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First Edition, 2012

ISBN 978-81-323-3455-2

© All rights reserved.

Published by:
Research World
4735/22 Prakashdeep Bldg,
Ansari Road, Darya Ganj,
Delhi - 110002
Email: [email protected]
 Table of Contents
Chapter 1 - Filter Design

Chapter 2 - Comb Filter

Chapter 3 - Finite Impulse Response

Chapter 4 - Dual Impedance

Chapter 5 - Alpha Beta Filter and Cutoff Frequency

Chapter 6 - Passive Analogue Filter Development

Chapter 7 - Impulse Invariance and Infinite Impulse Response

Chapter 8 - Impedance Matching

Chapter 9 - Propagation Constant and Multidelay Block Frequency Domain

Adaptive Filter

Chapter 10 - Linear Filter

Chapter 11 - Prototype Filter

Chapter 12 - Least Mean Squares Filter and Quarter Wave Impedance

Transformer

Chapter 13 - Recursive Least Squares Filter and Ripple (electrical)

Chapter-1

Filter Design

Filter design is the process of designing a filter (in the sense in which the term is used in
signal processing, statistics, and applied mathematics), often a linear shift-invariant filter,
that satisfies a set of requirements, some of which are contradictory. The purpose is to
find a realization of the filter that meets each of the requirements to a sufficient degree to
make it useful.

The filter design process can be described as an optimization problem where each
requirement contributes with a term to an error function which should be minimized.
Certain parts of the design process can be automated, but normally an experienced
electrical engineer is needed to get a good result.

Typical design requirements

Typical requirements which are considered in the design process are:

 The filter should have a specific frequency response

 The filter should have a specific impulse response
 The filter should be causal
 The filter should be stable
 The filter should be localized
 The computational complexity of the filter should be low
 The filter should be implemented in particular hardware or software

The frequency function

Typical examples of frequency function are:

 A low-pass filter is used to cut unwanted high-frequency signals.

 A high-pass filter passes high frequencies fairly well; it is helpful as a filter to cut
any unwanted low frequency components.
 A band-pass filter passes a limited range of frequencies.
 A band-stop filter passes frequencies above and below a certain range. A very
narrow band-stop filter is known as a notch filter.
  A low-shelf filter passes all frequencies, but increases or reduces frequencies
below the shelf frequency by specified amount.
 A high-shelf filter passes all frequencies, but increases or reduces frequencies
above the shelf frequency by specified amount.
 A peak EQ filter makes a peak or a dip in the frequency response, commonly used
in parametric equalizers.
 An all-pass filter passes through all frequencies unchanged, but changes the phase
of the signal. This is a filter commonly used in phaser effects.

An important parameter is the required frequency response. In particular, the steepness

and complexity of the response curve is a deciding factor for the filter order and
feasibility.

A first order recursive filter will only have a single frequency-dependent component.
This means that the slope of the frequency response is limited to 6 dB per octave. For
many purposes, this is not sufficient. To achieve steeper slopes, higher order filters are
required.

In relation to the desired frequency function, there may also be an accompanying

weighting function which describes, for each frequency, how important it is that the
resulting frequency function approximates the desired one. The larger weight, the more
important is a close approximation.

The impulse response

There is a direct correspondence between the filter's frequency function and its impulse
response: the former is the Fourier transform of the latter. That means that any
requirement on the frequency function is a requirement on the impulse response, and vice
versa.

However, in certain applications it may be the filter's impulse response that is explicit and
the design process then aims at producing as close an approximation as possible to the
requested impulse response given all other requirements.

In some cases it may even be relevant to consider a frequency function and impulse
response of the filter which are chosen independently from each other. For example, we
may want both a specific frequency function of the filter and that the resulting filter have
a small effective width in the signal domain as possible. The latter condition can be
realized by considering a very narrow function as the wanted impulse response of the
filter even though this function has no relation to the desired frequency function. The
goal of the design process is then to realize a filter which tries to meet both these
contradicting design goals as much as possible.
Causality

In order to be implementable, any time-dependent filter must be causal: the filter

response only depends on the current and past inputs. A standard approach is to leave this
requirement until the final step. If the resulting filter is not causal, it can be made causal
by introducing an appropriate time-shift (or delay). If the filter is a part of a larger system
(which it normally is) these types of delays have to be introduced with care since they
affect the operation of the entire system.

Stability

A stable filter assures that every limited input signal produces a limited filter response. A
filter which does not meet this requirement may in some situations prove useless or even
harmful. Certain design approaches can guarantee stability, for example by using only
feed-forward circuits such as an FIR filter. On the other hand, filter based on feedback
circuits have other advantages and may therefore be preferred, even if this class of filters
include unstable filters. In this case, the filters must be carefully designed in order to
avoid instability.

Locality

In certain applications we have to deal with signals which contain components which can
be described as local phenomena, for example pulses or steps, which have certain time
duration. A consequence of applying a filter to a signal is, in intuitive terms, that the
duration of the local phenomena is extended by the width of the filter. This implies that it
is sometimes important to keep the width of the filter's impulse response function as short
as possible.

According to the uncertainty relation of the Fourier transform, the product of the width of
the filter's impulse response function and the width of its frequency function must exceed
a certain constant. This means that any requirement on the filter's locality also implies a
bound on its frequency function's width. Consequently, it may not be possible to
simultaneously meet requirements on the locality of the filter's impulse response function
as well as on its frequency function. This is a typical example of contradicting
requirements.

Computational complexity

A general desire in any design is that the number of operations (additions and
multiplications) needed to compute the filter response is as low as possible. In certain
applications, this desire is a strict requirement, for example due to limited computational
resources, limited power resources, or limited time. The last limitation is typical in real-
time applications.
There are several ways in which a filter can have different computational complexity. For
example, the order of a filter is more or less proportional to the number of operations.
This means that by choosing a low order filter, the computation time can be reduced.

For discrete filters the computational complexity is more or less proportional to the
number of filter coefficients. If the filter has many coefficients, for example in the case of
multidimensional signals such as tomography data, it may be relevant to reduce the
number of coefficients by removing those which are sufficiently close to zero.

Another issue related to computational complexity is separability, that is, if and how a
filter can be written as a convolution of two or more simpler filters. In particular, this
issue is of importance for multidimensional filters, e.g., 2D filter which are used in image
processing. In this case, a significant reduction in computational complexity can be
obtained if the filter can be separated as the convolution of one 1D filter in the horizontal
direction and one 1D filter in the vertical direction. A result of the filter design process
may, e.g., be to approximate some desired filter as a separable filter or as a sum of
separable filters.

Other considerations

It must also be decided how the filter is going to be implemented:

 Analog filter
 Analog sampled filter
 Digital filter
 Mechanical filter

Analog filters

The design of linear analog filters is for the most part covered in the linear filter section.

Digital filters

Digital filters are classified into one of two basic forms, according to how they respond to
an unit impulse:

 Finite impulse response, or FIR, filters express each output sample as a weighted
sum of the last N inputs, where N is the order of the filter. Since they do not use
feedback, they are inherently stable. If the coefficients are symmetrical (the usual
case), then such a filter is linear phase, so it delays signals of all frequencies
equally. This is important in many applications. It is also straightforward to avoid
overflow in an FIR filter. The main disadvantage is that they may require
significantly more processing and memory resources than cleverly designed IIR
variants. FIR filters are generally easier to design than IIR filters - the Remez
exchange algorithm is one suitable method for designing quite good filters semi-
automatically.
  Infinite impulse response, or IIR, filters are the digital counterpart to analog
filters. Such a filter contains internal state, and the output and the next internal
state are determined by a linear combination of the previous inputs and outputs (in
other words, they use feedback, which FIR filters normally do not). In theory, the
impulse response of such a filter never dies out completely, hence the name IIR,
though in practice, this is not true given the finite resolution of computer
arithmetic. IIR filters normally require less computing resources than an FIR filter
of similar performance. However, due to the feedback, high order IIR filters may
have problems with instability, arithmetic overflow, and limit cycles, and require
careful design to avoid such pitfalls. Additionally, since the phase shift is
inherently a non-linear function of frequency, the time delay through such a filter
is frequency-dependent, which can be a problem in many situations. 2nd order IIR
filters are often called 'biquads' and a common implementation of higher order
filters is to cascade biquads. A useful reference for computing biquad coefficients
is the RBJ Audio EQ Cookbook.

Sample rate

Unless the sample rate is fixed by some outside constraint, selecting a suitable sample
rate is an important design decision. A high rate will require more in terms of
computational resources, but less in terms of anti-aliasing filters. Interference and beating
with other signals in the system may also be an issue.

Anti-aliasing

For any digital filter design, it is crucial to analyze and avoid aliasing effects. Often, this
is done by adding analog anti-aliasing filters at the input and output, thus avoiding any
frequency component above the Nyquist frequency. The complexity (i.e., steepness) of
such filters depends on the required signal to noise ratio and the ratio between the
sampling rate and the highest frequency of the signal.

Theoretical basis

Parts of the design problem relate to the fact that certain requirements are described in the
frequency domain while others are expressed in the signal domain and that these may
contradict. For example, it is not possible to obtain a filter which has both an arbitrary
impulse response and arbitrary frequency function. Other effects which refer to relations
between the signal and frequency domain are

 The uncertainty principle between the signal and frequency domains

 The variance extension theorem
 The asymptotic behaviour of one domain versus discontinuities in the other
The uncertainty principle

As stated in the uncertainty principle, the product of the width of the frequency function
and the width of the impulse response cannot be smaller than a specific constant. This
implies that if a specific frequency function is requested, corresponding to a specific
frequency width, the minimum width of the filter in the signal domain is set. Vice versa,
if the maximum width of the response is given, this determines the smallest possible
width in the frequency. This is a typical example of contradicting requirements where the
filter design process may try to find a useful compromise.

The variance extension theorem

Let be the variance of the input signal and let be the variance of the filter. The
variance of the filter response, , is then given by

= +

This means that σr > σf and implies that the localization of various features such as pulses
or steps in the filter response is limited by the filter width in the signal domain. If a
precise localization is requested, we need a filter of small width in the signal domain and,
via the uncertainty principle, its width in the frequency domain cannot be arbitrary small.

Discontinuities versus asymptotic behaviour

Let f(t) be a function and let F(ω) be its Fourier transform. There is a theorem which
states that if the first derivative of F which is discontinuous has order , then f has
an asymptotic decay like t − n − 1.

A consequence of this theorem is that the frequency function of a filter should be as

smooth as possible to allow its impulse response to have a fast decay, and thereby a short
width.

Methodology

One common method for designing FIR filters is the Remez exchange algorithm. Here
the user specifies a desired frequency response, a weighting function for errors from this
response, and a filter order N. The algorithm then finds the set of N coefficients that
minimize the maximum deviation from the ideal. Intuitively, this finds the filter that is as
close as you can get to the desired response given that you can use only N coefficients.
This method is particularly easy in practice and at least one text includes a program that
takes the desired filter and N and returns the optimum coefficients. One possible
drawback to filters designed this way is that they contain many small ripples in the
passband(s), since such a filter minimizes the peak error.
Another method to finding a discrete FIR filter is filter optimization described in
Knutsson et al., which minimizes the integral of the square of the error, instead of its
maximum value. In its basic form this approach requires that an ideal frequency function
of the filter FI(ω) is specified together with a frequency weighting function W(ω) and set
of coordinates xk in the signal domain where the filter coefficients are located.

An error function is defined as

where f(x) is the discrete filter and is the discrete-time Fourier transform defined on the
specified set of coordinates. The norm used here is, formally, the usual norm on L2
spaces. This means that measures the deviation between the requested frequency
function of the filter, FI, and the actual frequency function of the realized filter, .
However, the deviation is also subject to the weighting function W before the error
function is computed.

Once the error function is established, the optimal filter is given by the coefficients f(x)
which minimize . This can be done by solving the corresponding least squares problem.
In practice, the L2 norm has to be approximated by means of a suitable sum over discrete
points in the frequency domain. In general, however, these points should be significantly
more than the number of coefficients in the signal domain to obtain a useful
approximation.

Simultaneous optimization in both domains

The previous method can be extended to include an additional error term related to a
desired filter impulse response in the signal domain, with a corresponding weighting
function. The ideal impulse response can be chosen independently of the ideal frequency
function and is in practice used to limit the effective width and to remove ringing effects
of the resulting filter in the signal domain. This is done by choosing a narrow ideal filter
impulse response function, e.g., an impulse, and a weighting function which grows fast
with the distance from the origin, e.g., the distance squared. The optimal filter can still be
calculated by solving a simple least squares problem and the resulting filter is then a
"compromise" which has a total optimal fit to the ideal functions in both domains. An
important parameter is the relative strength of the two weighting functions which
determines in which domain it is more important to have a good fit relative to the ideal
function.
Chapter-2

Comb Filter

In signal processing, a comb filter adds a delayed version of a signal to itself, causing
constructive and destructive interference. The frequency response of a comb filter
consists of a series of regularly spaced spikes, giving the appearance of a comb.

Applications

Comb filters are used in a variety of signal processing applications. These include:

 Cascaded Integrator-Comb (CIC) filters, commonly used for anti-aliasing during

interpolation and decimation operations that change the sample rate of a discrete-
time system.
 2D and 3D comb filters implemented in hardware (and occasionally software) for
PAL and NTSC television decoders. The filters work to reduce artifacts such as
dot crawl.
 Audio effects, including echo, flanging, and digital waveguide synthesis. For
instance, if the delay is set to a few milliseconds, a comb filter can be used to
model the effect of acoustic standing waves in a cylindrical cavity or in a
vibrating string.

In acoustics, comb filtering can arise in some unwanted ways. For instance, when two
loudspeakers are playing the same signal at different distances from the listener, there is a
comb filtering effect on the signal. In any enclosed space, listeners hear a mixture of
direct sound and reflected sound. Because the reflected sound takes a longer path, it
constitutes a delayed version of the direct sound and a comb filter is created where the
two combine at the listener.

Technical discussion

Comb filters exist in two different forms, feed-forward and feedback; the names refer to
the direction in which signals are delayed before they are added to the input.
Comb filters may be implemented in discrete time or continuous time; here we will focus
on discrete-time implementations; the properties of the continuous-time comb filter are
very similar.

Feedforward form

Feedforward comb filter structure

The general structure of a feedforward comb filter is shown on the right. It may be
described by the following difference equation:

where K is the delay length (measured in samples), and α is a scaling factor applied to the
delayed signal. If we take the Z transform of both sides of the equation, we obtain:

We define the transfer function as:

Frequency response

Feedforward magnitude response for various positive values of α

Feedforward magnitude response for various negative values of α

To obtain the frequency response of a discrete-time system expressed in the Z domain,

we make the substitution z = ejω. Therefore, for our feedforward comb filter, we get:

Using Euler's formula, we find that the frequency response is also given by
Often of interest is the magnitude response, which ignores phase. This is defined as:

In the case of the feedforward comb filter, this is:

Notice that the (1 + α2) term is constant, whereas the 2αcos(ωK) term varies periodically.
Hence the magnitude response of the comb filter is periodic.

The graphs to the right show the magnitude response for various values of α,
demonstrating this periodicity. Some important properties:

 The response periodically drops to a local minimum (sometimes known as a

notch), and periodically rises to a local maximum (sometimes known as a peak).
 The levels of the maxima and minima are always equidistant from 1.
 When , the minima have zero amplitude. In this case, the minima are
sometimes known as nulls.
 The maxima for positive values of α coincide with the minima for negative values
of α, and vice versa.

Impulse response

The feedforward comb filter is one of the simplest finite impulse response filters. Its
response is simply the initial impulse with a second impulse after the delay.

Pole-zero interpretation

Looking again at the Z-domain transfer function of the feedforward comb filter:

we see that the numerator is equal to zero whenever zK = − α. This has K solutions,
equally spaced around a circle in the complex plane; these are the zeros of the transfer
function. The denominator is zero at zK = 0, giving K poles at z = 0. This leads to a pole-
zero plot like the ones shown below.
 Pole-zero plot of feedfoward comb filter with K = 8 and α = 0.5

Pole-zero plot of feedfoward comb filter with K = 8 and α = − 0.5

Feedback form

Feedback comb filter structure

Similarly, the general structure of a feedback comb filter is shown on the right. It may be
described by the following difference equation:

If we rearrange this equation so that all terms in y are on the left-hand side, and then take
the Z transform, we obtain:

The transfer function is therefore:

Frequency response

Feedback magnitude response for various positive values of α

Feedback magnitude response for various negative values of α

If we make the substitution z = ejω into the Z-domain expression for the feedback comb
filter, we get:

The magnitude response is as follows:

Again, the response is periodic, as the graphs to the right demonstrate. The feedback
comb filter has some properties in common with the feedforward form:

 The response periodically drops to a local minimum and rises to a local

maximum.
 The maxima for positive values of α coincide with the minima for negative values
of α, and vice versa.

However, there are also some important differences because the magnitude response has
a term in the denominator:

 The levels of the maxima and minima are no longer equidistant from 1.
 The filter is only stable if | α | is strictly less than 1. As can be seen from the
graphs, as | α | increases, the amplitude of the maxima rises increasingly rapidly.

Impulse response

The feedback comb filter is a simple type of infinite impulse response filter. If stable, the
response simply consists of a repeating series of impulses decreasing in amplitude over
time.

Pole-zero interpretation

Looking again at the Z-domain transfer function of the feedback comb filter:

This time, the numerator is zero at zK = 0, giving K zeros at z = 0. The denominator is

equal to zero whenever zK = α. This has K solutions, equally spaced around a circle in the
complex plane; these are the poles of the transfer function. This leads to a pole-zero plot
like the ones shown below.
 Pole-zero plot of feedback comb filter with K = 8 and α = 0.5

Pole-zero plot of feedback comb filter with K = 8 and α = − 0.5

Continuous-time comb filters

Comb filters may also be implemented in continuous time. The feedforward form may be
described by the following equation:

and the feedback form by:

where τ is the delay (measured in seconds).

They have the following frequency responses, respectively:

Continuous-time implementations share all the properties of the respective discrete-time

implementations.
Chapter-3

Finite Impulse Response

A finite impulse response (FIR) filter is a type of a signal processing filter whose
impulse response (or response to any finite length input) is of finite duration, because it
settles to zero in finite time. This is in contrast to infinite impulse response (IIR) filters,
which have internal feedback and may continue to respond indefinitely (usually
decaying). The impulse response of an Nth-order discrete-time FIR filter (i.e. with a
Kronecker delta impulse input) lasts for N+1 samples, and then dies to zero.

FIR filters can be discrete-time or continuous-time, and digital or analog.

Definition

A discrete-time FIR filter of order N. The top part is an N-stage delay line with N+1 taps.
Each unit delay is a z-1 operator in Z-transform notation.

The output y of a linear time invariant system is determined by convolving its input
signal x with its impulse response b.

For a discrete-time FIR filter, the output is a weighted sum of the current and a finite
number of previous values of the input. The operation is described by the following
equation, which defines the output sequence y[n] in terms of its input sequence x[n]:
where:

 x[n] is the input signal,

 y[n] is the output signal,
 bi are the filter coefficients, also known as tap weights, that make up the impulse
response,
 N is the filter order; an Nth-order filter has (N + 1) terms on the right-hand side.
The x[n − i] in these terms are commonly referred to as taps, based on the
structure of a tapped delay line that in many implementations or block diagrams
provides the delayed inputs to the multiplication operations. One may speak of a
"5th order/6-tap filter", for instance.

Properties

An FIR filter has a number of useful properties which sometimes make it preferable to an
infinite impulse response (IIR) filter. FIR filters:

 Are inherently stable. This is due to the fact that, because there is no feedback, all
the poles are located at the origin and thus are located within the unit circle.
 Require no feedback. This means that any rounding errors are not compounded by
summed iterations. The same relative error occurs in each calculation. This also
makes implementation simpler.
 They can easily be designed to be linear phase by making the coefficient sequence
symmetric; linear phase, or phase change proportional to frequency, corresponds
to equal delay at all frequencies. This property is sometimes desired for phase-
sensitive applications, for example data communications, crossover filters, and
mastering.

The main disadvantage of FIR filters is that considerably more computation power in a
general purpose processor is required compared to an IIR filter with similar sharpness or
selectivity, especially when low frequency (relative to the sample rate) cutoffs are
needed. However many digital signal processors provide specialized hardware features to
make FIR filters approximately as efficient as IIR for many applications.

Impulse response

The impulse response h[n] can be calculated if we set in the above relation,
where δ[n] is the Kronecker delta impulse. The impulse response for an FIR filter then
becomes the set of coefficients bn, as follows
for to .

The Z-transform of the impulse response yields the transfer function of the FIR filter

FIR filters are clearly bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stable, since the output is a
sum of a finite number of finite multiples of the input values, so can be no greater than
times the largest value appearing in the input.

Filter design

To design a filter means to select the coefficients such that the system has specific
characteristics. The required characteristics are stated in filter specifications. Most of the
time filter specifications refer to the frequency response of the filter. There are different
methods to find the coefficients from frequency specifications:

1. Window design method

2. Frequency Sampling method
3. Weighted least squares design
4. Parks-McClellan method (also known as the Equiripple, Optimal, or Minimax
method). The Remez exchange algorithm is commonly used to find an optimal
equiripple set of coefficients. Here the user specifies a desired frequency
response, a weighting function for errors from this response, and a filter order N.
The algorithm then finds the set of (N + 1) coefficients that minimize the
maximum deviation from the ideal. Intuitively, this finds the filter that is as close
as you can get to the desired response given that you can use only (N + 1)
coefficients. This method is particularly easy in practice since at least one text
includes a program that takes the desired filter and N, and returns the optimum
coefficients.
5. Equiripple FIR filters can be designed using the FFT algorithms as well. The
algorithm is iterative in nature. You simply compute the DFT of an initial filter
design that you have using the FFT algorithm (if you don't have an initial estimate
you can start with h[n]=delta[n]). In the Fourier domain or FFT domain you
correct the frequency response according to your desired specs and compute the
inverse FFT. In time-domain you retain only N of the coefficients (force the other
coefficients to zero). Compute the FFT once again. Correct the frequency
response according to specs.
Software packages like MATLAB, GNU Octave, Scilab, and SciPy provide convenient
ways to apply these different methods.

Some filter specifications refer to the time-domain shape of the input signal the filter is
expected to "recognize". The optimum matched filter for separating any waveform from
white noise is obtained by sampling that shape and using those samples in reverse order
as the coefficients of the filter -- giving the filter an impulse response that is the time-
reverse of the expected input signal.

Window design method

In the Window Design Method, one designs an ideal IIR filter, then applies a window
function to it – in the time domain, multiplying the infinite impulse by the window
function. This results in the frequency response of the IIR being convolved with the
frequency response of the window function – thus the imperfections of the FIR filter
(compared to the ideal IIR filter) can be understood in terms of the frequency response of
the window function.

The ideal frequency response of a window is a Dirac delta function, as that results in the
frequency response of the FIR filter being identical to that of the IIR filter, but this is not
attainable for finite windows, and deviations from this yield differences between the FIR
response and the IIR response.

Moving average example

Block diagram of a simple FIR filter (2nd-order/3-tap filter in this case, implementing a
moving average)

A moving average filter is a very simple FIR filter. It is sometimes called a boxcar filter,
especially when followed by decimation. The filter coefficients are found via the
following equation:

for

To provide a more specific example, we select the filter order:

The impulse response of the resulting filter is:

The following figure shows the block diagram of such a 2nd-order moving-average filter.

To discuss stability and spectral topics we take the z-transform of the impulse response:

The following figure shows the pole-zero diagram of the filter. Zero frequency (DC)
corresponds to (1,0), positive frequencies advancing counterclockwise around the circle
to (-1,0) at half the sample frequency.

Two poles are located at the origin, and two zeros are located at ,
 The frequency response, for frequency ω in radians per sample, is:

The following figure shows the absolute value of the frequency response. Clearly, the
moving-average filter passes low frequencies with a gain near 1, and attenuates high
frequencies. This is a typical low-pass filter characteristic. Frequencies above π are
aliases of the frequencies below π, and are generally ignored or filtered out if
reconstructing a continuous-time signal.
The following figure shows the phase response. Since the phase always follows a straight
line except where it has been reduced modulo π radians (should be 2π), the linear phase
property is demonstrated.
Chapter-4

Dual Impedance

Dual impedance and dual network are terms used in electronic network analysis. The dual

of an impedance is its algebraic inverse . Note that and are the duals of
each other, that is, they are reciprocal. For this reason the dual impedance is also called
the inverse impedance. The dual of a network of impedances is that network whose
impedance is . In the case of a network with more than one port the impedance looking
into each of the ports must simultaneously be dual.

Another way of stating this is that the dual of is the admittance .

This is consistent with the definition of dual as being that circuit whose voltages and

currents are interchanged since and

Scaled and normalised duals

In a real design situation it is usually desired to find the dual of an impedance with
respect to some nominal or characteristic impedance. To do this, Z and Z' are scaled to
the nominal impedance Z0 so that;

Z0 is usually taken to be a purely real number R0, so Z' is only changed by a real factor of
R02. In other words, the dual remains qualitatively the same circuit but all the component
values must be scaled quantitively by R02.
Duals of basic circuit elements
Element Z Dual Z'

Resistor R Conductor G = R

Conductor G Resistor R = G

Inductor L
Capacitor C = L

Inductor L = C
Capacitor C

Series impedances Z = Z1 +
Z2
Parallel admittances Y = Z1 +
Z2
 Series admittances 1/Y =
1/Z1 + 1/Z2
Parallel impedances 1/Z =
1/Z1 + 1/Z2

Voltage generator V
Current generator I = V

Voltage generator V = I
Current generator I

Graphical Method

There is a graphical method of obtaining the dual of a network which is often easier to
use than the mathematical expression for the impedance. Starting with a circuit diagram
of the network in question, Z, the following steps are drawn on the diagram to produce Z'
superimposed on top of Z. Typically, Z' will be drawn in a different colour to help
distinguish it from the original, or, if using CAD, Z' can be drawn on a different layer.

1. A generator is connected to each port of the original network. The purpose of this
step is to prevent the ports from being "lost" in the inversion process. This
happens because a port left open circuit will transform into a short circuit and
disappear.
2. A dot is drawn at the centre of each mesh of the network Z. These dots will
become the circuit nodes of Z'.
3. A conductor is drawn which entirely encloses the network Z. This conductor also
becomes a node of Z'.
4. For each circuit element of Z, its dual is drawn between the nodes in the centre of
the meshes either side of Z. Where Z is on the edge of the network, one of these
nodes will be the enclosing conductor from the previous step.
This completes the drawing of Z'. This method also serves to demonstrate that the dual of
a mesh transforms in to a node and the dual of a node transforms in to a mesh. Two
useful examples are given below, both to illustrate the process and to give some further
examples of dual networks.

Example - star network

A star network of inductors, such as might be found on a three-phase transformer

Attaching generators to the three ports
Nodes of the dual network
Components of the dual network
The dual network with the original removed and slightly redrawn to make the topology
clearer
 The dual network with the notional generators removed

It is now clear that the dual of a star network of inductors is a delta network of capacitors.
This dual circuit is not the same thing as a star-delta (Y-Δ) transformation. A Y-Δ
transform results in an equivalent circuit, not a dual circuit.

Example - Cauer network

Filters designed using Cauer's topology of the first form are low-pass filters consisting of
a ladder network of series inductors and shunt capacitors.
A low-pass filter implemented in Cauer topology

Attaching generators to the input and output ports

Nodes of the dual network

 Components of the dual network

The dual network with the original removed and slightly redrawn to make the topology
clearer

It can now be seen that the dual of a Cauer low-pass filter is still a Cauer low-pass filter.
It does not transform into a high-pass filter as might have been expected. Note, however,
that the first element is now a shunt component instead of a series component.
Chapter-5

Alpha Beta Filter and Cutoff Frequency

Alpha beta filter

An alpha beta filter (or alpha-beta filter) is a simplified form of observer for estimation,
data smoothing and control applications. It is closely related to Kalman filters and to
linear state observers used in control theory. Its principal advantage is that it does not
require a detailed system model.

Filter equations

An alpha beta filter presumes that a system is adequately approximated by a model

having two internal states, where the first state is obtained by integrating the value of the
second state over time. Measured system output values correspond to observations of the
first model state, plus disturbances. This very low order approximation is adequate for
many simple systems, for example, mechanical systems where position is obtained as the
time integral of velocity. Based on a mechanical system analogy, the two states can be
called position x and velocity v. Assuming that velocity remains approximately constant
over the small time interval ΔT between measurements, the position state is projected
forward to predict its value at the next sampling time using equation 1.

Since velocity variable v is presumed constant, so its projected value at the next sampling
time equals the current value.

If additional information is known about how a driving function will change the v state
during each time interval, equation 2 can be modified to include this.

The output measurement is expected to deviate from the prediction because of noise and
dynamic effects not included in the simplified dynamic model. This prediction error r is
also called the residual or innovation, based on statistical or Kalman filtering
interpretations

Suppose that residual r is positive. This could result because the previous x estimate was
low, the previous v was low, or some combination of the two. The alpha beta filter takes
selected alpha and beta constants (from which the filter gets its name), uses alpha times
the deviation r to correct the position estimate, and uses beta times the deviation r to
correct the velocity estimate. An extra ΔT factor conventionally serves to normalize
magnitudes of the multipliers.

The corrections can be considered small steps along an estimate of the gradient direction.
As these adjustments accumulate, error in the state estimates is reduced. For convergence
and stability, the values of the alpha and beta multipliers should be positive and small.

Values of alpha and beta typically are adjusted experimentally. In general, larger alpha
and beta gains tend to produce faster response for tracking transient changes, while
smaller alpha and beta gains reduce the level of noise in the state estimates. If a good
balance between accurate tracking and noise reduction is found, and the algorithm is
effective, filtered estimates are more accurate than the direct measurements. This
motivates calling the alpha-beta process a filter.

Algorithm Summary

Initialize.

 Set the initial values of state estimates x and v, using prior information or
additional measurements; otherwise, set the initial state values to zero.
 Select values of the alpha and beta correction gains.

Update. Repeat for each time step ΔT:

Project state estimates x and v using equations 1 and 2

Obtain a current measurement of the output value
Compute the residual r using equation 3
Correct the state estimates using equations 4 and 5
Send updated x and optionally v as the filter outputs
Relationship to general state observers

More general state observers, such as the Luenberger observer for linear control systems,
use a rigorous system model. Linear observers use a gain matrix to determine state
estimate corrections from multiple deviations between measured variables and predicted
outputs that are linear combinations of state variables. In the case of alpha beta filters,
this gain matrix reduces to two terms. There is no general theory for determining the best
observer gain terms, and typically gains are adjusted experimentally for both.

The linear Luenberger observer equations reduce to the alpha beta filter by applying the
following specializations and simplifications.

 The discrete state transition matrix A is a square matrix of dimension 2, with all
main diagonal terms equal to 1, and the first super-diagonal terms equal to ΔT.

 The observation equation matrix C has one row that selects the value of the first
state variable for output.

 The filter correction gain matrix L has one column containing the alpha and beta
gain values.

 Any known driving signal for the second state term is represented as part of the
input signal vector u, otherwise the u vector is set to zero.

 Input coupling matrix B has a non-zero gain term as its last element if vector u is
non-zero.

Relationship to Kalman Filters

A Kalman filter estimates the values of state variables and corrects them in a manner
similar to an alpha beta filter or a state observer. However, a Kalman filter does this in a
much more formal and rigorous manner. The principal differences between Kalman
filters and alpha beta filters are the following.

 Like state observers, Kalman filters use a detailed dynamic system model that is
not restricted to two states.

 Like state observers, Kalman filters in general use multiple observed variables to
correct state variable estimates, and these do not have to be direct measurements
of individual system states.

 A Kalman filter uses covariance noise models for states and observations. Using
these, a time-dependent estimate of state covariance is updated automatically, and
from this the Kalman gain matrix terms are calculated. Alpha beta filter gains are
manually selected and static.
  For certain classes of problems, a Kalman filter is Wiener optimal, while alpha
beta filtering is in general suboptimal.

A Kalman filter designed to track a moving object using a constant-velocity target

dynamics (process) model (i.e., constant velocity between measurement updates) with
process noise covariance and measurement covariance held constant will converge to the
same structure as an alpha-beta filter. However, a Kalman filter's gain is computed
recursively at each time step using the assumed process and measurement error statistics,
whereas the alpha-beta's gain is computed ad hoc.

The alpha beta gamma extension

It is sometimes useful to extend the assumptions of the alpha beta filter one level. The
second state variable v is presumed to be obtained from integrating a third acceleration
state, analogous to the way that the first state is obtained by integrating the second. An
equation for the a state is added to the equation system. A third multiplier, gamma, is
selected for applying corrections to the new a state estimates. This yields the alpha beta
gamma update equations.

Similar extensions to additional higher orders are possible, but most systems of higher
order tend to have significant interactions among the multiple states, so approximating
the system dynamics as a simple integrator chain is less likely to prove useful.
Cutoff frequency

Magnitude transfer function of a bandpass filter with lower 3dB cutoff frequency f1 and
upper 3dB cutoff frequency f2
A bode plot of the Butterworth filter's frequency response, with corner frequency labeled.
(The slope −20 dB per decade also equals −6 dB per octave.)

In physics and electrical engineering, a cutoff frequency, corner frequency, or break

frequency is a boundary in a system's frequency response at which energy flowing
through the system begins to be reduced (attenuated or reflected) rather than passing
through.

Typically in electronic systems such as filters and communication channels, cutoff

frequency applies to an edge in a lowpass, highpass, bandpass, or band-stop characteristic
– a frequency characterizing a boundary between a passband and a stopband. It is
sometimes taken to be the point in the filter response where a transition band and
passband meet, for example as defined by a 3 dB corner, a frequency for which the output
of the circuit is -3 dB of the nominal passband value. Alternatively, a stopband corner
frequency may be specified as a point where a transition band and a stopband meet: a
frequency for which the attenuation is larger than the required stopband attenuation,
which for example may be 30 dB or 100 dB.

In the case of a waveguide or an antenna, the cutoff frequencies correspond to the lower
and upper cutoff wavelengths.

Cutoff frequency can also refer to the plasma frequency.

Electronics

In electronics, cutoff frequency or corner frequency is the frequency either above or

below which the power output of a circuit, such as a line, amplifier, or electronic filter
has fallen to a given proportion of the power in the passband. Most frequently this
proportion is one half the passband power, also referred to as the 3dB point since a fall of
3dB corresponds approximately to half power. As a voltage ratio this is a fall to
of the passband voltage.

However, other ratios are sometimes more convenient. For instance, in the case of the
Chebyshev filter it is usual to define the cutoff frequency as the point after the last peak
in the frequency response at which the level has fallen to the design value of the passband
ripple. The amount of ripple in this class of filter can be set by the designer to any desired
value, hence the ratio used could be any value.

Communications

In communications, the term cutoff frequency can mean the frequency below which a
radio wave fails to penetrate a layer of the ionosphere at the incidence angle required for
transmission between two specified points by reflection from the layer.

Waveguides

The cutoff frequency of an electromagnetic waveguide is the lowest frequency for which
a mode will propagate in it. In fiber optics, it is more common to consider the cutoff
wavelength, the maximum wavelength that will propagate in an optical fiber or
waveguide. The cutoff frequency is found with the characteristic equation of the
Helmholtz equation for electromagnetic waves, which is derived from the
electromagnetic wave equation by setting the longitudinal wave number equal to zero and
solving for the frequency. Thus, any exciting frequency lower than the cutoff frequency
will attenuate, rather than propagate. The following derivation assumes lossless walls.
The value of c, the speed of light, should be taken to be the group velocity of light in
whatever material fills the waveguide.

For a rectangular waveguide, the cutoff frequency is

where are the mode numbers and a and b the lengths of the sides of the
rectangle.

The cutoff frequency of the TM01 mode in a waveguide of circular cross-section (the
transverse-magnetic mode with no angular dependence and lowest radial dependence) is
given by
where r is the radius of the waveguide, and χ01 is the first root of J0(r), the bessel function
of the first kind of order 1.

For a single-mode optical fiber, the cutoff wavelength is the wavelength at which the
normalized frequency is approximately equal to 2.405.

Mathematical analysis

The starting point is the wave equation (which is derived from the Maxwell equations),

which becomes a Helmholtz equation by considering only functions of the form

ψ(x,y,z,t) = ψ(x,y,z)eiωt.

Substituting and evaluating the time derivative gives

The function ψ here refers to whichever field (the electric field or the magnetic field) has
no vector component in the longitudinal direction - the "transverse" field. It is a property
of all the eigenmodes of the electromagnetic waveguide that at least one of the two fields
is transverse. The z axis is defined to be along the axis of the waveguide.

The "longitudinal" derivative in the Laplacian can further be reduced by considering only
functions of the form

where kz is the longitudinal wavenumber, resulting in

where subscript T indicates a 2-dimensional transverse Laplacian. The final step depends
on the geometry of the waveguide. The easiest geometry to solve is the rectangular
waveguide. In that case the remainder of the Laplacian can be evaluated to its
characteristic equation by considering solutions of the form
Thus for the rectangular guide the Laplacian is evaluated, and we arrive at

The transverse wavenumbers can be specified from the standing wave boundary
conditions for a rectangular geometry crossection with dimensions a and b:

where n and m are the two integers representing a specific eigenmode. Performing the
final substitution, we obtain

which is the dispersion relation in the rectangular waveguide. The cutoff frequency ωc is
the critical frequency between propagation and attenuation, which corresponds to the
frequency at which the longitudinal wavenumber kz is zero. It is given by

The wave equations are also valid below the cutoff frequency, where the longitudinal
wave number is imaginary. In this case, the field decays exponentially along the
waveguide axis.
Chapter-6

Passive Analogue Filter Development

Analogue filters are a basic building block of signal processing much used in electronics.
Amongst their many applications are the separation of an audio signal before application
to bass, mid-range and tweeter loudspeakers; the combining and later separation of
multiple telephone conversations onto a single channel; the selection of a chosen radio
station in a radio receiver and rejection of others.

Passive linear electronic analogue filters are those filters which can be described with
linear differential equations (linear); they are composed of capacitors, inductors and,
sometimes, resistors (passive) and are designed to operate on continuously varying
(analogue) signals. There are many linear filters which are not analogue in
implementation (digital filter), and there are many electronic filters which may not have a
passive topology – both of which may have the same transfer function of the filters
described here. Analogue filters are most often used in wave filtering applications, that is,
where it is required to pass particular frequency components and to reject others from
analogue (continuous-time) signals.

Analogue filters have played an important part in the development of electronics.

Especially in the field of telecommunications, filters have been of crucial importance in a
number of technological breakthroughs and have been the source of enormous profits for
telecommunications companies. It should come as no surprise, therefore, that the early
development of filters was intimately connected with transmission lines. Transmission
line theory gave rise to filter theory, which initially took a very similar form, and the
main application of filters was for use on telecommunication transmission lines.
However, the arrival of network synthesis techniques greatly enhanced the degree of
control of the designer.

Today, it is often preferred to carry out filtering in the digital domain where complex
algorithms are much easier to implement, but analogue filters do still find applications,
especially for low-order simple filtering tasks and are often still the norm at higher
frequencies where digital technology is still impractical, or at least, less cost effective.
Wherever possible, and especially at low frequencies, analogue filters are now
implemented in a filter topology which is active in order to avoid the wound components
required by passive topology.
It is possible to design linear analogue mechanical filters using mechanical components
which filter mechanical vibrations or acoustic waves. While there are few applications for
such devices in mechanics per se, they can be used in electronics with the addition of
transducers to convert to and from the electrical domain. Indeed some of the earliest ideas
for filters were acoustic resonators because the electronics technology was poorly
understood at the time. In principle, the design of such filters can be achieved entirely in
terms of the electronic counterparts of mechanical quantities, with kinetic energy,
potential energy and heat energy corresponding to the energy in inductors, capacitors and
resistors respectively.

Historical overview

There are three main stages in the history of passive analogue filter development:

1. Simple filters. The frequency dependence of electrical response was known for
capacitors and inductors from very early on. The resonance phenomenon was also
familiar from an early date and it was possible to produce simple, single-branch
filters with these components. Although attempts were made in the 1880s to apply
them to telegraphy, these designs proved inadequate for successful frequency
division multiplexing. Network analysis was not yet powerful enough to provide
the theory for more complex filters and progress was further hampered by a
general failure to understand the frequency domain nature of signals.
2. Image filters. Image filter theory grew out of transmission line theory and the
design proceeded in a similar manner to transmission line analysis. For the first
time filters could be produced that had precisely controllable passbands and other
parameters. These developments took place in the 1920s and filters produced to
these designs were still in widespread use in the 1980s, only declining as the use
of analogue telecommunications has declined. Their immediate application was
the economically important development of frequency division multiplexing for
use on intercity and international telephony lines.
3. Network synthesis filters. The mathematical bases of network synthesis were
laid in the 1930s and 1940s. After the end of World War II network synthesis
became the primary tool of filter design. Network synthesis put filter design on a
firm mathematical foundation, freeing it from the mathematically sloppy
techniques of image design and severing the connection with physical lines. The
essence of network synthesis is that it produces a design that will (at least if
implemented with ideal components) accurately reproduce the response originally
specified in black box terms.

Throughout the letters R,L and C are used with their usual meanings to represent
resistance, inductance and capacitance, respectively. In particular they are used in
combinations, such as LC, to mean, for instance, a network consisting only of inductors
and capacitors. Z is used for electrical impedance, any 2-terminal combination of RLC
elements and in some sections D is used for the rarely seen quantity elastance, which is
the inverse of capacitance.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 CHAPTER XXIII
Be a Bible Student

INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER XXIII

By James H. Brookes
1. The command of our Lord: “Search the Scriptures; for in them
ye think ye have eternal life: and they are they which testify of Me.”—
John 5:39.
2. They will make a boy wise: “From a child thou hast known the
Holy Scriptures, which are able to make thee wise unto salvation
through faith which is in Christ Jesus.”—2 Timothy 2:15.
3. They will cleanse his way: “Wherewithal shall a young man
cleanse his way? By taking heed thereto according to Thy Word.”—
Psalms 119:9.
4. They will be a lamp and a light: “Thy Word is a lamp unto my
feet and a light unto my path. The entrance of Thy Words giveth
light; it giveth understanding to the simple.”—Psalm 119:195, 130.
5. The Bible will do more for you than father or mother: “When
thou goest, it shall lead thee: when thou sleepest, it shall keep thee:
and when thou awakest, it shall talk with thee.”—Proverbs 6:22.
6. By the Word you are born again: “Being born again not of
corruptible seed, but of incorruptible, by the Word of God, which
liveth and abideth forever.”—1 Peter 1:23.
7. By the Word you grow: “As new-born babes, desire the sincere
milk of the Word, that ye may grow thereby.”—1 Peter 2:2.
 CHAPTER XXIII
Be a Bible Student

Never was there an age with so many books as the present; books to
amuse and instruct, books of fact and fiction, but the greatest and
grandest is the Bible. “It has,” as Locke said, “God for its author,
salvation for its end, and truth without mixture of error for its
matter,—it is all pure, all sincere; nothing too much, nothing
wanting.”
The Bible is the only book in which the best literature of thirty
centuries is incorporated, the only book which has been translated
into more than three hundred languages and printed by the
hundreds of millions. The only book which has stimulated invention,
advanced education, given stability, order and prosperity to homes
and nations, emancipated slaves, exalted virtue, and led lost souls to
a knowledge of Christ and everlasting life.
The Bible! Bishop Foster said, “Exiled, it has created a new
kingdom and shifted the center and balance of power. Carried away
captive, it has broken down rival altars and overthrown false gods,
till the right of way has been accorded to it by friend and foe. Sold
into bondage by false brethren, it has captured the hearts of its
masters, and ascended the throne of dominion. Driven into sea, it
has gone over dry shod, seeing its enemies overwhelmed in the flood
and itself singing the glad song of deliverance. Burned on the public
square by the public executioner, it has risen Phœnix-like and floated
away in triumph, wearing the smoke of its own funeral pyre as a flag
of victory. Scourged from city to city, it has gone through the capitals
of the civilized world, leaving behind it a trail of light attesting its
divine authority. Cast into the leper’s pest-house, it has purified the
scales of contagion, restored the soft pink skin of smiling infancy,
quickened the energies of romping youth, and recreated the sinews
of heroic manhood. Betrayed by a kiss, it has stood erect in the calm
majesty of eternity, amid the swarming minions of its enemies.
Nailed to a felon’s cross it has illuminated the darkness by the
radiance of its own glory, and transformed the summits of sacrifice
into a throne of universal judgment. Sealed into the gloom of a
sepulcher, it has come forth with the echoing footsteps of Almighty
God, rising to dominion over all intelligences.”
The Bible! Marvelous book! It has illuminated every darkness,
broken the shackles of vicious habits, and given inspiration along all
lines of goodness. The pictures of Raphael, the images of Milton, the
allegory of Bunyan were all drawn from it. Ruskin built his literary
productions upon it. The poets Thompson and Johnson dipped their
pens in the style of the Orientals. Emboldened by its teaching
Howard devoted his life to the amelioration of prisoners, Wilberforce
and Lincoln to the emancipation of slaves, and the Pilgrim Fathers
forsook their native land to accept the hardships of this untilled
country, where they might worship God according to the dictates of
their conscience.
The Bible! It is the best book for boys. Not only does it tell the
story of Joseph sold into slavery by his jealous brothers, Samuel
called by God in the night, David killing Goliath with sling and stone,
Daniel cast into the lions’ den, Christ confounding the doctors of the
law by His knowledge of the Scriptures, but it makes one rich in
things eternal. In London a poor man once purchased a second-hand
family Bible, and was turning over its leaves, when he found two
stuck together. His wife loosened them with hot water, and found
there six crisp five pound bank-notes, twenty-five dollars each. He
was questioning his right to keep them, when he found these words
written on one of them: “I have had to work very hard for these, and,
having no natural heirs, I leave thee, whoever shall buy this Holy
Book, my lawful heir, June 17, 1840, South End, Essex.” So—
“This Book unfolds Jehovah’s mind,
This voice salutes in accents kind;
This friend will all your needs supply,
This fountain send forth streams of joy.
This mine affords us boundless wealth,
This good physician gives us health.
This sun renews and warms the soul,
This sword both wounds and makes us whole;
This letter shows our sins forgiven,
This guide conducts us safe to heaven;
This charter has been sealed with blood—
This volume is the Word of God.”
 READ THE BIBLE.

The Bible, being such an excellent book, should be read with care.
There is not a condition or circumstance in life but that some
appropriate counsel is given. “In this Book,” as Dean Stanley said to
the skeptic Ewald, “is contained all the wisdom of the world.” George
Muller formed the habit of reading it through with diligent attention
four times a year. So delighted was Sir William Jones with it, that he
wrote on the blank leaf of his Bible: “I have regularly and attentively
perused these Holy Scriptures.”
If the Bible is good to read it is better to study. To study is an art
and is the couplet to habitual practice. Said a talented young man to
a musician, “Tell me how to play the sonatas of Beethoven in their
true spirit.” “You ask too much of me,” said the musician, “yet I will
do what I can. What do you play these days?” “Nothing.” “My friend!
How shall I tell you how to play Beethoven when it is not your habit
to play anything at all? To know how to play Beethoven you must
first of all know how to play.” So with the Bible. To know how to
study it, we must first of all know how to study. To enjoy a painting
one needs more than to glance at it. It should be looked at from every
point, the variety of shading noticed minutely, and then, taking a
step backwards, one is better able to appreciate it, as its whole beauty
stands out prominently. There is an ingenious engraving of the first
draft of the American Constitution and the Emancipation
Proclamation, so finely shaded that at a little distance one presents a
perfect likeness of George Washington, the other an excellent
portrait of Abraham Lincoln. So after investigating this authentic
history, this library of sixty-six of the world’s best books, the more
than a hundred pieces of its best music and double that of pictures,
one cannot fail to see standing out from all the great Jehovah and
His beloved Son, Jesus Christ.

PEASANT AND BIBLE.

To study the Bible was once considered a crime. Only priests were
allowed to read and interpret it. Those who were caught searching its
sacred pages were punished by fine, imprisonment and not
infrequently death. On one occasion Joseph II. under the assumed
name of “Count of Falkenstein” was traveling in Bohemia, and, being
stopped by a rainstorm took shelter at a village inn. During the
evening some of the peasants called at the tavern to talk with the
landlord about a small house just outside the village, in which they
claimed dark-looking objects, carrying lighted torches, were moving
about. Superstition had such a hold upon the peasantry that they
thought the future welfare of the little town depended upon the utter
annihilation of that cottage, together with its occupants. Joseph,
overhearing their conversation, expressed a desire to see the place.
Accordingly he proceeded thither with his escort. On arriving, he
commanded his attendants to surround the house while he knocked
at the door. The summons was answered by an old man who asked,
“Who is it that disturbs an honest man at so late an hour?” The
Emperor replied: “If you are honest, no harm shall befall you, but, if
not, you shall die this very night.” The old man re-entered the room
and Joseph followed and seated himself on the stove-hearth. In the
center of the room was a table with a Bible upon it, and gathered
around were several pious-looking people who had been engaged in
divine worship. Joseph ordered the master of the house to proceed
with his devotions. This he did, reading from the third chapter of the
Gospel of St. John: “For God so loved the world.” After listening a
little while, the ruler, with tears in his eyes, exclaimed: “I was not
aware that there were people who still had the courage to read the
Bible.” He invited the pious father to come to Vienna and inquire at
the imperial palace for the “Count of Falkenstein.” The good man, in
company with his son, soon after went, and found the Count to be
the Emperor himself. Joseph grasped both his hands and gave him a
scroll which contained the toleration edict, dated October 13th, 1781.
He also handed him a purse of five hundred florins with which to
build a chapel. This chapel bearing the inscription, “A present from
the Emperor,” is situated in the village of Lackenstein, Bohemia,
while the name of Senitz is still honored as the one who dared study
the Word of God, though a nation opposed it.

POINTS TO REMEMBER.
 To study the Bible one needs a proper spirit. Ezra said, “He
prepared his heart to seek the law of the Lord.” (Ezra 7:10). Heart
preparation is needed to open the covers of this Book indited by the
Holy Ghost. It is God’s Book, and should be handled by clean fingers
and a clean heart. Without doubt Ezra prayed before he studied.
“Open Thou mine eyes,” said David, “that I may behold wondrous
things out of Thy law.” (Psalm 119:18). Every boy should speak to
God before he looks into the Bible, asking that he may reverently and
intelligently read its contents.
“Study it carefully,
Think of it prayerfully,
Deep in thy heart let its pure precepts dwell.
Slight not its history,
Ponder its mystery;
None can e’er prize it too fondly or well.”

To study the Bible one should have a special time if possible. The
early morning is doubtless the best, for the mind is more active and
receptive, and passages then read may be considered with profit
throughout the day. However, it is a good thing to glance at it
whenever there is a spare moment. James Bonnell made the Holy
Scriptures his constant and daily study. He read them, meditated
upon them and prayed over them. Sir John Hartop, amidst his many
vocations, kept the Bible before him night and day. If it is good to
read in the morning, and to meditate upon through the day, it is just
as good to read in the evening. The good German expositor Bengel
was seen one night with the open Bible upon his knees, and laying
his hand upon its sacred page, was heard to say, “Lord Jesus, we are
on the same terms that we were this morning, now I will lie down
and sleep, and Thou wilt fulfill Thy Word in me.” Blessed confidence!
To study the Bible one might use a few helps to advantage. Use a
reference Bible. It is almost indispensable to proper study. A
concordance is necessary to turn to any verse with celerity. A Bible
dictionary is a valuable aid to explain many things in history,
antiquity, customs and manners. A good commentary is often a
valuable requisite. It helps in the study, though it must not be
depended upon as a lame man depends upon his crutches.
 HOW TO STUDY.

What is worth doing is certainly worth doing well. No fitful study

has ever mastered any branch of science or art. If constant
application of fundamental principles is necessary to achieve the
highest results in scientific investigation, if the ability to make
accurate lines and curves is essential to the success of the truest
artist, if practice in five-finger exercises is a daily necessity to the
pianist, the boy who desires to be thoroughly acquainted with the
Bible must diligently search it.
Study carefully words and verses. Frequently one word is a nugget
of pure gold. Study ideas. As there are veins of silver and gold in the
rocks, so there are veins of truth running through the Bible. Study
history. No book deals with nations as far back and shows their rise
and fall as the Bible. Study geography. There are rivers and
mountains associated with great events. Every land seems to have
changed except the one where the Bible was written. Egypt, Greece
and Rome have little now in common with the days of antiquity.
Babylon and Nineveh are not. But Palestine still remains about the
same as a literal explanation of the Bible.
Study the books. Learn the number and the names of their
authors. “Doctor,” said a convalescent, “I’m no judge of books—don’t
often read one; but I’m reading one now that seems to me a very fine
book. I haven’t noticed yet who wrote it, and I don’t know how you’d
pronounce its title, but it’s something like I-van-hoe.” “My friend,”
said the physician, “I’d give large gold to be in your place long
enough to be reading that book for the first time and not knowing
who wrote it.” In the Old Testament there are 39 books. In the New
Testament 27. The first five are laws and political economy, the next
twelve history, the rest poetry and prophecy. The first four of the
New Testament are biography and gospel; Acts is history; the
Epistles theology and philosophy, and Revelation is a drama written
by John on the Isle of Patmos.
Study a whole book asking such questions, “Who wrote it? Where
was it written? In what age? What lessons does it teach?” By seeking
an answer to these questions one cannot fail to gain valuable
information in biography, geography, and manners. Study the
teachings of the New Testament. Its numerous commands will
prompt action, its invitations inspire confidence, its promises impart
comfort and its doctrines establish one in faith. In a word, study the
Scriptures methodically.

WHY STUDY THE BIBLE?

The question why study the Bible is of as great importance as how.

It is historically worth studying. Without it history is incomplete. It is
the only book that spans four thousand years, revealing the origin of
the universe and man. It is personally worth studying. “In its pages
every conceivable condition of human experience is reflected as in a
mirror. It puts music into the speech of the tuneless one, and rounds
the periods of the unlettered into an eloquence which no orator can
rival. It has martial odes to brace the warrior’s courage and gainful
proverbs to teach the merchant wisdom. It can translate the doubt of
the perplexed, articulate the cry of the contrite, and fill the tongue of
the joyous with carols of thankful gladness.” Because of its blaze of
eloquence and light of truth Burke read it, while Daniel Webster
turned to it for its rhetoric and poetry.
It is this book, my boy, which is needed as a guide in the practical
duties of life, and which makes us “Wise unto salvation through faith
which is in Christ Jesus.” (2 Tim. 3:15). In fact, it is the only book
which presents Christ. In the Old Testament He is seen in prophecy
and symbol, in the New in history. In the Old, He is brought to our
hearts in glorious promises; in the New, He comes to us as a living
person. He is “all and in all” (Col. 3:3), insuring peace in this life,
comforting in death and extending happiness beyond the grave.

“IS ALL THIS TRUE?”

In the northern part of England lived a pious widow with her seven
daughters and one son. The latter proved ungrateful for her care and
became her scourge and cross. He loved worldly company and
pursued a wayward course till becoming impoverished it was
necessary for him to go to sea. When his mother took leave of him
she gave him a New Testament, inscribed with his name and her own
and solemnly and tenderly entreated him to keep the book and read
it for her sake. Years passed without tidings of his whereabouts.
Occasionally when visiting the metropolis she would inquire for the
ship in which her son had sailed, but without satisfaction. On one
occasion she accidentally met a sea captain, who informed her that
the vessel had been wrecked, and that Charles, whom he knew well,
had gone as all like him should go, to the bottom of the sea. Pierced
to the soul, the unhappy mother withdrew and resolved in future to
live in strict retirement. “I shall go down to the grave,” she said,
“mourning for my son.” (Gen. 37:35). She moved to a seaport. After
the lapse of years a destitute sailor seeking relief knocked at the door.
She heard his tale. He had several times been wrecked, but he had
never been so dreadfully destitute as he was some years back, when
he and a fine young gentleman were the only individuals of a whole
ship’s crew that were saved. “We were cast upon a desert island,
where, after seven days and nights, I closed his eyes. Poor fellow, I
shall never forget it. He read day and night in a little book, which he
said his mother gave him, and which was the only thing he saved. It
was his companion every moment. He talked of nothing but this
book and his mother, and at last he gave it to me, with many thanks
for my poor services. ‘There, Jack,’ said he, ‘take this book, keep and
read it, and may God bless you, it’s all I’ve got,’ and then he clasped
my hand and died in peace.”
“Is all this true?” asked the trembling, astonished mother. “Yes,
madam, every word of it.” Then, drawing from his ragged coat a little
book, much battered and time-worn, he held it up, exclaiming, “and
here it is.” She seized the Testament, recognized her own
handwriting and beheld the name of her son coupled with her own
on the cover. She gazed, read, wept and rejoiced. She seemed to hear
a voice which said, “Behold, thy son liveth!” (John 4:50). Amidst her
conflicting emotions, she was ready to exclaim: “Lord, now lettest
Thou Thy servant depart in peace, according to Thy word, for mine
eyes have seen Thy salvation.” (Luke 2:29, 30).
If my boy, a book helps one to die, it must be an excellent book by
which to live. Make it your constant companion and study, looking
for its precepts as well as promises, and determine to live up to every
duty as you shall discover it. On the day of Queen Elizabeth’s
coronation, a boy, skilled in athletic feats, was dressed as an angel,
with wings on his shoulders and feet, and on the approach of the
royal coach, he descended as if from heaven, from the top of Temple
Bar, bearing an elegant Bible, expressly made for the Queen. As he
descended, the crowd exclaimed: “The Bible Bearer!” Blessed the boy
who accepts God’s call to be a “Bible Bearer.” Said David, “Thy word
have I hid in my heart that I might not sin against Thee.” (Ps. 119:11).
“Here the tree of knowledge grows,
And yields a free repast;
Here purer sweets than nature knows,
Invite the longing taste.”
 CHAPTER XXIV
Be a Sabbath Observer

INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER XXIV

By Wilbur F. Crafts
“We are apt to think,” said Henry S. Baker, “that a rest of twelve
hours, with a sleep of about eight fully recuperates us after a day of
hard work at physical or mental labor or both. The microscope shows
such a view to be wrong. Even twenty-four hours is not quite enough
time, strange as it may seem. The microscope shows that more than
thirty hours, possibly thirty-three or thirty-six, are needed to restore
a cell to its proper size and condition after severe fatigue. In other
words, man is so made that he needs a Sabbath from Saturday
evening to Monday morning of complete rest to be as good as new.
Without this he is never at his best, physically, mentally, morally or
spiritually. So we find the fourth commandment is in the nineteenth
century echoed from the biological laboratory with tremendous
emphasis, and again we are compelled to admit that He who spoke at
Sinai must have made the brain cell and understood its secret
workings. Again is our faith made firmer that the Old Book is not
wholly manmade.”
The Sabbath was made for man, body and soul, as the two railway
tracks are made for the two wheels, and only on the smooth track of
God’s law can your life run smoothly or safely.
 CHAPTER XXIV
Be a Sabbath Observer

A gentleman who had great respect for the Sabbath was going to
church. He was a peculiar man, and would sometimes do and say
singular things. On his way he met a stranger driving a heavily laden
wagon through the town. When opposite the wagoner, he suddenly
stopped, turned around, and, lifting up both hands as if in horror,
exclaimed, “There, there, you are going over it! There, you have gone
right over it!” The driver was frightened, and drew up the horses in
an instant, crying: “Whoa! Whoa!” He looked under the wheels,
expecting to see the mangled remains of some innocent child, or at
least a dog, that had been crushed to death. But, seeing nothing, he
gazed at the gentleman who had so strangely arrested his attention,
and anxiously asked: “Pray, sir, what have I gone over?” “The fourth
commandment,” was the reply. “Remember the Sabbath day to keep
it holy.” (Exod. 20:8).
This commandment God wrote on “tables of stone” (Ex. 24:12)
thousands of years ago, and not only on stone but also in man’s
nature. Sir Robert Peel once said he never knew a man to escape
failure either in mind or in body who worked seven days in the week.
To observe it is a duty we owe to ourselves and to our God. To neglect
or disuse it is to incur God’s displeasure and with it the ills incident
thereto.
About a century ago, the National Assembly of France, consisting
mostly of infidels, abolished the Sabbath. It was not long, however,
before a wail of distress went up all over the land, demanding the
recognition of this “Day of Rest,” and obedience to the will of God. It
is to the credit of our legislators that they have never suggested such
a thing, yet hundreds and even thousands of men and boys desecrate
it. But—
“A Sabbath profaned
Whatever be gained
Is a certain forerunner of sorrow.”

A PICTURE, TESTIMONY, FACT.

 Hogarth once painted a beautiful picture in which he showed the
first step downward of a man who suffered capital punishment. It
represented him when a boy playing around the churchyard while
the minister was preaching. Not that all boys who do so will come to
the gallows, but all are wending their way downward to worse
offenses.
A gentleman who had charge of a prison, in which there were more
than one thousand prisoners, took special pains to ascertain the
causes of their crimes. He said that he did not recollect a single case
of capital offense where the party had not been a Sabbath-breaker. In
many cases the prisoners assured him that Sabbath-breaking was the
first step in their downward career. “Indeed,” said he, “nineteen out
of every twenty have neglected the Sabbath and other ordinances of
religion.”
One of the most appalling crimes of the day is Sabbath
desecration. Thousands make it a day of pleasure. On car and boat,
with carriage and bicycle, excursions are made. With bat and ball
games are played. With gun and fishing rod life is taken, all which
says, “Death to the Sabbath.” O, my boy, are you aware what that
means? It is an evil influence thrown against 75,000 Sunday-schools
and 800,000 teachers to stop the religious instruction of 7,000,000
young people. It is an influence arrayed against 60,000 pulpits and
60,000 trumpets calling sinners to repentance. And more than this,
it is an influence arrayed against the morality and integrity of the
nation, for, as Judge McLean of the Supreme Court, said, “Where
there is no Sabbath, there is no Christian morality; and without this,
free institutions cannot long be maintained.”

A BRAVE BOY.

One lovely Sunday morning some years ago, eight young men were
walking along the banks of a stream that flows into the Potomac not
far from the City of Washington. They were going to a grove to spend
the hours of that holy day in playing cards. Each of them carried a
flask of wine in his pocket. As they were amusing one another with
idle jests the bell of a church in a little village about two miles away
began to ring. It sounded in their ears as plainly as though it were
only on the other side of the little stream along which they were
walking. Presently one of them stopped, and said to his friend near
him, that he would go no farther, but would return to the village and
go to church. His friends called to their companions, who were a
little ahead: “Boys! Boys! come back here. George is getting religious.
We must help him. Come on, and let us baptize him in the water.” In
a moment they formed a circle about him. They told him that the
only way in which he could save himself from having a cold bath was
by going with them. In a calm, quiet manner he said, “I know very
well you have the power to put me in the water and hold me there till
I am drowned; and if you choose to do so, I will make no resistance;
but listen to what I have to say, and then do as you think best. You all
know that I am two hundred miles from home; but you do not know
that my mother is a helpless, bed-ridden invalid. I never remember
seeing her out of bed; I am her youngest child. My father could not
afford to pay for my schooling, but our teacher, who is a warm friend
of father’s, offered to take me without charge. He was very anxious
for me to come, but mother would not consent. The struggle almost
cost her her life. At length after many prayers she yielded, and said I
might go. The preparations for my leaving home were soon made.
My mother never said a word to me on the subject till the morning I
was to leave. After breakfast she sent for me and asked if everything
was ready. I told her it was and I was only waiting for the stage. At
her request I knelt down beside the bed. With her loving hands upon
my head, she prayed for me. Many nights since then have I dreamed
that whole scene. It is the happiest recollection of my life. I believe,
till the day of my death I shall be able to repeat every word of that
prayer. When I rose, she said, ‘My precious boy, you do not know,
you never can know, the agony of a mother’s heart in parting from
her youngest child. When you leave home you will have looked, for
the last time, on the face of her who loves you as no other mortal
does or can. Your father cannot afford the expense of your making us
visits during the two years that your studies will occupy. I cannot
possibly live as long as that. The sands in the hour-glass of my life
have nearly run out. In the far-off strange place to which you are
going there will be no loving mother to give you counsel in time of
trouble. Seek counsel and help from God. Every Sabbath morning,
from ten to eleven o’clock, I will spend the hour in prayer for you,
wherever you may be during this sacred hour. When you hear the
church bells ringing let your thoughts come back to the chamber
where your dying mother will be agonizing in prayer for you. But I
hear the stage coming. Kiss me farewell.’ Boys, I never expect to see
my mother again on earth. But, by the help of God, I mean to meet
her in heaven.”
As George stopped speaking, the tears were streaming down his
cheeks. He looked at his companions. Their eyes were all filled with
tears. In a moment the ring which they had formed around him was
opened. He passed out and went to church. He had stood up for the
right against the wrong, with great odds against him. They admired
him for doing what they had not the courage to do. They all followed
him to church. On their way, each of them quietly threw away his
cards and wine flask. Never again did any of those young men play
cards on the Sabbath. From that day they all became changed men.
Six of them died Christians, the seventh, who related this story, has
been for years an earnest, active member of the church, and George
became an able, Christian lawyer.
The same is true of you, my boy. You will help or hinder, bless or
curse, encourage or discourage in proportion as you live and act on
this day. Girard, the millionaire of Philadelphia, one Saturday
ordered all his clerks to come on the morrow to his wharf and help
unload a newly-arrived ship. One young man replied quietly: “Mr.
Girard, I can’t work on Sundays.” “You know the rules?” “Yes, I
know, I have a mother to support, but I can’t work on Sundays.”
“Well, step up to the desk, and the cashier will settle with you.” For
three weeks the young man could find no work, but one day a banker
came to Girard to ask if he could recommend a man for cashier in a
new bank. The discharged young man was at once named as a
suitable person. “But,” said the banker, “you dismissed him.” “Yes,
because he would not work on Sundays. A man who would lose his
place for conscience’s sake would make a trustworthy cashier.” He
was appointed. My boy—
“Dare to do right, dare to do right;
The world will change when you’ve won the fight.
Don’t mind a laugh, don’t mind a slight,
Dare to do right, dare to do right.”
 GOD HALLOWED IT.

After God made the world and all contained therein, we read that
He rested. The word “Sabbath” is the Hebrew word meaning rest. We
are to remember the “Rest Day,” for God hallowed it and because of
this the one-seventh of our time is to witness a suspension of buying
and selling; a pause in the clatter of the workshop and the anxiety of
the desk; and a serious yielding up of ourselves to devout thought
and intelligent worship. This day is absolutely necessary. Natural
science affirms that man and beast require a day of periodical rest.
Florists say that the most prolific plants cease to produce beautiful
flowers if they are not kept from flowering a part of the year. Medical
men declare that keeping the Lord’s Day is of unlimited benefit, and
that man cannot and should not do without it. When Lord
Castlereagh broke down from overwork on three hundred and sixty-
five days per year, and through insanity took his own life,
Wilberforce exclaimed: “Poor Castlereagh, this is the result of the
non-observance of the Sabbath.”
When John Quincy Adams was Minister to the Court of Holland,
he joined a society of learned men, who met once a week for mutual
improvement. Mr. Adams, though one of the youngest members,
soon became a great favorite. On one occasion the meeting was
adjourned to Sunday evening. Mr. Adams was not there. His fellow-
members noticed and regretted his absence. On the third Sunday
evening it met, Mr. Adams’ chair was still vacant. Many were
surprised that he who formerly was so prompt and punctual should
thus break off. At last the meetings were returned to a week-day
evening, and lo! Mr. Adams was in his place, brilliant and delightful
as ever. The members welcomed him back and expressed their
sorrow that press of business or the duties of his office should so long
have deprived them of his company. “It was not business,” replied
he, “you met on the Lord’s day; that is a day devoted to religious uses
by me, which imparts unspeakable advantages from a faithful
observance of it.”
James A. Garfield, when President, showed his respect for this day
by never allowing anything to interfere with his going to church. Like
President Hayes he would walk in order to give his coachman rest. At
the Chicago Convention at which Mr. Garfield was nominated for the
Presidency, many wanted to go on with the balloting after midnight
of Saturday. Judge Hoar, the chairman, was pressed to ignore the
Sabbath and let the Convention proceed. He replied, “Never! This is
a Sabbath-keeping nation, and I cannot preside over this Convention
one minute after twelve o’clock.” On that Sabbath, Garfield attended
church and heard a sermon. At dinner the conversation turned upon
the suspense of the country. One spoke of the deadlock in business
created by it; another of the suspense in Washington, where all were
awaiting the further developments of the Convention. All said
something, and when done, Garfield remarked, quietly but earnestly,
to one sitting beside him: “Yes, this is a day of suspense, but it is also
a day of prayer, and I have more faith in the prayers that will go up
from Christian hearts to-day than I have in all the political tactics
which will prevail at this Convention. This is the Lord’s Day. I have
great reverence for it.”
When General Grant was in Paris, the President of the Republic, as
a special token of respect, invited him to occupy a place on the grand
stand to witness the great racing which occurs in that country on
Sunday. It is considered a discourteous act to decline such an
invitation from the head official of the Republic. Such a thing had
never been heard of, but General Grant in a polite note declined the
honor, and said to the French President, “It is not in accordance with
the custom of my country or with the spirit of my religion to spend
Sunday in that way.” And when Sabbath came that great hero found
his way to the American chapel, where he was one of its quiet
worshippers. If such great men believed and obeyed the command of
God, should not every boy do the same?

“KEEP IT HOLY.”

My boy, keep this day which so many make a day of social festivity
or pleasure holy. Do so because God asks you. Keep it holy by
refraining from work or pleasure. “I thank God,” said Gladstone, “for
the Sabbath with its rest for the body and soul.” Keep it holy by
attending divine worship. Learn to say with David: “How amiable are
Thy Tabernacles, O Lord of Hosts. My soul longeth, yea, even
fainteth for the Courts of the Lord.” (Psalm 84:1, 2). “I feel,” wrote
Coleridge, “as if God had, by giving the Sabbath, given fifty-two
springs in the year.” Keep it holy by doing good, for it is lawful to do
good on the Sabbath.
It is said that a Spartan youth was holding the censer at a sacrifice
when Alexander was offering a victim. It chanced that while he held
it, a hot coal fell upon his hand. The youth flinched not, lest by any
utterance or cry the company would be disturbed; “for,” said he, “I
am in the presence of Alexander.” So, my boy, when tempted to
neglect home meditation, the communion of saints at the church, or
the sick or needy in their distress, do not do it, remembering you are
in the presence of Jesus. Keep this day as a day of anticipation,
looking forward to that holy and eternal Sabbath that remaineth for
the people of God. Keep it, honor it, love it, for it is—
—“the day that God hath blest,
The type of heaven’s eternal rest.”
 CHAPTER XXV
Be a Church Member

INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER XXV

By Wayland Hoyt, D. D.
When once thy foot enters the church, beware,
God is more there than thou; for thou art there
Only by His permission. Then beware;
And make thyself all reverence and fear.
—Herbert.

The boy needs the church and the church needs the boy. Why is it that so many
young men are on the downward road? Is it because they have either greater
temptations or less power to resist them than others? Whether it be one or both,
young men need the fellowship, protection and nurture of the church. My advice to
every boy is, join the church.
—Alvin A. Cober.

Be a church member, my boy, because Christ commands it; because

the church is on the winning side; because it is brave and manly;
because to be a member of Christ’s church is the highest honor. Do
not wait about it. Love Christ, confess Him by becoming one of His
declared people. Besides this, what help there is in the
companionship of the church.
 CHAPTER XXV
Be a Church Member

There are in the United States about seven hundred different kinds
of lodges, chapters and orders, but not one of them can take the place
of the church, or do the work this institution was designed to do. The
church is divine, all other organizations man’s creation. The latter
are temporary, the former eternal.
Sometimes the word church is ill-defined. It is used to designate a
sect or a place of worship. Instead of this, however, it is a people, and
a redeemed people, though used in this connection with people and
place. Jesus designated the church nucleus as those whom God had
given Him out of the world. The first cabinet officers were illiterate
fishermen who were taught at the feet of Jesus, a school infinitely
more important than any college to-day. So true is this that every
sceptical antagonist, whether possessed of the learning and genius of
Voltaire, the brass and audacity of Paine, the polished eloquence of
Hume, or the wealth and dignity of Bolingbroke, has had to bow
before it and concede that it is all-powerful. And this, because its
founder Jesus Christ is the center of attraction and the
predominating influence.

WHY BOYS DO NOT GO.

Many boys absent themselves from church. Their excuses are

without number and many of them without sense. Burdette, the
Christian humorist, asks: “So you are not going to church this
morning, my son? Ah, yes, I see. ‘The music is not good;’ that’s a
pity! That’s what you go to church for, is it? And ‘the pews are not
comfortable.’ That’s too bad! the Sabbath is a day of rest, and we go
to church for repose. The less we do through the week, the more rest
we clamor for on Sabbath. ‘The church is so far away; it is too far to
walk, and I detest riding in a street-car, and they’re always crowded
on the Sabbath.’ This is, indeed, distressing! Sometimes when I think
how much farther away heaven is than the church, and that there are
no conveyances on the road of any description, I wonder how some
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