less common). Generally,
while specific findings are stated in the past tense (e.g., leaders’ level of satisfaction in their
positions was above the average in a five Likert scale), conclusions are stated in the present
tense (e.g., leaders’ satisfaction in the sectors is promising…..).

The conclusion is where one's researcher report comes to a close, and it's where practical
applications and ramifications of the research can be found. Conclusions must be based on
the actual findings from Chapter 4.The study report's conclusions lead to a logical method of
providing recommendations.

5.2. Recommendations

Recommendations are based on conclusions made. Recommendations are related to

researcher’s further actions he/she suggests. For a single conclusion, at least one
recommendation should be forwarded. This means that if he/she has four conclusions,
he/she must have at least four recommendations. These recommendations should be
practical and achievable. Producing a bunch of recommendations without any logic or link
to the objectives of the study, research questions or hypothesis is not a best practice; so
recommendations must be problem-solving, operational, focused and coherent in addressing
research objectives and answering research questions or explaining research hypotheses.

In this section, the implications of the study for policy, professional practice and future
researcher are considered in turn. The researchers should provide recommendations for
practice or improvement and for further studies. In applied research recommendations are
often provided for practice or improvement. In this case the researcher offers suggestions for
improvement with justification. Researchers should also pave way for further work;
consequently, the researcher should provide suggestions for future research work based on
the findings and conclusions generated from the study. The researchers should provide
recommendations to further research on the topic or how parts of the study could be
improved upon. If the researchers found as a result of their study that another topic should
be looked at in order to offer more insight into this topic, then they are supposed to suggest
that at the time.

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There is a time limit to research project, so it is unlikely research work would have solved
all the problems associated with the area of the study. Therefore, researcher will be expected
to make suggestions on how his/her work can be improved and, based on the findings and
areas that deserve further investigations.

Generally, recommendations are of two distinct types; recommendations for action or

practice (based on the study’s findings and conclusions, and sometimes headed as
recommendations from the study or recommendations for practice), and recommendations
for further study. Recommendations for practice are generally prescriptive in nature and
address what could or should be done by practitioners or members of the intended audience
in terms of professional practice and policy. These recommendations are based upon results
of the study.

Recommendations for further study contain suggestions regarding follow-up studies or

replication studies. These recommendations usually acknowledge limitations or
delimitations that the study included and which further studies could help explain or clarify.
These might include different methodologies, expanded populations or samples, or changes
in the instrument itself. To sum up, the following guiding questions must be addressed in
chapter-5 of the research report.

 Are the summary, conclusions and recommendation concisely and precisely stated?
 Are the conclusions and recommendations justified by the data gathered?
 Does the study suggest related problems that need to be investigated?
 Are recommendations data-based and stem directly from the data and the
conclusions?

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