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INTRO TO PHILO

The document introduces various philosophical methods including phenomenology, existentialism, postmodernism, and the analytic tradition, emphasizing their approaches to consciousness, freedom, culture, and language. It also discusses the structure of arguments, types of reasoning, and common logical fallacies that can distort truth. Overall, it highlights the importance of critical thinking and logical reasoning in philosophical discourse.

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6 views

INTRO TO PHILO

The document introduces various philosophical methods including phenomenology, existentialism, postmodernism, and the analytic tradition, emphasizing their approaches to consciousness, freedom, culture, and language. It also discusses the structure of arguments, types of reasoning, and common logical fallacies that can distort truth. Overall, it highlights the importance of critical thinking and logical reasoning in philosophical discourse.

Uploaded by

iamredgamez
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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INTRO TO PHILO

METHOD OF PHILOSOPHIZING

Philosophizing- to think or express oneself in a rational and logical manner.

A. Phenomenology: On Consciousness
- Phenomenology focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena or
appearances based on what we are conscious of (Johnston 2006).
- The word "phenomenon" comes directly from the Greek (φαινόμενον,
phainómenon), meaning "appearance."
- Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, had used the same word to refer to the
world of our experience.
- Edmund Husserl founded phenomenology, which is essentially a philosophical
method. He studied about reality and the structures of consciousness.
B. Existentialism: On Freedom
- Existentialism is not necessarily a philosophical method but more of an outlook or
attitude supported by varied principles centered on shared themes.
- Our search for truth by means of critical thinking is a rational choice.
- Sartre, a French philosopher, emphasizes the importance of individual choice,
regardless of coercion of our beliefs and decisions.
C. Postmodernism: On Cultures
- Postmodernism is more of an attitude and a reaction to modernism which is a
worldview of order, logic, and authority based on knowledge (Shields 2012).
D. Analytic Tradition
- Ludwig Wittgenstein argued that language cannot objectively describe truth.
He claimed that language is socially conditioned, which means the meaning of
words is created by what people have agreed upon.
- We understand the world solely in terms of our language games, that is, our
linguistic, social constructs.
E. Logic and Critical Thinking
- Logic and critical thinking consider these three concepts in interpreting the
meaning of facts:
1. Cultural systems.
2. Values
3. Beliefs.
- Critical thinking helps us uncover bias and prejudice and become open to new
ideas not necessarily in agreement with our previous thoughts.
- Factual claim must present evidence or reasons (Hurley 2011).

TWO TYPES OF AN ARGUMENT

Premises- statements that claim to present the evidence or reasons.


Ex: Human cloning is evil.

Conclusion- statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply.


Ex: Human cloning should never be allowed.

TWO BASIC TYPES OF REASONING


Deductive reasoning- draws conclusion from usually one broad judgment or definition
and one more specific assertion, often an inference.

Inductive reasoning- is based on observations in order to make generalizations. This


means from many specific examples and instances; a person can make a general guess.

Validity- arises from a logical conclusion based on the two logically constructed premises
(Reed 2010).

Cogent- A strong argument with true premises.

F. Fallacies
- A fallacy is a defect in an argument, and to detect it, we examine the content of
the argument.
- Here are some of the usually committed errors in reasoning and, thus, coming up
with false conclusions and, worse, distorting the truth:
1. Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad misericordiam). A specific kind of appeal to
emotion that is used by exploiting his or her opponent's feelings of pity or guilt.
2. Appeal to ignorance (Argumentum ad ignorantiam). A fallacy following an
assumption that whatever has not been proven false must be true, and vice versa.
3. Equivocation. A fallacy when a term or a particular word is used in the same
context but has a different meaning each time.
Example:
a. Human beings have hands, the clock has hands.
b. He is drinking from the pitcher of water; he is a baseball pitcher.
4. Composition. This infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is
true of some part of the whole. The reverse of this fallacy is division.
5. Division. One reasons logically that something true of a thing must also be true of
all or some of its parts.
6. Against the person (Argumentum ad hominem). This fallacy attempts to link
the validity of a premise to a characteristic or credentials of the person supporting
the premise. However, in some instances, questions of personal conduct, character,
and motives among others are legitimate if relevant to the issue.
7. Appeal to force (Argumentum ad baculum). An argument where strength,
coercion, or the threat of force is a justification for a conclusion.
8. Appeal to the people (Argumentum ad populum). An argument that appeals or
exploits people’s vanities, desire for esteem, and anchoring on popularity.
9. False cause (Post hoc). Since that event followed this one, that event must have
been caused by this one.
10. Hasty generalization. One commits errors if one reaches an inductive
generalization grounded inadequate evidence.
11. Begging the question (Petitio principii). This is a type of fallacy in which
the proposition to be prove assumed implicitly or explicitly in the premise.

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