HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)

==================================================================

CHAPTER ONE
HIGHWAY ROUTE SURVEYS AND LOCATIONS
4-1Highway Alignment
Definition: The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on
the ground is called the alignment. It is of two type viz horizontal and
vertical

Horizontal alignment is layout of the road on a horizontal plane and consists

of straight paths and curves
Vertical alignment is layout of the road on a vertical plane and consists of
grades and curves
A new road should be properly aligned because improper alignment of a
road facility implies capital loss initially in construction as well as loss in
costs of maintenance and vehicle operation. Once the road is aligned and
constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to increase in cost of
adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the roadside.
An ideal alignment between two terminals should be
 Short 
 A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be several
practical considerations which would cause a deviation from the
shortest path
 Easy 
 Easy for construction
 Easy to maintain
 Easy for operation with easy grades and curves 
 Economical
 Design should consider initial capital cost, maintenance cost, 
and operation cost
 Safe 
 Safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view
point of stability of natural slopes, embankments, cut slopes,
and foundations
 Safe for traffic operations with ease geometric features such as
sharpness of curves, grades, side slopes etc.
Factors Controlling Highway Alignment
The factors controlling a highway alignment include-
• Obligatory Points
i) Points through which the alignment is to pass
 Chosen Bridge Site, Intermediate town to be accessed between
the termini, a mountain pass, etc.
ii) Points which should be avoided
 Areas requiring costly structures, highly developed expensive
areas, marshes and low lying lands subject to flooding, hilly
terrain where there is a possibility of land slides, etc.
– The alignment should suit the traffic requirements
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

• Traffic
– Present and future travel patterns should be observed & forecasted
– Traffic “Desire line” should be drawn showing path of traffic flow
• Geometric Constraints
– Design factors such as max. Gradient, minimum radius of curve,
minimum available sight distance, maximum allowable super-
elevation, etc. should be within the limits of allowable design values
which are governed by the expected traffic speed
• Economy
– Total transportation cost including initial construction cost,
maintenance cost, and operation cost
• Example:
– Deep cuttings, high embankments, no of bridges that need to be
constructed, etc. increases the initial cost of construction.
• Other considerations
– Drainage considerations
– Hydrological factors
– Political considerations
– Monotony
Special considerations on Hilly Roads
• Slope Stability
– A common problem in hill roads is landslide. Special care should be
taken to choose the side that is more stable
• Drainage
– Numerous hill-side drains to adequately drain the water across the
road should be provided
– But, attempts should be made to align the road where the number of
cross-drainage structures are minimized
• Geometry
– Different standards of grades, curves, sight distances, speeds and
other related features are followed in hill roads
• Resisting Length
– The resisting length should be kept as low as possible. Thus, the
ineffective rise and excessive fall should be kept minimum

4.2 Route Location Surveys

• In order to select the best road corridor, the following engineering
surveys are usually carried out:
 Reconnaissance Surveys 
 Preliminary Surveys
 Detailed (Location) Surveys 
Reconnaissance Surveys
• 1st phase of Reconnaissance: Desk Study

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
– Involves an examination of a relatively large area between terminal
points for the purpose of determining a broad corridors through
which a road alignment may pass
– Usually such survey is made by the use of available maps and Aerial
Photographs (stereoscopy)
• Probable Alignment is identified on the map by:
 Avoiding valleys, ponds, etc.;
 Avoiding river bends where bridges should not be located; 
 Keeping in view of geometric standards (e.g. avoiding steep
topographies, etc)
• nd
2 phase of Reconnaissance: Field Study
– Involves inspection of each band (identified during the desk study) to
determine the most feasible route based on some basic criteria
– A survey party inspects a fairly broad stretch of land along the
proposed routes identified on the map during the 1st phase and
collects all relevant details not available on the map
– Some of the details include:
• Valley, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent
structures, & other obstructions;
• Gradient, length of gradient, and radius of curves;
• Number & types of cross-drainage structures, and maximum flood
level;
• Soil types from field identification;
• Sources of construction materials, water and location stone quarries;
• Geological formation, type of rock, depth of strata, seepage flow, etc
to identify stable sides of a hill
– A rapid field study of the area, especially, when it is vast and the
terrain is difficult may be done by aerial survey.
From the details collected during the reconnaissance survey the proposed
alignments are weighted or evaluated against the basic criteria to determine
the most feasible one.
Criteria to evaluate the most feasible routes
• Design standards
– Minimum design standards (max permissible gradient, etc ) are
normally fixed prior to the survey and any one of the feasible routes
that economically fits in these standards would be practicable.
• Grading and Earthwork
– Grading is a function if ruggedness (severity) of terrain and routes
following the contour of the area is cheaper than one that cuts the
natural ground slope.
– The type of material encountered is another factor in the cost of
earthwork. Excavation of Hard Rock might need blasting and thus
expensive!!
• Foundation Conditions
– Complete foundation study is not done during Reconnaissance, but
the presence of Marshy and bogy areas are unsuitable
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
• Geological Conditions
– Related to stability of side slopes, good quality and quantity of
construction materials near site
• Drainage
– Likely surface & sub-surface drainage problems, type and number of
drainage structures
• Right of Way
– Acquisition of land for the location of a transportation system may
cost much; shifting the alignment a little may reduce the cost
considerably
• Effect on Population
– Services offering the nearby population, its effect on the development
of the community – schools, churches, public buildings, etc,
undesirable effects such as pollution, etc
• Traffic Characteristics
– How best will a route fit with traffic requirements of the area
• Maintenance Costs
– An extraordinary maintenance cost (landslide, etc), and user costs
from inconveniency due to closure of the facility due to maintenance
problems
After evaluating the alternative routes proposed, one or more routes will
be recommended. If more than one routes passed the reconnaissance
survey detail study is made to choose one best route in the preliminary
survey.
Preliminary Surveys
• Consists of running an accurate traverse line along the routes already
recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey in order to obtain
sufficient data for final location
• Objectives
– Survey and collect necessary data (topography, drainage, soil, etc.) on
alternate alignments
– To estimate quantity of earthwork, material, of different alternatives
– Compare alternate alignments
– Finalize the best alignment from all considerations
• The preliminary survey may be carried out by one of the following two
methods:
– Modern: Aerial Survey – using photo interpretation techniques,
information on topography, soil, geology, etc. can be obtained
– Conventional: a survey part carries out surveys using the require
field equipment taking measurements, collecting topographical and
other data and carrying out soil survey
Conventional Method
 Establishing primary Traverse following the line recommended in the
reconnaissance survey
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
 Record all topographical features
 Levelling work: to determine the Centre Line, Profile & Typical Cross-
sections (just sufficient to approximate earthwork)
 Hydrological Data: to estimate type, number, & size of cross-drainage
structures, and the grade line is decided based on the hydrological
and drainage data
 Soil Survey: the suitability of proposed alignment is to be finally
decided based on the soil survey data. The soil survey at this stage
helps to workout details of earthwork, slopes, suitability of materials,
sub-soil and surface drainage requirements, pavement type and
approximate thickness requirements
After finishing the preliminary survey
Select the most suitable alignment by conducting a comparative study
considering economy, geometry, etc.
Final Location Survey
Purpose
To fix the centre line of the selected alignment and collect additional data
for the design and preparation of working drawings. If extensive data is
collected earlier the survey work here might be limited.
Tasks during Final Location Survey
• Pegging the centre line: usually done at stations established at 30m
intervals with reference to preliminary traverse/ base line (if used
earlier) or a control survey (if aerial survey was used).
• Centre-line Levelling: at the stations and at intermediate points
between stations where there is a significant change in the slope to
obtain the representative profile of the ground
• Cross-section Levelling: at each station (!) and at points with
significant change in ground slope
• Intersecting Roads: the directions of the centre line of all intersecting
roads, profiles, and cross-sections for some distance on both sides
• Ditches and Streams: horizontal alignment, profile, and cross section
levelling of the banks of the stream/river
Drawings & Reports
• The data, after the necessary investigation and final location survey, is
sent to the design office to be used for
– Geometric design, pavement design, and design of drainage and other
structures, preparation of drawings, reports, and specifications
• A complete set of drawings for a road design includes:
 Site plan of proposed alignment 
 Detailed Plan & Profile
 Cross-sections for Earth work
 Typical Roadway sections at selected locations (e.g. junctions) 
 A mass-haul diagram
 Construction details of structures like bridges, culverts, .
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
CHAPTER TWO
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
5.1) INTRODUCTION
Highway geometric design involves the design of geometric elements of a
highway and fixation of standards with respect to various components.
It is dictated within economic limitations to satisfy the requirements of
traffic in designing elements such as
 Cross-section
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment 
 Sight distances
 Lateral and vertical clearances 
 Intersection,
 Etc. 
The safety, efficiency, and economic operation of a highway is governed
largely by the care with which the above geometric design elements are
worked out. The design engineer has to consider the following points when
selecting design standards
 Volume and composition of traffic in the design year should be the basis of
design
 Faulty geometries are costly to rectify at a later date 
 The design should be consistent and the standards used for the different
elements should be compatible with one another
 The design should embrace all aspects of design including signs, markings,
lighting, etc.
 The road should be considered as an element of the total environment and
its location and design should enhance rather than degrade the
environment
 The design should minimize the total transportation cost
 Safety should be built in the design 
 The design should be enabled all road users to use the facility
5.2) DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA
The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of design controls,
engineering criteria, and project specific objectives which include
 Functional classification of the road 
 Design traffic volume and composition
 Nature of terrain 
 Design speed
 Density and character of adjoining land use
 Economic & Environmental Considerations (right of way impact and cost) 

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
 Road users characteristics
 Vehicle size and performance 
 Level of service to be provided
 Available fund 
 Safety, etc.
5.2.1) Highway Functional Classification (Road Hierarchy)
Objectives in setting a hierarchy
 To obtain best use of an existing network 
 To ensure that each type of traffic is using the most appropriate route
 To minimize the risk to users and to the natural built environment
 To ensure better management, maintenance regimes and design policies 
 To ensure funding for routes is targeted appropriately
Roads are therefore classified according to their respective functions in
terms of the character of the services they are providing.
The most frequently used functional classification includes
 Principal arterial
 Minor arterial
 Major collectors 
 Minor collectors
 Local roads ( streets) 
ERA with corresponding classification
 Trunk roads(class1) 
 Link roads(class2)
 Access road(class3)
 Collector roads (class4) 
 Feeder roads(class5)
Trunk roads: - are roads linking the capital city with centers of
international importance and inter boundaries. They carry present AADT
≥1000, although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT.They are
numbered with an “A “prefix. An example is Addis –Gondar road (A3).
Link roads:-are roads linking centers of national importance or
international importance such as principal towns and urban centers. They
carry 400- 1000, 1st year AADT although the values can range from 50-
1000AADT. They are numbered with a "B" prefix. An example of a typical
link road is the Woldiya-Debre Tabor-Woreta Road (B22), which links, for
instance, Woldiya on Road A2 with Bahir Dar of Road A3.
Access roads:-are roads that link centers of provincial importance and 1st
year AADT ranges between 30-1000.they are numbered with a "C" prefix.
Collector roads: - Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to
a more important center, or to higher class roads must be linked by a
collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-400. They are numbered
with a "D" prefix.
Feeder roads: - Any road link to a minor center such as market and local
locations is served by a feeder road. First year AADTs are between 0-100.
They are numbered with an "E" prefix.

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to
provide mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The
roads of intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and
access.

Table 5-1: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT

Road Functional Design Design Traffic Surface Width (m) Design Speed (km/hr) Urba
Classification Standard Flow (AADT)* Type n/Peri
Carriagewa Shoulder Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpme -
y nt Urba
n

DS1 10000–**15000 Paved ***

Dual 2 x See T.4-2 120 100 85 70 50
7.3

DS2 5000–10000 Paved 7.3 See T.4-2 120 100 85 70 50

T
R
U
DS3 1000–5000 Paved 7.0 See T.4-2 100 85 70 60 50
N
L K
M I
A N DS4 200–1000 Paved 6.7 See T.4-2 85 70 60 50 50
I K
N
DS5 100– 200 Unpaved 7.0 See T.4-2 70 60 50 40 50
C
O A
L C DS6 50–100 Unpaved 6.0 See T.4-2 60 50 40 30 50
E C
C E
T S DS7 30–75 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2 60 50 40 30 50
F O S
E R
E S
DS8 25–50 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2 60 50 40 30 50
D
E
R
DS9 0–25 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2 60 40 30 20 40

DS10 0–15 Unpaved 3.3 See T.4-2 60 40 30 20 40

* The design two-way traffic flow is recommended to be not more than one Design Standard step in excess of the first year AADT
(excluding DS7). ** For traffic volume more than 15000 a different design approach should be followed. *** The width of each lane is
3.65m
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Table 5-2: Shoulder Widths

Design Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) Town Section Widths (m)

Standard Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Shoulder Parking Foot
Lane*** Way Median!

DS1 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5(min) 5.0
(min)
DS2 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 Barrier!
DS3 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
3.0++ 3.0++
DS4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
+++
DS5* 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
DS6** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5+++ 2.5 n/a
DS7 1.0 1.0 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
(earth) (earth)
DS8** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS9** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS10** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a

* Shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 4-1

** Shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 4-1
*** To be provided where urbanization requires this facility
+ Where these classes of roads pass through urban areas, the road shall be designed to Standard DS6
++ The actual shoulder width provided shall be determined from an assessment of the total traffic flow and
level of non-motorized traffic for each road section
+++ Depending on the development of the town & Includes a shoulder

! Median with trees (DS1) is allowed for cross section shown in the table i.e. 2 lane +parking lane + Footway
if otherwise the median should be a covered and an open one without trees or a lower width of a median barrier
shall be designed. Similarly for DS2 Roads in the town section i.e. one lane + parking lane +footway should
have a covered median with no trees or other wise a lower width of a median barrier should be designed.
5.2.2) NATURE OF TERRAIN
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain
through which the road passes. Transverse terrain properties are
categorized into four classes as follows:
FLAT: - Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the
construction of a road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal and
vertical alignment (the transverse terrain slope is up to 5 percent).
ROLLING: - Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise
and fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered,
resulting in some restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope vary
from 5 percent to 25 percent).
MOUNTAINOUS: - Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river
gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of
alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight
distance. (Transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 50 percent).

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

ESCARPMENT: Escarpment include situations where switchback roadway

sections are used or side hill transverse sections which cause considerable
earthwork quantities, with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent.
 In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and
higher standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads
in either flat or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and
therefore adjust their driving accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will
therefore vary with transverse terrain.
5.2.3) TRAFFIC VOLUME AND COMPOSITION
Traffic data indicates the service for which the road is being planned and
directly affects the geometric elements such as width, alignment, etc,
Important points regarding traffic composition and volume.
 Traffic volume: – in terms of AADT, ADT, PHV, DHV
 Directional distribution: – the percentage of traffic volume flowing in each
direction
 Traffic composition – the percentage of different types of vehicles in the
traffic stream different types of vehicles are converted into passenger car
unit (pcu) to design a road width
 Traffic projection – using the design period of a road (5-20 years) a
reliable traffic projection should be made considering the following
elements
5.2.4) TRAFFIC CAPACITY/ROAD CAPACITY/
Traffic capacity of a road facility is the number of vehicles passing at a point
per unit time under a given prevailing conditions.
The maximum traffic flow occurs when the speed falls down to nearly a half
of the free-flow speed, And Hence it is not desirable to design the road
facility for maximum capacity conditions.
Factors affecting traffic capacity include:
 Roadway factors – geometric characteristics such as number of
lanes, lane width, shoulder width, horizontal and vertical
alignments, lateral and vertical clearances, design speed,
pavement surface conditions etc.
 Traffic factors – composition of traffic, lane distribution, variation 
in traffic flow, traffic interruptions, etc.
 Traffic control conditions – traffic signs, traffic signals, traffic 
regulation, etc.
Without the consideration of these factors, early attempts were made to
determine capacity using
1000V
C=
d

Where c= capacity (vehicle/hr/lane)

V= speed in km/hr
d=average headway distance (m).

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
The value of d can be determined from actual observations or can be
calculated from consideration of perception breaking
L

Car1 Car2

d
distance.
Given by the formula
d=L+0.278Vt +V2/254f =(L+SSD)
example:-determine the capacity of a single lane rural highway designed at
50km/hr. the average length of a passenger car can be taken to be 5m.the
perception breaking reaction time is 2.5 sec.the coefficient of friction f can
be assumed to be 0.5
Design Traffic Volume
An influencing factor in the development of road design standards, and in
particular the design speed, is the volume and composition of traffic. The
design of a road should be based in part on factual traffic volumes. Traffic
indicates the need for improvement and directly affects features of design
such as widths, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data for a road or section
of road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms of annual
average daily traffic (AADT).
Using road functional classification selection and design traffic flow, a design
class, or standard, is selected from Table 5-1, with reference to the design
parameters associated with that class.

The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from

feeder to main collector to link then to the trunk roads. However, the actual
flows will vary from region to region and it is important that the designation
of a road by functional type should not give rise to over-design for the traffic
levels actually encountered.

Design classes DS1 to DS10 have associated bands of traffic flow as was
shown in Table 5-1.The range of flows extends from less than 20 to 15,000
motorized vehicles per day (excluding motorcycles), and covers the design
conditions for all single and dual carriageway roads.

A lthough the levels of flow at which design standards change are based
on the best current evidence, the somewhat subjective boundaries
should be treated as approximate in the light of uncertainties inherent in
traffic estimation and future forecasting. Therefore, the Design Traffic Flow
shall normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher
than the average daily traffic (AADT) in the first year of opening. For
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
example, a road with a first year traffic flow of 190 vehicles per day rising to
1,100 vehicles per day in the last year of it’s design life, should be
constructed to Design Class DS4 rather than Design Class DS3 (see Table
5.1)
The design traffic flow band in this case is therefore 200 – 1000 vehicles per
day (DS4) Design to the higher Design Class DS3 would result in an over-
design of the road during almost the whole of the life of the road and may
provide a solution that was less than economic.
Notes
It may be desirable, especially for primary roads, to develop geometric
standards that are consistent despite variations in traffic volumes.
Conversely, a policy dependent on AADT would result in a more
economical allocation or resources. This dichotomy requires a special
attention of the engineer in choosing the geometric design parameters.
The geometric standards for low volume roads have less importance
than whether a road exists and whether it is passable at all times. In
such circumstances, it is appropriate to adopt inexpensive standards
that enable the further developments of a system of such feeder roads at
minimal cost. This policy encourages overall national economic
development.

5.2.5) Design Speed

Design speed is the max safe speed selected for designing specific section of
road Considering the terrain, land use, classification of the road, etc.
It is the speed of a design vehicle in certain portion of the road that most of
the drivers are using. It is used as an index, which links road function,
traffic flow, and terrain to the design parameters of sight distance and
curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a reasonably consistent
speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained to
minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric
elements.
Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, super
elevation, sight distance, and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with
design speed. Thus, all of the geometric design parameters of a road are
directly related to the selected design speed. The design speeds given in
Table 5-1 have been determined in accordance with the following guidelines:
(i) Drivers on long-distance journeys are able to travel at higher speeds
than local traffic.
(ii) On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high
speeds are undesirable.
(iii) Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and
prevailing traffic conditions. Where a difficult location is obvious to
the driver, he is more apt to accept a lower speed of operation.
.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
(iv) Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs)
may justify a higher design speed for a road carrying large volumes
of traffic than for a less heavily trafficked road in similar topography.
(v) Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class,
should not be affected abruptly, but over sufficient distances to
enable drivers to change speed gradually. The change in design
speed should not be greater than one design speed step, and the
section with the lower geometric standards should be long enough to
be clearly recognizable by drivers (not, for example, just one single
curve).
(vi) It is often the case that the physical terrain changes two steps, i.e.-
from mountainous to flat terrain. Where possible in such
circumstances, a transition section of road shall be provided with
limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where this
is not possible, i.e.- a Departure from Standards, special attention
shall be given to the application of warning signs and/or rumble
strips to alert the driver to the changing conditions.
It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen
design speed should ensure a safe design. The various design elements have
to be combined in a balanced way, avoiding the application of minimum
values for one or a few of the elements at a particular location when the
other elements are considerably above the minimum requirements.
The speed that a driver adopts on a road depends on:
 Physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings 
 Weather conditions of the area
 Presence of other vehicles and the nature of these vehicles, and
 Speed limitations placed upon the vehicles either by law or by mechanical
devices fitted in vehicles
5.2.6) Design Vehicle
Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are
controls in geometric design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions
affecting design include power to weight ratio, minimum turning radius and
travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road elements
affected include the selection of maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal
curve widening, and junction design.
Note: The present vehicle fleet in Ethiopia includes a high number of four-
wheel drive utility vehicles and overloaded trucks. Until information that is
more detailed becomes available regarding the makeup of the vehicle fleet in
Ethiopia, the four design vehicles indicated in Table 5-3 should be used in
the control of geometric design:

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Table 5-3: Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics

Design Vehicle Design Overall (m) Overhang Wheelbase Min.

Vehicle (m) (m) Design
Designation Height Width Length Front Rear Turning
Radius (m)
4x4 Utility Vehicle DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Single Unit Truck DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Single Unit Bus DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4= 13.7
Combination 13.2

The maximum turning path for a single unit truck, a single unit bus, and a semi-trailer
combination are shown in Figures 5-1 through 5-3, respectively.

Figure 5-1: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck (DV2)

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Figure 5-2: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)

Figure 5-3: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination (15m overall) also
Applicable for Truck
: Roads conforming to Design Standards DS1 trough DS5 should be designed to
accommodate the most restrictive of the above design vehicle. Standards DS6 and DS7, two
lane roads should accommodate all but the semi-trailer combination DV4. Standards DS8
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
and DS9, for single lane roads should be designed similarly to DS6 and DS7; and Standard
DS10 roads need only accommodate the requirements for utility vehicle and passenger cars -
DV1.
5.2.7) Density and Character of Adjoining Land Use
For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed selection is influenced
by other factors. In such areas, speed controls are frequently included.
Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by the presence of other vehicles
traveling in and across the through lanes, physical and right-of-way
constraints, together with pedestrian and safety considerations. However, of
note is the fact that the present speed limit through villages is 30 km/h. It
is possible that this limit will be increased in the future. A design speed
through peri-urban or urban areas of 50 km/h shall be used; although such
segments are posted presently at 30 km/h. Legal speed limits should not
necessarily be used as design parameters.
Road Cross Section Elements
A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs,
drainage features, and earthwork profiles. These terms are shown in fig. 4-4
below.

Figure 5-4 Road Cross Section Elements

Major elements are defined here for clarity:

 Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving
traffic, including traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and
deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays
and lay-byes.
.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
 Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking
lanes and viewing areas.
 Earthwork profiles- include side slopes and back slopes.

Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and
characteristics of the terrain. The cross-section may vary over a particular
route because these controlling factors vary. The basic requirements are,
however, that changes in cross-section standards shall be uniform within
each sub-section of the route and that any changes of the cross-section
shall be effected gradually and logically over a transition length. Abrupt or
isolated changes in cross-section standards lead to increased hazards and
reduced traffic capacity and complicate construction operations.
In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated reductions
in cross-section standards, for example when an existing narrow structure
has to be retained because it is not economically feasible to replace it. In
such cases a proper application of traffic signs and road markings is
required to warn motorists of the discontinuity in the road. However, all
such narrow structures must be widened or replaced however when the
width across the structure is less than the adjacent carriageway width.

ROAD WIDTH

Road width should be minimized so as to reduce the costs of construction

and maintenance, whilst being sufficient to carry the traffic loading
efficiently and safely.
The following factors need to be taken into account when selecting the width
of a road:
i. Classification of the road: A road is normally classified according to its
function in the road network. The higher the class of road, the higher
the level of service expected and the wider the road will need to be.
ii. Traffic: Heavy traffic volumes on a road mean that passing of
oncoming vehicles and overtaking of slower vehicles are more frequent
and therefore the paths of the vehicles will be further from the center
line of the road and the traffic lanes should be wider.
iii. Vehicle dimension: Normal steering deviations and tracking errors,
particularly of heavy vehicles, reduce clearances between passing
vehicles. Higher truck percentages require wider traffic lanes.
iv. Vehicle speed: As speed increase, drivers have less control of the
lateral position of vehicles, reducing clearances, and so wider traffic
lanes are needed.
LANE WIDTHS
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the
width of the carriageway. The wider 3.65m lane provides desired clearances
between large commercial vehicles on two-way rural highways.

Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume roads. Standards for

carriageway widths are shown in Table 5-1 for all Road Design Standards.
Tip: The carriageway width should be increased on low radius curves to
allow the swept paths of longer vehicles and the necessary tolerances
flow a curve path. Widening may occur in high fill embankments of
tangent portion. Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate
traffic movement.

SHOULDERS

A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway:

© For the accommodation of stopped vehicles;
© Traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and
pedestrians;
© Emergency use;
© The recovery of errant vehicles; and
© Lateral support of the pavement courses.

Shoulder widths vs. design standards, terrain type, and urban/rural

environment are presented in Table 5-2. They vary from no shoulder on
minor rural roads where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or even greater
sealed shoulder on major roads depending on the terrain and design
classification. Wider configurations cater to the need for a parking lane in
urban/peri-urban areas where paved carriageways exist.

Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a
single bituminous surface treatment. The followings are advantages of
sealed shoulder, it would:
© Prevent edge raveling and maintenance problems associated with
parking on a gravel shoulder,
© Provide paved space for vehicular parking outside of the traffic flow,
© Provide a better surface for vehicles experiencing emergency repairs,
© Provide for the very heavy pedestrian traffic observed in the villages,
traffic that would otherwise, especially during inclement weather, use
the roadway.
Tip: All of the above also indicate an improvement in terms of roadway
safety.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 meters in urban/peri-urban
areas where a provision for a parking lane is required. The degree of
urbanization determines whether a parking lane is required. In urban
areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed.

In cases where terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and
where the shoulder width could only be maintained through an excessive
volume of earthwork – e.g. at escarpment conditions, standards can be
reduced through the Departure from Standard process.

NORMAL CROSS FALL

Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide

adequate surface drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering
difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water varies with its smoothness
and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of cross fall
should be related to the need to carry surface water away from the
pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion
of material starts to become a problem.

According to ERA manual, the normal cross fall should be 2.5 percent on
paved roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads. Shoulders having the same
surface as the roadway should have the same normal cross fall. Unpaved
shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the cross fall
of the roadway. The precise choice of normal cross fall on unpaved roads
will vary with construction type and material rather than any geometric
design requirement.

SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES

Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to
provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety
aspects: the top of the slope (hinge point), the side slope, and the toe of the
slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back slope,
forming a ditch). Figure 4-5 illustrates these three regions.

Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly

(1) HINGE POINT

CARRIAGEWAY (2) SIDESLOPE

(5) BACKSLOPE

(4) DITCH BOTTOM

SHOULDER
.
(3) TOE OF SLOPE
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
reduce the hazard potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is
also beneficial.
Figure 5-5: Designation of Roadside Regions
Source: AASHTO

Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as

recoverable, non-recoverable, or critical. Recoverable slopes include all
embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter. Motorists who encroach on recoverable
slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return to the
roadway safely. Fixed obstacles such as culvert head walls should not
extend above the embankment within the clear zone distance.

A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from

which most motorists will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway
easily. Typically, vehicles on such slopes typically can be expected to reach
the bottom. Embankments between 1:3 and 1:4 generally fall into this
category.

Since a high percentage of encroaching vehicles will reach the toe of these
slopes, the clear zone distance extends beyond the slope, and a clear runout
area at the base is desirable.

A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper

than 1:3 generally fall into this category.

The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety

considerations, height of cut or fill, and economic considerations. Table 5-4
indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design according
to the height of fill and cut, and the material.

Table 5-4: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal [ERA]

Material Height of Side Slope Back Zone
Slope Cut Fill Slope Description
0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
Earth or Soil 1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-
recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock 0.0 - 2.0m 1:2 5:4 - Critical
Over 2.0m 1:4 1:1 -

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

However, this table should be used as a guide only, particularly as concerns

applicable standards in rock cuts, where a controlling influence is cost.
Slope configuration and treatments in areas with identified slope stability
problems should be addressed as a final design issue.

ROADSIDE DITCHES

When a highway is located in cut, runoff may be collected in shallow ditches

till discharged by cross drainage (culverts or bridges). Ditches are typically
have a trapiziodal, triangular, or rounded shapes. But usually ditches are
constructed in a shallow V- shaped section, since this section:
© Is easily maintained by graders
© Is less hazardous to vehicles, and
© Permitte the shallow flow necessary to avoid erosion.
However, in urban areas trapezoidal sections are used.

The cross section should be deep enough to convey the design storm flow to
a discharge point. For larger water flows than the capacity of a shallow
ditch, paved gutters or drain pipes with larger capacities will have to be
used.

According to ERA, however, a summary of minimum ditch dimensions is

given as follows. Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in
mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using a “v-
ditch” configuration. The side slope and back slope of ditches should
generally be no less than 1:2; however, these slopes should conform to the
slopes given in Table 5-4.

Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as
black cotton soils. Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a
minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of the embankment, dependent on
functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in Figure 4-6. The
ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom configuration.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Figure 4-6: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils [ERA]

CLEAR ZONE
Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result
of an encroachment depends upon the physical characteristics of the
roadside environment. Flat, traversable, stable slopes will minimize
overturning accidents, which are usually severe. Elimination of roadside
furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas are options in the
development of safer roadsides. If a fixed object or other roadside hazard
cannot be eliminated, relocated, modified, or shielded, for whatever reason,
consideration should be given to delineating the feature so it is readily
visible to a motorist.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside
recovery area that is as wide as practical on a specific highway section. The
cleared width should be a minimum of 15 meters each side from the edge of
the roadway for the higher road standards.
It should extend beyond the toe of the slope. Lateral clearances between
roadside objects and obstructions and the edge of the carriageway should
normally be not less than 1.5 meters.

Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of

1.0m from the edge of the carriageway.
RIGHT-OF-WAY
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road
width and to enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads.
The width of right-of-way depends on the cross section elements of the
highway, topography and other physical controls together with economic
considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient right-of-way to
accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate border
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
areas, right-of-way widths should be limited to a practical minimum in both
rural and developed areas affecting the economy of the inhabitants.

Right of ways will be equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left
and to the right of the carriageway. It should always be determined and
shown on the final design plans of road projects.

Road reserve widths applicable for the different road classes are
50m,30m,and 20m for DS1-DS5,DS6 & DS7, and DS8-DS10 respectively. In
mountainous or escarpment terrain, a cut section may be of such depth
that the right-of-way width is exceeded from the top of cut on one side to the
other top of cut.

Tip: Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found
necessary for economic, financial or environmental reasons in order to
preserve valuable land, resources or existing development or when
provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs
because of physical constraints. In such cases, it is recommended that
the right-of-way should extend a minimum of a nominal 3 meters from
the edges of the road works. However, where this occurs, it is advisable
to restrict building activity along the road to prevent overcrowding, to
preserve space for future improvements, and to provide for sight
distances at curves. The distance across the carriageway from building
line to building line should be a minimum of 15m.

For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road reserve
width above the given values.

MEDIAN
A road on which traffic in one direction of travel is separated from that in
the opposite direction is called a divided highway and dividing a strip in the
middle of the road way is known as median strip.

Positive segregation of traffic between opposing streams is essential for

efficient and safe movement of vehicles in the two directions. Median strips
are required on very busy roads, which have four or more lanes, especially
in crowded cities. Median strips from 3to 9m wide are recommended. If
these strips are narrow, separation is provided by raised kerbs and where
greater space not available. In addition to expensive road lands, medians are
narrowed at grade separation to effect reduction in the length or width of
structures.

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Wide median strips are to be preferred for the following reasons:
 Chance of accidents resulting in head collusion are reduced,
 Head light glare at night from opposite direction is less troublesome,
 At intersections these provides a refuge for the cross traffic. 

Sight Distances
To promote adequate safety and also to have the maximum capacity on roads, it is necessary
that the road be open to view from all points from a distance known as sight distance,
sufficient for a driver to see ahead and control the speed or adjust the path of the vehicle in
order to avoid any stationary obstruction or to stop the vehicle well in time, or to cross a
moving vehicle safely with out collision.
Sight distances are of three
 Stopping sight distance
 Passing sight distance 
 Intersection sight distance
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
It is the total distance traveled by a given vehicle before stopping during three time interval.
1st –the time required for the driver to perceive(dp)
2nd – the time required for the driver to react (dr)
3rd – the time elapsed between reaction of the driver against the situation and stopping of the
vehicle (db)
dp+dr=0.278Vt,
db= v2/254(f ±g)
Therefore the minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the
following formula, which takes into account both the driver reaction time
and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The formula is:

V2
d = (0.278)(t)(V ) +
254( f ± g )

d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
g=the grade in decimal

Actual field tests have indicated that as speed increases the perception
reaction time decreases and vice versa.
Example:-calculate the SSD for a road designed at 50km/hr. assume co-
efficient of friction between the tyre and the road is 0.4and PIEV time =3
sec.
a) When the road is leveled
b) When the road has 6% slopes

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE: SINGLE LANE ROADS
Certain classes of roads only have a single lane, with passing pullouts. In these
circumstances, a stopping sight distance is required to enable both approaching drivers to
stop. This distance is the sum of the stopping sight distance for the two vehicles, plus a 30-
meter safety distance.

Passing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way two lane roads that must
be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area, the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the roadway.
Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen
cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care must be exercised
in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be obscured in
the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1)
2
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver,
=it varies from 30-90
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less
the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Figure 7-4: Passing Sight Distance

Example:-calculate the passing sight distance requirement of a road

designed at 50km/hr, assuming rate of acceleration a= 4km/hr/sec,
t1=3sec, t2=7sec.and m = 15km/hr.

Criteria for measuring sight distance.

According to AASHTO 1994
Sight distance height of eye height of object
SSD 1.07m (pc) 0.15m
(2.4m) (large truck)
PSD 1.07m 1.3m
(2.4m)

Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to

meet the minimum requirements. The following values should be used for
the determination of sight lines (see Figures 7-1 and 7-2):

Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters

Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Figure 7-1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag

Figure 7-2: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest

On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance
(see Figure 7-3).

Figure 7-3: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Relevant formulae are as follows:

Sight Line (S) = 2R sin D where D = Deflection angle (o)

2
Middle ordinate (M) = R (1-cos D )
2
Example: Radius = 1000 meters, D = 20o;
S = 2R sin D M = R (1 – cos D)
2 2
0
= 2(1000)(sin 10 ) = 1000(1- cos 10o)
= 347 meters = 15.2 meters
The available sight distance needs to be checked separately for both stopping and passing
sight distance, for each direction of travel

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
A horizontal alignment consists of a series of intersecting tangents and circular curves,
with or with out transition curves. This alignment should always be designed to the highest
standard consistence with the topography and be chosen carefully:
to provide good drainage, 
to minimize earthwork, and
to achieve a uniform operating speed.

Since the horizontal alignment is developed to accommodate a given design speed, typically
the alignment dimensions and distance are tabulated in a manner that facilitates
construction staking as conducted by a field surveying crew.
Tip: Elements must be considered in horizontal alignment are:
· Minimum curve radius (max. degree of curve);
· Minimum length of tangent between compounds or reveres curves;
· Transition curve parameters; and
· Minimum passing sight distance and stopping sight distance on horizontal
curves.

TANGENT SECTIONS
From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat country but
are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they provide better
visibility and more passing opportunities. However, long tangent sections increase the
danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. In hot climate areas,
long tangents have been shown to increase driver fatigue and hence cause accidents. This
issue needs to be addressed in the course of the horizontal design. According to ERA, the
maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed 4.0 kilometers.
On the other hand, short straights between curves in the same direction should not be
used because of the broken back effect. In such a cases where reasonable tangent length is
not attainable, the use of long, transition, or compound curves should be considered.
Tip:
The unavoidable broken back effect may be improved by the introduction of a sag
curve.
The followings are guidelines concerning length of straights: 


HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
1. Straights 20V meter, V=design speed in KPH
2. Straights between circular curves turning in the same direction > 6V meter, V=in KPH
3. Straights between the end and the beginning of untransitioned reverse circular curves should have
> 2/3 of the minimum of total super elevation run-off.
CURVES
Curves are provided on the highway in order that the change of direction at the intersection
of straight alignments in horizontal plane shall be gradual. The necessity of providing
curves arises due to the following reasons:
1. Topography of the country
2. To provide access to a particular locality.
3. Restriction imposed by some unavailable reasons of land, etc
4. Preservation of existing amenities
5. Avoiding of certain religious, monumental, or some other structures.
6. Making use of existing sight of ways.
The following factors will influence the design of curves:
 Design speed of the vehicles, 
 Allowable friction,
 Maximum permissible super-elevation, and 
 Permissible centrifugal ratio.
Curves are of two types, viz, horizontal and vertical. The horizontal curves allow change
indirection of the road while the vertical curves allow change in gradient.
The horizontal curves used in the design of highways are:
i. Circular curves: are of three type a) simple b) compound, and c) reverse circular
curves
ii. Transition curves: can be divided into four group
a. True spiral or clothoid,
b. Cubic spiral,
c. Cubic parabola, and
d. Lemniscates
. CIRCULAR CURVES
a) Simple Circular Curves
A simple circular curve consists of a single arc connecting two straights. The following
figure illustrates how two tangents are joined by simple circular curve and show same
related circular curve terminologies.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

PI D
a
E = External Distance
T T
P L = Arc Length BC toEC
M= Mid-ordinate
BC D/2 D/2 EC
C = Chord Length Forward Tangent
Back Tangent
R
R Stations Increasing
0+000
D/2 D/2
q
O
f

y
P
100
x
l = Arc Length BC to P

R
R
D= central angle for 100ft (m)
q arc

Fig. 4-14: Simple circular curve elements [terminology].

Variables

PC, TC, BC = Point of Curvature,[Tangent to Curves], Beginning of Curve

PT, CT, EC = Point Of Tangent, [Curvet to Tangent End Of Curves]
PI = Point of tangent Intersections
D =Deflection [central] angle
L =length of curve [BC to EC]
= Length of arc [BC to P]
q =Central angle for arc length
T= subs tangent length [BC to PI & PI to EC]
F = Deflection angle at PC between tangent and chord for P
a =Deflection angle at PI between tangent and line from PI to P
x =tangent distance from BC to P
y = tangent offset p
D = Degree of curvature
R = Radius of curve
E = External distance [from PI to the mid of circular curve]
M = Middle ordinate [distance from the middle of curve to the middle of
Chord]
C =Chord length [straight distance from BC to EC]
Circular Curve Equations
1. Degree of Curvature, D
The sharpness of the curve is determined by the choice of the radius [R]; larger radius
curves are relatively flat, where as small radius curves are relative sharp.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Many highway agencies use the concept of degree of curve (D) to define the curve. Degree of
curve D is defined to be that the central angle subtained by 100 ft (m) of arc (i.e. arc
definition). In railway design, D is defined to be the central angle subtended by 100ft (m)
of chord (i.e. chord definition).

L 100

R
50
D 50
R

D 0.5D 0.5D

Fig.4-15; Relationship between the degree of curve (D)

and the circle for 100 ft (m) arc stations.

From figure,
D0 360 0 5729.58
Arc definition; = =>D =
100 2pR R
Thus, L=100 D
D
Chord definition: sin [D/2] = 50/R
 R = 50Cosec[D/2]

Tip:

20
In condition when one station is 20m, shall multiply the above relation.
 100
Sub arc angle, d i = angle subtended by an arc less than 100ft (m) x i.
di /xi = D/100
 R
  di = D* x i /100 
 di xi < 100

Sub chord angle, C i = angle subtended by a chords less than 100ft (m) y i

Sin (Ci 2 ) = 2Ryi

Þ yi = 2R sin(Ci 2)
R
For, R = 50Csc( D
2) Ci 2
D
yi = 10Csc ( 2 ) sin çè
æ Ci
2
ö
÷
ø
Ci 2

2) Radius of curve, R yi < 100

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
5729.58
i. By Arc definition R=
D
ii. By chord definition, R =50Csc[D/2]
D
3) Tangent distance, T =R tan ( )
2
[
4) External distance, E = R Sec D -1
2
]
2pRD pRD
5) Length of curve, L=
D360 = 180 = 100 D
6) Middle ordinate, M = R 1 - cos D 2

7) Chord from BC to EC, C = 2R sin D

2
8) Deflection angle between tangent and C and chord for P, F
D
F= - Between tangent and chord C
2
D
F=q 2= - Deflection angle between tangent and chord for P.
200
100q
NB: = length of arc (PC to P) =
D
9) For any tangent distance x,
Tangent offset P, y = R - R2 - x2
10) For any arc length
x = R sin q
y = R(1-cos q )
11) Point of curvature (PC) station, PC = PI –T
12) Point of tangent (PT) station, PT =PC + L

Remarks

The use of degree curvature and chord length in the design of circular curves primarily
stems from the methods used in surveying to locate and stake out the highway curves for
construction. Typically, a surveyor would place his instrument at a point on the tangent
where the curve begins and then incrementally turn angles equivalent to D and measure
calculate chord distance until the entire length of the curve was locate.

The length of the radius is not as useful in field stake-out activities because the center of
the curve is typically to locate a considerable distance from the construction area.

Most curve problems are calculated from fields measurement ( D and the chain age of PI)
and from design parameters (R). Given R (which is dependant on the design speed) and D ,
all others curve components can be computed.

Setting Our Curves

This is the process of establishing the centerline of the curve on the ground by means of
pegs at 10m to 30m intervals. In order to do this the tangent and intersection points must
first be fixed in the ground, in their correct positions.

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

I2 D2

0+000
T3 T4
Origion

T2

T1

I1 D1

F ig. 4-16: Setting out of curves.

The straight OI 1, I 1I 2, I2 I3 etc, will have been designed on the plan in the first instance.
Appropriate curves will now be designed to connect the straight. The tangent point of these
curves will then be fixed, making sure that the tangent lengths are equal, i.e. T 1I 1 = T2I 1 and
T3 I2 = T4 I 2.

The difference of the bearing of the straights Provides the deflection angle ( D ) of the curves,
which combined with the tangent length, enables chain age and all setting out date.

The tangent and intersection points are set out from existing control survey stations and
the curves ranged between them using any one of the following method:

1. Setting out with theodolite and tape

2. Setting out with two theodolites
3. Setting out using EDM
4. Setting out using coordinates
5. Setting out with two tapes [method of offsets]
6. Setting out by offsets with sub–chords
7. Setting out with inaccessible interaction point
8. Setting out with theodolite at on intermediate point on the curve
9. Setting out with an obstruction on the curve
10. Passing a curve via a given point
Sight Distance Requirements At Horizontal Curves
Adequate stopping sight distance must be provided in the design of horizontal curves.
These restrictions on horizontal curves occur when obstructions such as vegetations,
building, or cut face are present. Such obstructions are frequently encountered in highway
design due to the cost of the right-of-way acquisition and/or the cost of moving earthen
materials [ex. Rock outcropping].
When such an obstruction exists, the SSD is measured along the horizontal curve from the
center of the traveled lane [the assumed location of the driver’s eyes]. If the pavement has
two or more lanes, sight distance is measured along the arc at the centerline of the inner
lane. For a specified stopping distance M [middle ordinate], must be visually cleared, so
that the sight is such that sufficient stopping sight distance is available i.e. the required
radius of curve is dependent on the distance of obstruction from the centerline and the
required safe SSD.
In deriving the equations for SSD relationships for horizontal curves two cases can be
considered:
1. Sight distance S is less than the length of the curve L.
2. Sight distance S is greater than the length of the curve L.
1. Sight distance S is less than the length of the curve L.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

When S<L

I D

S
M
BC Line of Sight EC

Forward Tangent
Back Tangent
R
R
u D/2
u

Fig.4-17; Simple curve when S<L

Middle ordinate [set back distance],

M= R[1-Cosu]
100 S L S
=
Where, or =
D 2q D 2q
D S
Þq = S ,Þq = D
200 2L
Tip; When S=L, q = D / 2,Þ M = R[1- CosD / 2]

2. Sight distance S is greater than the length of the curve L.

When S>L

I D
S

y
BC M EC
Z
Line of Sight
Forward Tangent
x R
Back Tangent

R-M R
u D/2
u

Fig.4-18; Simple curve when S>L

S=L+2y  y=0.50[S-L]

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
From geometry,
2
éS ù 2 2
êë 2 úû = Z + M - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i
+ [R - M ] = x 2 ,Þ Z 2 = x 2 [R - M ]
2 2 2
But, Z
x 2 = R 2 + y 2 , y = 0.50[S - L]
Also,
Þ x 2 = R 2 + 0.25[S - L]2
Hence,
Z 2 = R 2 + 0.25[S - L] 2 - [R - M ]2
Substituting on (i),

Z 2 = [0.50S]2 - M 2 = R 2 + 0.25[S 2 - 2SL + L2 ] -[R 2 - 2RM + M 2]

Þ 0.25S 2 - M 2 = R 2 + 0.25S 2 - 0.50SL + 0.25L2 - R 2 + 2RM - M 2

Þ 2RM = [2SL - L2 ]/ 4
L[2S - L]
ÞM=
8R
b) Compound curves

A compound curve consists of tow (usually) or more circular arcs between two main
tangents turning in the same direction and joining at common tangent points. These curves
may be two centered, three cantered or so, according to the number of simple arcs these
are composed of.

Tow center compound curve

I D=D1+D2
T1 I1 D1 T2
PCC D2 I2
t1
L1 t2
L2
BC EC

Forward Tangent
D2
Back Tangent R2
R1
D1 O2
R1-R2

O1

Fig. 4-19: Tow center compound curve.

The essential components of compound corves are:
D = total deflection angle
D1= deflection angle of first curve

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
D2= deflection angle of second curve
R 1 = radius of first curve
R 2 = radius of second curve
T1 = back word tangent length
T2 = forward tangent length

In the case of compound curve the total tangent length T 1 and T 2 are found as follows:
T1 = t1 + I1 I
T2 = t2 + I2 I
D1
Where t 1 = R 1 tan
2
D2
t2 = R 2 tan
2
Applying sine rule to triangle II 1I 2 ,

sin(180 - D) sin D sin D 2 sin D 1

= = =
(t1 + t 2 ) (t1 + t 2 ) II 1 II 2

sin D 2
II 1= (t 1+t 2 ) 
 sin D
 sin D1
II 2 = (t1 +t2)
sin D
Out of seven the essential part of a two centered compound curves i.e. T 1, T2, t 1, t2, R1, R2 ,
D1, D 2, and D if any four of these quantities including at east one angle are known the
remaining parameters can be solved.

Under normal circumstance D 1 and D 2 or D are measured in the filed and R 1 and R 2 are
given by design consideration with minimum values governed by design speed.

An important point to remember is, compound curves can be manipulated to provide

practically any vehicle path desired by the designer, they are not employed where simple
curves or spiral curves can be used to achieve the same desired effect. Practically,
compound curves are reserved for those applications where design constraints [topography
or cost of land] preclude the use of simple or spiral curves, and they are now usually found
chiefly in the design of interchange loops and ramps.

TIP:
 All problems can be solved by use of the sine law or cosine law or the omitted
measurement traverse technique.
 Smooth driving characteristics require that the larger radius be no more than 1-1/3
times larger than the smaller radius [this ratio increases to 1-1/2 when dealing with
interchange curves].

Setting out compound curves

As a compound curves may be consists of two or more simple curves, its setting out involve
setting out of two or more simple curves of different radii in continuation. Compound
curves may be set out any one of the methods used for simple curves
However, to achieve better accuracy it is recommended that compound curves may be set
out by the method of deflection angle, using a theodolite.
1. Office work

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

a) Calculate all the seven variables of the curve, from four known parameters.
b) Locate the point of intersection I, the point of commencement BC and point of
tangency EC.
c) Calculate the chain age of the point commencement, the pint compound curvature,
and the point of tangency.
d) Calculate the deflection angle for both the arcs from their tangent

2. Field work

Setting up the theodolite at BC, in the first curve is set out in the usual way to point PCC.
The theodolite is move to PCC and back sighted to BC, with the horizontal circle reading
D1
( 180 - )
2
Set the instrument to read zero and it will then be pointing to I 2. Thus, the instrument is
now oriented and reading zero, prior to setting out second curve.

Summary

The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain and other
controls. Caution should however be exercised in the use of compound curves, because the
driver doesn’t expect to be confronted by a change in radius once he has entered a curve.
Their use should also be avoided where curves are sharp.

Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same problems as are
found at the transition from a tangent to small radius curve. Where the use of the
compound curves can not be avoided, the radius of the flatter curve circular arc should not
be more than 50% greater than the radius of the sharper arc, i.e. R 1 should not exceed 1.50
R 2. A compound arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a flat curve
or a tangent to a sharper curve, although as spiral is to be preferred.

• Reverse curves

A reverse curves consists of two circular arcs of same or different radii having their centers
on the opposite side of the common tangent at the point of reverse curvature.

Reverse curves are generally provided, in the highway or railway alignment, when the
straights are either parallel or the angle between them is very small. The instantaneous
change in direction occurring at the Point of Reverse Curvature (PRC) would cause
discomfort and safety problems for all but the slowest of speed.

Additionally, since the change in the curvature is instantaneous, there is no room to

provide superelevation transition from cross-slope right to cross-slope left. However, reveres
curves can be used to advantage where the instantaneous change in direction poses no
threat to safety or discomfort.

These curves commonly used in mountainous highway route. Also they are frequently used
in cities where roads turn in different directions in succession or where road approach
flyovers.
Moreover, this curve is particularly pleasing to the eye and is used with great success a
park roads, formal paths, etc.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Limitations of a Reverse Curve

When high-speed vehicles ply on highways, use of reverse curves should be avoided for the
following reasons:

a. Sudden change of super elevation is required from one side to the other.
b. At the point of reverse curvature, no super elevation is provided.
c. Steering is dangerous in the case of high ways. Unless driver is cautions, there are
chances of overturning the vehicle.
d. Sudden change of directions causes great discomfort to the passenger.
Tip: It is, therefore, recommends to avoid the reverse curves by inserting a small length of
straight between the circular arcs.
Elements Of A Reverse Curve
 Radii R 1 and R 2 of two circular arcs 
 Angle of total deflection ( D ) of the straight.
 Angle of deflection ( D1 ,D 2 ) of the common tangent. 
 Angle (d 1, d 2) between the straight and the line joining the points of commencement
and tangency.

O2
D2

T1 A R2
d1 D
D1 R2 I

PRC d2 T2

D2
B
R1
R1

D1

O1
Fig.4-20: Elements of a reverse curve.

a. Non–Parallel Tangent Reverse Curves

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

O2
D2
Fore Tangent
BC[T1] I1 R2
d1 t1
Back Tangent D1 R2 D I
L1 t1

PRC L2 d2 EC[T2]
t2
t2
D2
I2
R1
R1

D1
PRC=Point Of Reversed
Curve

O1
Fig.4-
21; Non–Parallel Tangent Reverse Curves.
T1 I 1 = t1 = R1 tan D1 2
= t 2 = R2 tan D 2 2
Let, L= I1 I 2 = t1 + t 2
Þ L = R1 tan D1 2 + R2 tan D 2 2
Since, D2 = D + D1
Þ D = D 2 - D1 ,D 2 > D1
Applying sine rule on the triangle I 1 I 2 I,

sin(180 - D 2 ) sin D 2 sin D

= = , I1 I 2 = L
I1 I I1 I I1 I 2
sin D 2
Þ I1 I = L
sin D
Therefore, T1 I = t1 + I 1 I
sin D 2
D1
= R1 tan
2 +L sin D
PR1 D1
Length of first curve, L1 =
180
Length of second curve, L2 = PR2 D 2 180

Chain ages:
i. Chain age of T1 T1 I
= Chainage of I-
ii. Chan age of PRC = Chainage of T1 + L1
iii. Chain age of T 2 = Chainage of PRC+ L2

b. Parallel tangent reverse curves

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Specified condition, Δ 1 =Δ 2, Alternate interior angel.
Through PRC, draw a line AB parallel to two starlight
Þ O 1 T 1 //O 2 T2
Form Δ 1 = Δ 2, y= AT 1 + BT2
But, AT 1 = R 1 – R1 cosΔ 1=R 1 (1-cos Δ 1)
= R 1 versineΔ 1, 1- cosΔ 1= versineΔ1
Similarly, BT 2=R 2 versineΔ 2
Thus, y = R 1 versine Δ + R 2 versine Δ2
 y= (R1+R2) versin Δ 1 , Δ1=Δ2
Also, T 1T 2 = T1 PRC +PRCT2
But, T 1PRC=2R 1 sin D1 2, PRCT 2=2R 2 sin D 2 2
Þ T 1 T 2 =2(R 1 +R2 ) sin D1 2 , Δ 1=Δ 2
\ L=2(R 1+R 2) sin D1 2, T1 T2 =L

O2

D2

Back Tangent T1 I1 R2
D 1/2 R2
D1

y
A PRC B

D2 Fore Tangent
I2 T2
R1
R1

D1
x
O1

Fig.4-22; Parallel tangent reverse curves

For triangle T 1CT2,

D1 T1C y
Sin = =
2 T1T2 L
Substituting the value of sin D1 2
L y
Þ = sin D1 2 =
2(R1 + R2 ) L

Þ L = 2 y(R1 + R2 )

Also, x =APRC+PRCB

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
= R1 sin D 1
+ R2 sin D 2
Þ x = (R1 + R2 )sin D1 , D1 = D 2

Setting Operation

 The first curve is set from T 1 and the second arc from PRC by any one of setting out
methods for circular curves
 Or, both arcs can be set out from the common point PRC. 


TRANSION CURVES

Consider a vehicle traveling at speed (v) along a straight. The forces acting on the vehicles
will be its weight (W), acting vertically down, and an equal and opposite force acting
vertically up via the wheels. When the vehicle enters the curves of radius R at tangent point
T1 , an additional centrifugal force (P) acts on the vehicles, as shown.

Centerline
P

P R P
O

N W
W

Fig.4-23; Forces acting on the vehicle when a vehicle enters the curve.

If P is large the vehicles will be forced to the out side of the curve and may skid or overturn.
The resultant of the two forces shown as N, and if the road is superelevated normal to
this force, there will be no tendency for the vehicle to skid.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Thus, as a vehicles moved from straight to curves the centrifugal force would increase
simultaneously from zero to its maximum value, assuming that speed (V) is not changed,
passengers in the vehicles would thus experience a lateral shock as the tangent was
passed.

To avoid this a curve of variable radius is inserted between the straight and the circular
curves in order that the centrifugal force may build up in gradual and uniform manner.
This curve is called a transition, or easement curve.

Thus, the transition curve is a curve constantly changing radius i.e. its essential
requirement is that its radius decrease uniformly from infinite at the point where it meets
the curve. This is the reason why spirals are used in most highway and railway alignments
to over come the abrupt change in directions that occurs when the alignment change from
the tangent to circular curve, and vice versa. The length of the spiral curve is also used for
the transition from normally crowned pavement to fully superelevated (banked) pavement.

Tip: -
I n most cases two transition curves are joined by circular curves. In some cases, the
circular curve joining the two transitions of zero length so that the single circular curve is
replaced by two transition curves having one common tangent point called wholly
transition curves.

Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence transition
curves contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of situations. For
large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves
are not normally required. It is also being argued that transition curves are not a
requirement for certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where there is
insufficient justification, for the additional survey and design work required. Another
possible warrant would be to consider spirals for roads where a significant portion of the
curve has a super elevation in excess of 60% (i.e 2 3) of the maximum superelevation.
 For Ethiopian roads, transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link roads
segments having a design speed of equal to or greater than 80 KPH.

According to ERA manual, if the choice is made to employ transition curve the Euler spiral
or clothoid (i.e. commonly used in high way design) shall be used. The radius varies from
infinite at the tangent end of the spiral to the radius of the circular arc at the circular curve
end. By definition, the radius at any point of the spiral varies inversely with the distance
measured along the spiral.

Aim of a transition curve is:

1) To achieve a gradual change of direction from the straight
(r=¥) to the curve (radius, r=R).
2) To introduce super elevation in proportion to the rate of change of curvature
i.e. to permit the gradual application of superelevation to counteract
centrifugal force and minimize passenger discomfort.

Requirements of an Ideal Transition Curve

TS (Tangent to Spiral)
Tangen

Spiral curves SC (Spiral to Curve)

. Circular curve
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
r=¥
r =RC

r = Radius of spiral curve

R C =Radius of circular curve

Fig.4-24; Ideal Transition Circular Curve.

1) An ideal transition curve should be tangential to the straights as well as to the

circular curve.
2) The radius of an ideal transition curve at the junction of the circular curve should be
the same as that of the circular curve.
3) The curvature of an ideal transition curve should be zero at its origin on the straight.
4) The length of an ideal transition should be such that required superelevation attained
at its junction with the circular curve.
5) The rate of increase of curvature along an ideal transition curve should be same as
that of super elevation.
It has been universally accepted that superelevation is introduce at a uniform rate
and curvature of the transition curve at any point is kept proportional to its
distance from the beginning of the transition curve.

Derivation Of Equation For An Ideal Transition Curve.

Since P cannot be eliminated, it is allowed for by permitting it to increase uniformly along

the curve. When the centrifugal force P acting on the vehicle as it reverse the curve, and the
centrifugal ratio are given by the expression:
2
P = wv Rg
2
p w=v rg
P is inversely proportional to r, the basic requirement of the ideal transition curve is
that its radius should decrease uniformly with distance along it this requirement also
permits the uniform application of super elevation; thus at distance ℓ along the
transition the radius is r, and rℓ=c (constant)
\ l c =1 r

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

df
y
SC

dl
L t

l
df

r =:

Fig.4-25; Transition curve.

From fig. tSC is an infinitely small portion of a transition dl of a radius r, thus:

dℓ=rdf
\ 1 r = dF d
1
Thus, = c = dF d
r
Integrating,

ò f dF = ò cd
2
F = 2c
When C =RL
2
F= 2Rc
Tip: The above expressions are for the clothoid curve or Euler spiral, which is the most
used in road design.

Curve Design

The basic requirements in the design of transition curve are;

1) The value of the minimum safe radius (R ), and
2) The length, L s, of the transition curve
 The value of R may be found using either of the approaches using
centrifugal ratio or coefficient of friction.

i. Centrifugal Ratio

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Centrifugal force is defined as P = wv 2/Rg; however, this“ overturning force” is
counteracted by the weight (w) of the vehicle, and may be expressed as P/w, termed the
centrifugal ratio. Thus, centrifugal ratio:
2
p w=v Rg
Where V is the design speed in m/s, g is accel eration due to gravity in m s 2, , and R is the
minimum safe radius in m.

When V is expressed in KPH, the expression becomes.

2
p w=v
3.62 *9.8, R = v 2 127R

Tip: Commonly used values for centrifugal ratio are 0.21-0.25 on roads, 0.125 on railways.
The minimum safe radius R may be set either equal to or greater than this value.

ii. Coefficient Of Friction

The alternative approach to find R is based on Road Research Laboratory (RRL) values for
the coefficient of friction between the car tires and the road surface.

For figure illustrated below a vehicle passing around a correctly superelevated curve. The
resultant of the two forces is N, the force F acting towards the center of the curve is the
friction applied by the car tires to the road surface.

y
x
C
PP
y PN
WP

P R O P ;
90-;
; ;
F
W F
;
A B x
N W N
WN

FBD

Where, AB = w: - width of road way

W N and WP = weight normal and parallel to the roadway surface.
Pp and P N = component of centrifugal force parallel and normal to the road surface
respectively.
F = the sliding frictional force
R = Radius defined to the vehicles traveled path.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Fig.4-26; Forces acting on the vehicle on superelevated curve.

For equilibrium condition,

( å FX =0 )
Þ Pp =W P + F (i)
F
(å Y = 0)
Þ N=W N + PN (ii)
WV 2
Where, W P=W Sina , Pp = P cosa = cosa
Rg
WV 2
W N=W Cosa , PN = P sin a = sin a
Rg
F = ƒN
ƒ = coefficient of sliding friction
Thus,
F=ƒ (W N+P N)
WV 2
=ƒ (W Cosa + sin a )
Rg
V2
F=ƒW ( Cosa + sin a ) (iii)
Rg
Combining equations (i) and (iii),
WV 2 V2
cosa = W sin a + fW (cos a + sin a
Rg Rg
Simplifying, dividing both sides by cos a :
V2 V2
= tan a + f (1+ tan a
Rg) Rg
V2
Þ tan a + f = (1 - f tan a )
Rg
Since, ƒ and tan a are very small
ƒ tan a ≈ 0
Thus,
V2
tan a + f =
Rg
But, tan a = e = super elevation
2
VD
R= ,V Dis design speed in m/s.
g(e + f )
When V D is expressed in KPH,
VD 2
R= , is fundamental equation in designing of curves.
127(e + f )

Tip: R is the minimum curve radius.

To prevent vehicles slipping sideways,

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

V2
£ (e + ƒ) i.e. Design Radius R D ³R
127 R
Meaning during design of curves, the consistence of the adjacent road sections and curves,
particularly when minimum radius of curvature is used, should be checked. In such a case,
the above fundamental relationship between design speed and curvature and also their
joint relations with superelevation and lateral friction should be adhered and practical
values of these parameters should be selected depending on the design conditions.

The lateral friction coefficient depends up on:

i. The type and condition of the road surface;
ii. The presence of moisture, mud, snow, etc.;
iii. The condition of treads and air pressure of tires; and
iv. Vehicle speed.

When checking minimum permissible radii based on velocity of the vehicle ERA geometric
design manual recommendation of lateral friction under wet condition shall be adopted in
the country and it is given below.

Table 4-9; lateral friction coefficients, ERA.

Design speed V D [KPH) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Side friction factors [ƒ] 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11

Length Of Transition Curve

The length of transition curve is determined either using rate of application of super
elevation or rate of change of radial acceleration.

i. Rate of application of super elevation

For roads superelevation shall usually be applied at a rate of 1in200 i.e. 0.50m in 100m. In
this way the length of the transition is found.

From triangle of forces,

2
tan a = V = 1 w = 1inw ,
Rg
w = Rg V 2 º 127 R V 2 , V is in KPH.
Super elevation =1 in 127 R V2

The rate of cross fall, combined with the road width, allows the amount of superelevation to
be calculated. Its application at the given rate produces the length L s of the transition
required.

ii. Rate of change Radial Acceleration.

The radial acceleration is zero just as the vehicle is about to level the tangent straight at Ts,
whilst at the circular curve tangent point is:
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
2
f =V
R
Thus, as radial acceleration is inversely proportional to R it will change at a rate
proportional to the rate of change in R. The transition curve must therefore be long enough
to ensure that the rate of change of radius, and hence radial acceleration is unnoticeable to
passengers.

Now, as radial acceleration is V 2 R and the time taken to travel the length L s of the
transition curve is L s/V, then rate of change of radial acceleration,a
V 2 Ls
a= ¸ º V 3 RLs
R V
LS = V 3 aR, V in m/s

V 3
3.6 3 aR, VD in KPH

NB: This method was originally devised for railway practice; it is also applied to road
3
design. a Should normally not be less than 0.30m/ s for unrestricted design,
3
although in urban areas it may be necessary to increase to 0.60 m/ s or even higher,
for sharp curves in tight locations.

Spiral Curve Computation

SC
TS
D

Back Tangent T
R
D/2 ST
DC
Forward Tangent

O
R
DS
Fig.4-27; Basic Spiral Curve. DS

1. D is determined in the field

2. R or D (degree of curve) is given by design considerations (limited by design speed).
3. Chain age of PI is determined in the field.
4. Length of spiral, Ls, is chosen with respect to design speed and the number of traffic
lanes,
LS = V 3 Ra

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
5. Calculate the shift,
S = Ls 2 24R
6. Compute tangent length TS,
TS = (R + S) tanD/2 + LS / 2
7. Compute spiral tangent deflection,

 The deflections vary as the square of the distance along the spiral.
 Lx 2
Fx = qx 3 = ,- - - -qx in rod
6R LS
 Total deflection angle to SC is at L x = L s

Fs=q S /3 = Ls/6R
 Since transition curves are usually setout at half station, deflection angle has
calculated for 10m interval.

8. Compute length of the combined curve,

 The central angle for the circular curve:

DC = D - 2 F s
The length of the circular curve.
pRD C
Lc =
180
pR Dc
 Thus, total length of the combined curve = + 2 Ls
180
9) Compute chain ages of main points of the curve;

i. Chainage of TS = Chain. of PI – TS
ii. Chain. of SC = Chain. of TS + L S
iii. Chain. of CS = Chain. of SC + L C
iv. Chain. of ST = Chain. of CS + L S.

Methods Of Setting Out A Combined Curve

The setting out of a combined curve is carried out in two stages;

i. Setting out of transition curves.
ii. Setting out of circular curves.

There are two methods in setting out:

1. Setting out by tangential offsets.
2. Setting out by deflection angles.

Widening on Curves
When a vehicle traverses a curve, the rear wheels may track inside the front
wheels. This is because of the slip angle assumed by the tires with respect
to the direction of travel, which results from the side friction developed
between pavements and rolling tires. The relative position of the wheel

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
tracks depends on the speed and the amount of friction developed to
counteract the centrifugal force not compensated by super elevation or,
when traveling slowly, by the friction developed to counteract the effect of
super elevation not compensated by centrifugal force. With excessive
speeds, the rear wheels may even track outside the front wheels, an extreme
situation. The effect of variation in lateral placement of the rear wheels with
respect to the front wheels and resultant difficulty of steering should be
allowed for by widening on curves, but the amount cannot be determined as
positively as that for simple off tracking.
Traveled ways on curves, generally, are widened to make operating
conditions on curves comparable to those on tangents. Widening is needed
on curves for one of the following reasons:
· The vehicle or truck occupies a greater width because rear
wheels generally track inside front wheels (off tracking) in
rounding curves,
· The drivers experience difficulty in steering their vehicles in the
center of the lane, and
· In built-up areas, in order to have proper sight distances, extra
widening is sometimes essential

Design Values
Required extra widening has several components related to operation on
curves, namely the following:
· Track width of each vehicle, U;
· Lateral clearance per vehicle, C;
· Width of front overhang of the vehicle occupying the inner lane
or lanes, FA; and
· Width allowance for difficulty of driving on curves, Z.
Track width (U) (formula 3 of Figure 5 - 1) is the sum of the track on
tangent u and the amount of offtracking. The amount a vehicle offtracks
depends on:
· The radius of the turn,
· The number of articulation points, and
· The lengths of the wheelbases.
Formula 3 of Figure 5 - 1 can be used for any combination of radius and
number and length of wheelbases. The radius is the path of the midpoint of
the front axle; however, for most design purposes for two-lane highways the
radius of the curve at the centerline may be used for simplicity of
calculations.
Lateral clearance (C) per vehicle is assumed to be 0.6, 0.75, and 0.9 m for
tangent lane widths % of 6.0, 6.6, and 7.2 m, respectively.
The width of the front overhang (FA) to be accounted for on curves
depends on :
· The radius of the curve,
· The extent of the front overhang of the design vehicle, and

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
· Wheelbase of the unit itself.
Formula 4 of Figure 5 - 1 can be used for this computation. In the case of
tractor-trailer combinations, only the wheelbase of the tractor unit is used.
The extra width allowance (Z) is an additional radial width of pavement to
allow for the difficulty of maneuvering on a curve and the variation in
operation of drivers. This additional width is an empirical value that varies
with the speed of traffic and the radius of the curve. For open-alignment
roads, the additional width has been expressed as shown by formula 5 in
Figure 5 - 1.

Figure 5-1. Travelled way widening on curves

To determine width of widening, it is necessary to choose an appropriate

vehicle to represent traffic on the road and to serve as a basis for design.
The vehicle should be a design truck because off tracking of the truck is
much greater than that of a passenger car. Widening is costly and very little
is actually gained from a small amount of widening.
It is suggested that a minimum widening of 0.6 m be used. Note that
no widening is suggested for traveled ways 7.2 m wide where curves have
radii greater than 250 m.
.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Attainment of Widening on Curve
Widening should be attained gradually on the approaches to the curve to
ensure a reasonably smooth alignment of the edge-of-traveled way and to fit
the paths of vehicles entering or leaving the curve. The following are the
principal points of concern in design. They apply to both ends of highway
curves.
 On simple (unspiraled) curves, widening should be applied on
the inside edge only. On curves designed with spirals, widening
may be placed on the inside or divided equally between the
curve inside and outside.
 Curve widening should be attained gradually over a length
sufficient to make the whole of the traveled way fully usable.
Preferably, widening should be attained over the superelevation
runoff length, but shorter lengths are sometimes used. Changes
in width normally should be effected in a distance of 30 to 60
m.
 From the standpoints of usefulness and appearance, the edge-
of- traveled way through the widening transition should be a
smooth, graceful curve.

 On highway alignment without spirals, smooth and fitting

alignment results from attaining widening with one-half to two-
thirds of the length along the tangent and the balance along the
curve. This fits a common method for attaining super elevation.
On highway alignment with spiral curves, the increase in width
usually is distributed along the length of the spiral, and most or
all the widening is attained at the SC(spiral to curve) point.

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections of the
highway known as grades, or tangents, connected by vertical curves. The
design of the vertical alignment therefore involves the selection of suitable
grades for the tangent sections and the design of the vertical curves. The
topography of the area through which the road traverses has a significant
impact on the design of the vertical alignment.
Grades
The effect of grade on the performance of heavy vehicles is more pronounced
than that for passenger cars. The speed of a heavy vehicle can be

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
significantly reduced if the grade is steep and/or long. In order to limit the
effect of grades on vehicular operation, the maximum grade on any highway
should be selected with care. The selection of maximum grades for a
highway depends on the design speed and the design vehicle. It is generally
accepted that grades of 4 to 5 percent have little or no effect on passenger
cars, except for those with high weigh/horsepower ratios, such as those
found in compact and subcompact cars. As the grade increases above 5
percent, however, speeds of passenger cars decrease on upgrades and
increase on downgrades. Grade has a greater impact on trucks than on
passenger cars. Extensive studies have been conducted, and results have
shown that truck speed may increase up to 5 percent on downgrades and
decrease by 7 percent on upgrades, depending on the percent and length of
the grade.
Control Grades for Design
Maximum grades. Maximum grades of about 5 percent are considered
appropriate for a design speed of 110 km/h. For a design speed of 50 km/h,
maximum grades generally are in the range of 7 to 12 percent, depending on
topography. If only the more important highways are considered, it appears
that a maximum grade of 7 or 8 percent would be representative for 50-
km/h-design speed. Control grades for 60-, 70-, 80-, 90-, and 100-km/h
design speeds are intermediate between the above extremes. The maximum
design grade should be used infrequently rather than as a value to be used
in most cases. At the other extreme, for short grades less than 150 m and
for one-way downgrades, the maximum gradient may be about 1 percent
steeper. For low-volume rural highways, grades may be 2 percent steeper.
Minimum grades. Minimum grades depend on the drainage conditions of
the highway. Zero-percent grades may be used on uncurbed pavements with
adequate cross slopes to laterally drain the surface water. When pavements
are curbed, however, a longitudinal grade should be provided to facilitate
the longitudinal flow of the surface water. It is customary to use a minimum
of 0.5 percent in such cases, although this may be reduced to 0.3 percent
on high-type pavement constructed on suitably crowned, firm ground.
Critical Lengths of Grade for Design
Maximum grade in itself is not a complete design control. It is necessary
also to consider the length of a particular grade in relation to desirable
vehicle operation. The term "critical length of grade" is used to indicate the
maximum length of a designated upgrade on which a loaded truck can
operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed. For a given grade,
lengths less than critical result in acceptable operation in the desired range
of speeds. If the desired freedom of operation is to be maintained on grades
longer than critical, design adjustment such as change in location to reduce
grades or addition of extra lanes should be made. The data for critical
lengths of grade are used with other pertinent considerations (such as traffic
volume in relation to capacity) to determine where added lanes are
warranted. To establish design values for critical lengths of grade for which

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
grade ability of trucks is the determining factor, data or assumptions are
needed for the following:

· Size and power of representative truck or truck combination to

be used as a design vehicle
· Speed at entrance to critical length grade
· Minimum speed on the grade below which interference to
following vehicles is considered unreasonable

Figure 3 - 2. Speed-distance curves for a typical heavy truck of 180kg/kw

for deceleration on upgrades
Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade
to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as they traverse the highway.
These curves are usually parabolic in shape. The expressions developed for
minimum lengths of vertical curves are therefore based on the properties of

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
a parabola. They are classified as crest vertical curves or sag vertical curves.
The different types of vertical curves are shown in Figure 16.11.
The main criteria used for designing vertical curves are:
· Provision of minimum stopping sight distance
· Adequate drainage
· Comfortable in operation
· Pleasant appearance
·
The first criterion is the only criterion associated with crest vertical curves,
whereas all four criteria are associated with sag vertical curves.

Figure 3-3.Types of vertical curves

Crest Vertical Curves. Minimum lengths of crest vertical curves as

determined by sight distance requirements generally are satisfactory from
the standpoint of safety, comfort, and appearance. The basic formulas for
lengths of a parabolic vertical curve in terms of algebraic differences in
grade and sight distance follow:

(1) When the sight distance is greater than the length of the vertical
curve: Let us first consider the case of the sight distance being greater
than the length of the vertical curve. Figure 3 - 4 shows this condition.
This figure schematically presents a vehicle on the grade at C with the

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
driver's eye at height H1, and an object of height H2 located at D. If this
object is seen by the driver, the line of sight is PN and the sight distance
is S. Note that the line of sight is not necessarily horizontal, but in
calculating the sight distance, the horizontal projection is considered.

Figure 3 - 4. Sight distance on crest vertical curves (S>L)

From the properties of the parabola,

X3 = L/2

The sight distance S is then given as

S = X1 + L/2+ X2

X1 and X2 can be found in terms of the grades G1 and G2 and their

algebraic difference A. The minimum length of the vertical curve for
the required sight distance is obtained as

L = 2S -
(
200 H 1 + H 2 ) 2

where, L = length of vertical curve, m;

S = sight distance, m;
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent;
H1 = height of eye above roadway surface, m;
H2 = height of object above roadway surface, m.

When the height of eye and the height of object are 1070 mm and 150
mm, respectively, as used for stopping sight distance, the length of
the vertical curve is,
404
L = 2S -
A

(2) When the sight distance is less than the length of the vertical
curve. When the sight distance is less than the length of the crest
vertical curve, the configuration shown in Figure 3 - 5 applies.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Figure 3 - 5. Sight distance on crest vertical curves (S<L)

Also, the properties of a parabola can be used to show that the

minimum length of the vertical curve given as

AS 2
L=
(
200 H 1 + H2 ) 2

Substituting 1070 mm for H1 and 150 mm for H2 gives

AS 2
L=
404

Design values of crest vertical curves for passing sight distance differ from
those for stopping sight distance because of the different height criterion.
The general formulas apply, but the 1300 mm height of object results in the
following specific formulas with the same terms as above:

When S > L,

946
L = 2S -
A
When S < L,
AS 2
L=
946

Sag Vertical Curves

The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is usually

controlled by the following different criteria:

(1) Headlight sight distance,

(2) Rider comfort,
(3) Drainage control, and
(4) A rule-of-thumb for general appearance.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
The headlight sight distance requirement is based on the fact that as a
vehicle is driven on a sag vertical curve at night, the position of the
headlight and the direction of the headlight beam dictate the stretch of
highway ahead that is lighted ---- and therefore the distance that can be
seen by the driver. Figure 3 - 6 is a schematic of the situation when S > L.
The headlight is located at a height H above the ground, and the headlight
beam is inclined upward at angle b to the horizontal. The headlight beam
intersects the road at D, thereby restricting the available sight distance to S.

The values used for a headlight height, H and upward divergence of the light
beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, b are usually 600 mm and a
1o, respectively. The upward spread of the light beam provides some
additional visible length but this is generally ignored. The following formulas
show the S, L, and A relation, using S as the distance between the vehicle
and point where the 1o angle of light ray intersects the surface of the
roadway:

When S < L,

AS 2 AS 2
L= =
200(0.6 + S tan b ) 120 + 3.5 S

When S > L,
200(0.6 + S tan b ) 120 + 3.5S
L = 2S - = 2S -
A A

where: L = length of sag vertical curve, m;

S = light beam distance, m; and
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent.

Figure 3-6. Headlight sight distance on sag vertical curves (S>L)

To provide a safe condition on a sag vertical curve, the curve must be of
such a length that it will make the light beam sight distance S be at least
equal to the SSD. The SSD for the appropriate design speeds are therefore

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
used for S when the above equations are used to compute minimum lengths
of sag vertical curves.

The comfort criterion for the design of sag vertical curves takes into
consideration that when a vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve, both the
gravitational and centrifugal forces act in combination, resulting in a greater
effect than on a crest vertical curve where these forces act in opposition to
each other. Several factors such as weight carried, body suspension of the
vehicle, and tire flexibility affect comfort due to change in vertical directions.
This makes difficult for comfort to be measured directly. However, it is
generally accepted that a comfortable ride will be provided if the radial
acceleration is not greater than 0.3 m/s3. The general expression for such a
criterion is:

AV 2
L=
395
where L and A are the same as in previous formulas, and V is the design
speed, km/h.

The length of vertical curve required to satisfy this comfort factor at the
various design speeds is only about 50 percent of that required to satisfy the
headlight sight distance requirement for the normal range of design
conditions.

Drainage affects design of vertical curves of where curbed sections are used.
The drainage requirement differs from other criteria in that the length of sag
vertical curve determined for it is a maximum, whereas, the length for any
other criterion is a minimum. The requirement usually specified to satisfy
this criterion is that a minimum grade of 0.30 percent be provided within 15
m of the level point of the curve. It has been observed that the maximum
length of the drainage criterion is usually greater than the minimum length
for other criteria up to 100 km/h and nearly equal for other criteria up to
120 km/h for minimum-length vertical curves.

For general appearance, some use formerly was made of a rule-of-thumb for
length of sag vertical curves wherein the minimum value of L is 30A.
Experience has shown, however, that longer curves are frequently necessary
for high-type highways if the general appearance of these highways is to be
improved.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Horizontal and vertical alignments are permanent design elements for which
thorough study is warranted. It is extremely difficult and costly to correct
alignment deficiencies after the highway is constructed. Horizontal
alignment and profile are among the more important of the permanent
design elements of the highway and should not be designed independently.
They complement each other, and poorly designed combinations can spoil
the good points and aggravate the deficiencies of each. Excellence in their
design and in the design of their combination increase usefulness and
safety, encourage uniform speed, and improve appearance, almost always
without additional cost.

Proper combination of horizontal alignment and profile is obtained by

engineering study and consideration of the following general controls:

1. Curvature and grades should be in proper balance. Tangent

alignment or flat curvature at the expense of steep or long grades
and excessive curvature with flat grades are both poor design.
2. Vertical curvature superimposed on horizontal curvature, or vice
versa, generally results in a more pleasing facility, but it should be
analyzed for effect on traffic.
3. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the
top of a pronounced crest vertical curve. This condition is
undesirable in that the driver cannot perceive the horizontal
change in alignment, especially at night when the headlight beams
go straight ahead into space.
4. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the
low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve.
5. On two-lane roads and streets the need for safe passing sections at
frequent intervals and for an appreciable percentage of the length
of the roadway often supersedes the general desirability for
combination of horizontal and vertical alignment.
6. Horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as feasible
at intersections where sight distance along both roads and streets
is important and vehicles may have to slow or stop.
7. On divided highways and streets, variation in width of median and
the use of separate profiles and horizontal alignments should be
considered to derive design and operational advantage of one-way
roadways.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

3.4 Computer Use in Geometric Design

The use of computers is continuing to revolutionize the field of highway
design. Digital data formats have allowed engineers to automate many of the
design tasks, translating design criteria through the design process, directly
reflecting the information in the project constructing drawings. This is
accomplished through an integrated design environment that links design
activities, such as horizontal alignment, cross sections, profiles, and
quantities, with the final production of drawings that are created through
the use of multifaceted software programs. An example flow chart of a
typical software design package is presented in Figure 5 - 1.

Figure 5 - 1 Design flow chart of a computer-aided design and drawing

preparation using CEAL design software

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
One of the primary benefits of using a computer design program is to
enhance the ability of an engineer to conduct numerous design iterations for
the purpose of improving and refining the design without expending a large
amount of time or effort. Another valuable feature is the ability to view the
resulting effect of the design modification on the construction plans without
the need to conduct the numerous intermediate steps that have been
associated with the more traditional manual design methods of the past. It
is important to note that the design engineer must have a firm
understanding of all the criteria, standards, and design methods necessary
to design a safe and efficient highway as described in the preceding sections
of this chapter in order to utilize the computer programs correctly.

A full discussion of computer applications in highway design is beyond the

scope of this text. The many companies that develop, distribute, and
support computer aided design and drafting (CADD) software programs have
numerous manuals describing programming commands and techniques for
efficiently using their respective software products. The focus of the
following paragraphs will be to present an overview of the most important
features that this computer technology has contributed to an enhancement
of the highway design process.

3.4.1 Digital Terrain Modelling

The utilization of this feature within an automated computer design process

involves creating a digital database for the project limits and in areas
immediately surrounding the proposed construction. Survey and
topographic information describing the project area can be collected through
conventional field survey techniques or through controlled aerial
photography. These spatially oriented data are located within the context of
a three-dimensional grid, which is referenced in the traditional variables x,
y, and z. Coordinates for x and y represent the horizontal location of the
data points, and the variable z serves to provide an elevation of each point,
typically measured with respect to sea level.

Field-collected survey points at consistently spaced intervals, perpendicular

to the centreline at approximately 20 m extending to the outer limits of the
project area, and at all surface-evident breaks in the terrain, such as
ditches and ridge lines, are located in a digital format with respect to x, y,
and z dimensions. A data collector is utilized that allows easy transfer of
survey information into a consistent format that can be read by a computer.
The field collected information is utilized by one of the numerous computer
aided design and drafting (CADD) programs, and an analytical method
referred to as triangulated irregular network (TIN) is created through an
interpolation between the various data points that were collected within the

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
project limits. The results of the TIN are a digital terrain model (DTM) for the
project area, which serves to create a computer surface model that
represents the project topography. The results of this modelling procedure
can be used to efficiently evaluate construction requirements of a new
highway design.

Once a similar three-dimensional model of the proposed highway

improvements is designed, these models, which are commonly referred to as
surfaces, can be merged and further utilized in the design process. This
merging of data allows determination of earthwork quantities and a number
of other volume-based calculations, such as amount of rock excavation,
limits of de-mucking in low-lying areas, and asphalt pavement quantities,
given that the initial database can support such evaluations.

3.4.2 Coordinate Geometry

Another major feature of a computer aided design and drafting (CADD)

system is the ability to calculate alignments, bearings, lengths, and curves
within the context of a referenced horizontal grid system. The most
commonly used grid system for highway design purposes is the plane
coordinate system. Orientation of grid coordinates is commonly referenced
in north and east directional units, where point coordinates increase in
value or magnitude as one moves toward each of the respective coordinate
directions.

Once the existing database is located with respect to the local plane
coordinate system, a wide variety of alignment and location calculations can
be performed, allowing determination of a position for required
improvements in relation to existing project features. Bearing-to-bearing
intersections; concentric offsets for curb, sidewalk, and right-of-way
locations; curve-to-curve intersections; and station distance and
perpendicular offsets are but a few of the commonly utilized features that all
coordinate geometry programs can calculate. The ease of conducting quick
and efficient design iterations is a significant benefit derived from the use of
this program and is a valuable tool for refining and optimising the design of
a proposed highway improvement project.

3.4.4 Plan Preparation

Database information and intermediate design calculations conducted
during the creation of a DTM and coordinate geometry location of the
highway improvements are all utilized to generate plan sheets, which when
correctly processed should require only a minimum amount of drafting
work. A small amount of drafting time is typically required to ensure

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
consistent formats, standard symbols, and other agency-specific
requirements that need to be incorporated into the plan set. Scripted
command routines, which are tailored specifically for agency standards, can
be developed and utilized to reduce the amount of effort required for drafting
and can be used to ensure consistency in the plan preparation process.
Uniformity is a significant aspect of the highway design process that cannot
be overlooked. Large transportation agencies typically have numerous
highway projects all being constructed by different general contractors, and
drawing consistency is often related to minimized construction problems
and other associated conflicts.

CHAPTER -THREE
INTERSECTIONS INTERCHANGES AND TERMINALS
Intersections are areas shared by two or more roads serving conflicting traffic
when competing for the same space at the same time when going ahead or
changing directions. Intersections vary in complexity from a simple intersection,
which has only two roads crossing at a right angle to each other, to a more
complex intersection, at which three or more roads cross within the same area.
The process of decision making for road users at intersections is complex and this
is part of the reason why intersections tend to have a high potential for accidents
and delays. The overall traffic flow on any highway depends to a great extent on
the performance of the intersections, since intersections usuallyoperate at a lower
capacity than through sections of the road.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Intersections are generally classified into three general categories:
At-grade intersections,
Grade-separated without ramps, and
Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known as
interchanges).
Grade-separated intersections usually consist of structures that provide for
traffic to cross at different levels (vertical distances) without interruption.
The potential for accidents at grade-separated intersections is reduced
because many potential conflicts between intersecting streams of traffic are
eliminated. At-grade intersections do not provide for the flow of traffic at
different levels, and therefore there exist conflicts between intersecting
streams of traffic.

4.1.1. At Grade Intersections

Most highways intersect at grade, and the intersection area should be
designed to provide adequately for turning and crossing movements, with
due consideration to sight distance, signs, and alignments. The basic types
of at-grade intersections are T, Y or three-leg intersections, which consist of
three approaches; four-leg or cross intersections, which consist of four
approaches; and multileg intersections, which consist of five or more
approaches. A few examples of these types of intersections are given Figure 6 - 1.

4.1.2. Grade Separations and Interchanges

Intersections at grade can be eliminated by the use of grade-separation
structures that permit the cross flow of traffic at different levels without
interruption. The advantage of such separation is the freedom from cross
interference with resultant saving of time and increase in safety for traffic
movements. Grade separations and interchanges may be warranted
· As part of an express highway system designed to carry high
volumes of traffic,
· To eliminate bottlenecks,
· To prevent accidents,

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
· Where the topography is such that other types of design are not
feasible,
· Where the volumes to be catered for would require the design of
an intersection at grade of unreasonable size, and
· Where the road user benefit of reducing delays at an at-grade
intersection exceeds the cost of the improvement.

Figure 4 - 2 Types of at grade intersection

An interchange is a grade separation in which vehicles moving in one
direction of flow may transfer by the use of connecting roadways. These

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
connecting roadways at interchanges are called ramps. Many types and
forms of interchanges and ramp layouts are used. Some of these are shown
Figure 4 - 3. The choice between these intersection types depends on
various factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay, space
requirements, etc.

Figure 4 - 3. Highway interchanges

4.2. Design Principles of At-Grade Intersections

The fundamental objectives in the design of at-grade intersections are to

minimize delay and the number and severity of potential conflicts among
different streams of traffic and between pedestrian and turning vehicles. At
the same time, it is necessary to provide for the smooth flow of traffic across
the intersection. The design should therefore incorporate the operating

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
characteristics of both the vehicles and pedestrians using the intersection.
For example, the corner radius of an intersection pavement or surfacing
should not be less than either the turning radius of the design vehicle or the
radius required for design velocity of the turning roadway under
consideration. The design also should ensure adequate pavement widths of
turning roadways and approach sight distances. This suggests that at-grade
intersections should not be located at or just beyond sharp crest vertical
curves or at sharp horizontal curves.
The basic requirements of intersection design are maximize safety and
minimize traffic delay. The design of an at-grade intersection involves:
(1) The design of the alignment including profiles, minimum radius
and widths of turning roadways,
(2) The design of a suitable channelling system for the traffic pattern,
(3) The assurance that the sight distances are adequate for the type of
control at the intersection.
Alignment of At-Grade Intersections
The best alignment for an at-grade intersection is when the intersecting
roads meet at right or nearly right angles. This alignment is superior to
acute-angle alignments because much less road area is required for turning
at the intersection, there is a lower exposure, time for vehicles crossing the
main traffic flow, and visibility limitations, particularly for trucks, are not as
serious as those at acute-angle intersections. Figure 4 - 4 shows alternative
methods for realigning roads intersecting at acute angles to obtain a nearly
right-angle intersection.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Figure 4-4. Alternative methods of realigning skewed intersections
In designing the profile (vertical alignment) at the intersection, large changes
in grade should be avoided; preferably, grades should not be greater than 3
percent. The stopping and accelerating distances for passenger cars on
grades of 3 percent or less are not much different from those of cars on flat
grades; however, significant differences start to occur at grades higher than
3 percent. When it is unavoidable to use grades of 3 percent or more, design
factors such as stopping distances and accelerating distances should be
adjusted so that conditions equivalent to those on level ground exist. In any
case, it is not advisable to use grades higher than 6 percent at intersections.

It should always be remembered that the combination of horizontal and vertical alignments at
an intersection should produce traffic lanes that are clearly seen by motorists at all times,
without the sudden appearance of potential hazards. Also, motorists should be able to easily
understand the path they should take for any desired direction. The angle of turn, the turning
speed, the design vehicle, and traffic volume are the main factors governing the design of
curves at at-grade intersections. When the turning speed at an intersection is assumed to be
25 km/h or less, the curves for the pavement edges are designed to conform to at least the
minimum turning path of the design vehicle. When the turning speed is expected to be
greater than 25 km/h, the design speed is also considered. It is also necessary to increase the
pavement width of turning roadways when the speed is greater than 25 km/h.
Channelisation of At-Grade Intersections
AASHTO defines channelisation as the separation of conflicting traffic
movements into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement
markings to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and
pedestrians. A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes where
vehicular traffic is excluded and provided to regulate the movement of
vehicles or to serve as a pedestrian refuge. A properly channelised
intersection will result in increased capacity, enhanced safety, and
increased driver confidence. Properly designed channelisation systems
increase intersection capacity and decrease conflicts and accidents.
Islands in an intersection serve one or more of the following purposes:
1. Separation of conflicts
2. Control of angle of conflict
3. Reduction of excessive pavement areas
4. Regulation of traffic flow in the intersection area
5. Arrangements to favour a predominant turning movement
6. Protection of pedestrians
7. Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
8. Location of traffic control devices.
Islands are generally grouped into three major classes: directional or
channelised, divisional, and refuge. Islands can be formed by using raised
curbs, pavement markings, or the pavement edges. General types and
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
shapes of islands are shown in Figure 4 - 5. Directional islands are designed
primarily to guide the motorist through the intersection by indicating the
intended route. Where spacious area exists at an intersection and leaves
much to the discretion of the driver, islands may be used to channel the
motorist into the desired lane by placing a channelling island in the little-
used portion of the intersection.

Divisional islands are most frequently used on undivided highways

approaching intersections. They serve to alert the driver to the intersection
and regulate the flow of traffic into and out of the intersection. Their use is
particularly advantageous for controlling left-turning traffic at skewed
intersections. A refuge island is located at or near crosswalks to aid and
protect pedestrians crossing the roadway. Refuge islands are most generally
used on wide streets in urban areas for loading and unloading of transit
riders.

Figure 4-5. Types and shapes of islands

Sight Distance at Intersections
The high accident potential at an intersection can he reduced by providing
sight distances that allow drivers to have an unobstructed view of the entire
intersection at a distance great enough to permit control of the vehicle. At-
grade intersections either have no control or are controlled by one of the
following methods: yield control, stop control, or signal control. At signalised
intersections, the unobstructed view may be limited to the area where the
signals are located, but for un-signalised intersections, it is necessary to
provide an adequate view of the crossroads or intersecting highways to
reduce the potential of collision with crossing vehicles.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Figure 4-6. Minimum sight triangle at an intersection

Figure 4 - 6 shows a schematic of the sight triangle required for the location
of an obstruction that will allow for the provision of the minimum distance
da and db . the safe stopping sight distance for the give design speed should
be used for da and db. It can be seen from that triangle ABC and ADE are
similar, which gives:

CB ED
=
AB AD

db a
=
d a da - b

From this equation, if any of the variables da, db, a, and b are known the
fourth can be determined.

Sight Distance Requirements for No-Control Intersections: - In this

situation the intersection is not controlled by a yield sign, a stop sign, or a
traffic signal, but sufficient sight distance is provided for the operator of a
vehicle approaching the intersection to see a crossing vehicle and if
necessary to adjust the vehicle's speed so as to avoid a collision. This
distance must include the distance travelled by the vehicle both during the
driver's perception reaction time and during brake actuation or the
acceleration to regulate speed. At intersections, 2.0 sec is usually acceptable
for perception reaction time, and an additional 1.0 see is added for the
driver to actuate braking or to accelerate to regulate speed. It is, generally,
preferable to design uncontrolled intersections such that the driver of each

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
vehicle sees the intersection and the traffic on the crossroad insufficient
time for stopping the vehicle before reaching the intersection.

Sight Distance Requirements for Yield-Control Intersections: - In this

situation the minor road is controlled by a yield sign. Vehicles on the minor
road are therefore required to yield to vehicles on the major road, which
often requires the vehicle on the minor road to slow down or to stop prior to
reaching the intersecting roadway. The sight distance provided on the minor
road must therefore be sufficient for the driver to see a vehicle approaching
from either the left or right of the major road, and to be able to stop the
vehicle before reaching the intersecting roadway, as shown in Figure 4 - 6.
The solution is similar to that for the no-control condition except that in this
case the minimum stopping sight distances given for the appropriate speeds
are always used for da, and db . It should be noted that the grades of the
approaches should be taken into consideration when determining the
minimum stopping sight distances.

Sight Distance Requirement for Stop-Control Intersections: - When

vehicles are required to stop at an intersection, the drivers of such vehicles
should be provided sufficient sight distance to be able to stop the vehicle
before reaching the intersecting roadway and allow for a safe departure from
the stopped position for the three basic manoeuvres that occur at an
average intersection. These manoeuvres are:

(1) Crossing the intersection, thereby clearing traffic approaching from

both sides of the intersection,
(2) Turning left onto the crossroad, which requires clearing the traffic
approaching from the left and then joining the traffic stream on the
crossroad with vehicles approaching from the right, and
(3) Turning right onto the crossroad by joining the traffic on the
crossroad with vehicles approaching from the left.

Sight Distance at Intersections with Signal Control: - Although the

unobstructed view at signalised intersections may be limited to the area of
control, it is recommended that the minimum sight distances based on sight
distance requirement for stop-control intersections be made available at
these intersections. These minimum sight distances are necessary to avoid
the hazardous situations resulting from unanticipated conflicts at signalised
intersections, including signal failure, vehicles running the red light, use of
the flashing red/yellow mode, and right turns on red. The basic principle of
signalised intersections is to provide sight distances that will enable the
driver to see the signals early enough to take the necessary action indicated
by the signals.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Traffic Controls

The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of way to drivers, and
thus to facilitate highway safety by ensuring the orderly and predictable
movement of all traffic on highways. Control may be achieved by using
traffic signals, signs, or markings that regulate, guide, warn, and/or
channel traffic. Complex maneuvering areas of highways such as
intersections require properly designed traffic control systems.

Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different directions interfere

with each other. The three types of conflicts are merging, diverging, and
crossing. Figure 4 - 7 shows the different conflict points that exists at a
four-approach unsignalized intersection. There are 32 conflict points in this
case. The number of possible conflict points at any inter- section depends
on the number of approaches, the turning movements, and the type of
traffic control at the intersection.

Figure 4-7. Conflict points at four-approach unsignalised intersection

The primary objective in the design of a traffic control system at an
intersection is to reduce the number of significant conflict points. In
designing such a system, it is first necessary to undertake an analysis of the
turning movements at the intersection, which will indicate the significant
types of conflicts. Factors that influence the significance of a conflict include
the type of conflict, the number of vehicles in each of the conflicting
streams, and the speeds of the vehicles in these streams. Crossing conflicts,
however, tend to have the most severe effect on traffic flow and should be
reduced to a minimum whenever possible.
Types of intersection control: - Several methods of controlling conflicting
streams of vehicles at intersections are in use. The choice of one of these
methods depends on the type of intersection and the volume of traffic in
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
each of the conflicting streams. The different types of intersection control
are described below.
YIELD Signs: - Yield signs are usually placed on minor-road approaches;
where it is necessary to yield the right of way to the major-road traffic. All
drivers on approaches with yield signs are required to slow down and yield
the right of way to all conflicting vehicles at the intersection. Stopping at
yield signs is not mandatory, but drivers are required to stop when
necessary to avoid interfering with a traffic stream that has the right of way.
STOP Signs: - A stop sign is used where an approaching vehicle is required
to stop before entering the intersection. A stop sign may be used on a minor
road when it intersects a major road, at an unsignalised intersection, and
where a combination of high speed, restricted view and serious accidents
indicates the necessity for such a control. Stop signs should not be used at
signalised intersections or on through roadways of expressways.
Roundabouts: - A roundabout is a means of traffic control where one-way
traffic is circulating around a central island. Priority within the roundabout
is controlled by GIVE WAY (YIELD) signs for entering traffic, although
occasionally traffic signals may be used. It considerably reduces the number
and severity of conflicts, makes the traffic flow self-regulatory and
continuous, reduces congestion, and promotes safety.
Traffic Signals: - One of the most effective ways of controlling traffic at an
intersection is the use of traffic signals. Traffic signals can be used to
eliminate many conflicts because different traffic streams can be assigned
the use of the intersection at different times. Since this results in a delay to
vehicles in all streams, it is important that traffic signals be used only when
necessary. The most important factor that determines the need for traffic
signals at a particular intersection is the intersection's approach traffic
volume, although other factors such as pedestrian volume and accident
experience may also play a significant role.
The efficient operation of the signal requires proper timing of the different
colour indication, which is obtained by implementing the necessary signal
timing design. The main objectives of signal timing at an intersection are to
reduce the average delay of all vehicles and the probability of accidents.
These objectives are achieved by minimizing the possible conflict points
when assigning the right of way to different traffic streams at different
times. The cycle length for an isolated intersection should be short,
preferably between 35 and 60 sec, although it may be necessary to use
longer cycles when approach volumes are very high. However, cycle lengths
should be kept below 120 sec, since very long cycle lengths will result in
excessive delay. Several methods have been developed for determining the
optimal cycle length at an intersection and, in most cases, the yellow
interval is considered as a component of the green time.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Figure 4 - 8 shows a typical two-phase signal system to illustrate the
terminologies commonly used in the design of signal times.

Figure 4 - 8. Two-phase signal system

Yellow interval: - The main purpose of the yellow indication after the green
is to alert motorists to the fact that the green light is about to change to red
and to allow vehicles already in the intersection to cross it. A bad choice of
yellow interval may lead to the creation of a dilemma zone, an area close to
an intersection in which a vehicle can neither stop safely before the
intersection nor clear the intersection without speeding before the red signal
comes on. The required yellow interval is the time period that guarantees
that approaching vehicles can either stop safely or proceed through the
intersection without speeding.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
The yellow interval, which eliminates the dilemma zone, is estimated from
the following equations:

W + L u0
t m in = d + +
u0 2a

If the effect of grade is added,

W +L u0
t m in = d + +
u0 2(a + Gg )

where, t m in = the minimum yellow interval, (sec)

d = perception-reaction time, (sec)
W = width of intersection, (m)
L = length of vehicle, (m)
u 0 = speed (m/sec)
a = deceleration, (m/sec2)
G = grade of the approach road, and
g = acceleration due to gravity.
Yellow intervals of 3 to 5 sec are normally used. When longer yellow
intervals than 5 sec are computed from the above equations, an all-red
phase can be inserted to follow the yellow indication, but the change
interval, yellow plus all-red, must be at least the value computed from the
equations.

Cycle Lengths: - The signals at isolated intersections can be pretimed

(fixed), semiactuated, or fully actuated. Pretimed signals assign the right of
way to different traffic streams in accordance with a preset timing program.
Each signal has a preset cycle length that remains fixed for a specific period
of the day or for the entire day. Several design methods have been developed
to determine the optimum cycle length, two of which the Webster method is
presented here.

Webster Method. Webster has shown that for a wide range of practical
conditions, minimum intersection delay is obtained when the cycle length is
obtained by the equation

1.5L + 5
C0 = n
1 - å Yi
i=1

where, C0, = optimum cycle length (sec)

L = total lost time per cycle (sec)

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Yi = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation flows
for all
traffic streams using phase i (i.e., Vij/ S j )
n = number of phases
Vij = flow on lane j having the right of way during phase
Sj = saturation flow on la.nei

Total Lost Time.

Figure 4-9 shows a graph of rate of discharge of vehicles at various times
during a green phase of a signal cycle at an intersection. Initially, some time
is lost before the vehicles start moving, and then the rate of discharge
increases to a maximum. This maximum rate of discharge is the saturation
flow. If there are sufficient vehicles in the queue to use the available green
time, the maximum rate of discharge will be sustained until the yellow
phase occurs. The rate of discharge will then fall to zero when the yellow
signal changes to red. The number of vehicles that go through the
intersection is represented by the area under the curve. Dividing the
number of vehicles that go through the intersection by the saturation flow
will give the effective green time, which is less than the sum of the green
and yellow times. This difference is considered lost time, since it is not used
by any other phase for the discharge of vehicles; it can be expressed as
li = Gai + t i - Gei
where, li = lost time for phase i
G ai = actual green time for phase i (not including yellow time) ,
t i = yellow time for phase i
Gei = effective green time for phase i
Total lost time is given as

n
l
L=
å i
+R
i=1

where, R is the total all-red time during the cycle.

Figure 4 - 9. Discharge of vehicle at various times during a green phase

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Allocation of Green Times. In general, the total effective green time available
per cycle is given by

æ n ö
Gte = C - L = C - ç å li + R÷
è i=1 ø

where, C = actual cycle length used (usually obtained by rounding off C0, to
the nearest 5 sec)
Gte = total effective green time per cycle

To obtain minimum overall delay, the total effective green time should be
distributed among the different phases in proportion to their Y values to
obtain the effective green time for each phase.

Yi
Gei = Gte
Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yn

and the actual green time for each, phase is obtained as

Ga1 = Ge1 + l1 -t 1
G 2i = Ge2 + l 2 - t 2
Gai = Gei + li - t i
Gan = Gen + l n - t n

Example Figure 4 - 10a shows peak-hour volumes for a major intersection

on an arterial highway. Using the Webster method, determine suitable
signal timing for the intersection using a four-phase system and the
additional data given in the figure. Use a yellow interval of 3 sec.

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

a) Data on traffic flow

b) Equivalent straight-through passenger cars

Figure 4 - 10. Peak-hour volumes for major intersection on a an arterial
highway
Solution:

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

First convert the mixed volumes to equivalent straight-through passenger

cars. The equivalent volumes are shown in Figure 4 - 10b. The volumes
were obtained by dividing by the PHF, and then by applying the relevant
factors for trucks and left-turning vehicles as necessary. No factors for
right-turning vehicles were used because those volumes were very low.
Assume the following phasing system, where the arrows indicate traffic
streams that have the right of way:

The critical lane volumes are (see Figure 4 - 10b):

Phase, n Critical Lane Volume

A 499
B 338
C 115
D 519
S1471
Compute the total lost time using. Since there is not an all-red phase-that
is, R = 0 and there are four phases,

L = Sli = 4 x 3.5 = 14 sec

Determine Yi and S Yi :

Phase A (EB) Phase B (WB) Phase C (SB), Phase D (NB)

Lanes: 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
Vij 335 490 499 189 338 338 115 79
37 519 105 217
Sj 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Vi/Si 0.17 0.25 0.25 0.09 0.17 0.17 0.06 0.04 0.019 0.26 0.05 0.11

Yi 0.25 0.17 0.06 0.26

S Yi = 0.74
Determine the optimum cycle length

.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
1.5L + 5
C0 = n
1 - å Yi
i=1

1.5 ´14 + 5
C0 =
1 - 0.74
= 100 sec
Find the total effective green time:
Gte = C - L
= (100 - 14) = 86 sec
Effective time for phase i is obtained from:

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
CHAPTER-FOUR
EARTHWORK AND QUANTITIES
Introduction
The term earthwork is applied to that portion of highway construction, which is
required to convert the rights of way from the natural condition and configuration
to the section and grades prescribed in the geometric design. It includes
 Clearing 
 Grubbing - clear off roots
 Excavation of drainage channels & trenches 
 Excavation of structures
 Borrows 
 Haul & Overhaul
 Grading
 Preparation of Side Slopes 
 Reconditioning of roadway
 Other operations for preparing the sub grade for highway or runway
pavement construction (Highway Eng. II)
The quantity and Cost are calculated in m3 either in its original form or by
allowing for shrinkage and swell. The rate of payment generally includes full
compensation for excavation, formation of embankment, preparing of side slopes,
disposal or borrowing with in the free-haul distance, and the preparation and
completion of the sub grade and the shoulders.
Classification of excavated materials
Usually excavated materials are classified in to three categories:
1) Solid Rock: hard rock and boulders; Volume > 1m3; can be best
removed by blasting
2) Loose Rock: detached masses or rock – 0.025<V<1m3; could easily be
removed
3) Common/Ordinary Excavation: all others< 1m3 .
Shrinkage and swell factors
The processes of excavation breaks up earth and make it occupy more space
afterwards. This increase in volume is called Swelling. (E.g., excavated rock
occupies a larger volume in fill)
After placing the excavated earth in a fill and compacting, volume will become less
than the original. Difference between original volume in cut and final volume in fill
is termed as Shrinkage
Shrinkage depends on the material’s characteristics and moisture content;
climatic conditions; and method of placing.
Material % of shrinkage
Light excavated soil 10 – 20%
(on ordinary ground)
Light excavated soil 20 – 40%
(on swampy ground)
Heavy Excavated soil Up to 10%
Excavated Rock (Swell) 5 – 25%
Table showing shrinkage of compacted fills .

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Amount of excavation required to make a given fill may be arrived at by:
Shrinkage: multiply the fill quantity by 1+ %sh
Swelling: divide the fill quantity by 1 + %sw
Road Bed Sections
A highway sub-grade is usually formed with the travel lanes, shoulders and a
trench section upon which the pavement will be constructed, the finished surface
being crowned to facilitate drainage
 Ditches are provided on embankment sections to transfer water down the fill 
slops into pipes or paved gutters to protect the embankment against erosion.
 On curves of 5o or sharper sub grade is banked and widened. Width of
roadbed in cut is wider than on fills to allow for side-ditches.
 Some times ditches are provided depending on the drainage condition of the
site.

cut
fill

cutand
fill

Fig .Typical sections of cut fill and cut&fill

 The slope of the side slope depends on the angle of repose of the material.

Material Ht. of Side Slope Back Slope
Slope
Cut Fill
Soil 0–1 1:4 1:4
1–2 1:3 1:3
Over 2 1:2 1:2

Rock Any ht. See standard details

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Black Cotton 0 – 2 - 1:6
Soil Over 2 1:4
Earthwork quantities
For calculating the quantity of earthwork, the areas of cross-sections and the
distance between them must be known.
From the data supplied by x-section note and the design of vertical alignment, the
area of the x- section my be calculated. If the ground is levelled, simple geometry
may be applied to calculate the area of the x-section. For irregular grounds, there
are two general methods used.
1) The graphical or planimeter method.
2) The coordinate or other approximate method.
Area by coordinate method
With the coordinate of all the corners of a x-section known, the end area may be
computed by means of coordinate method. The point of intersection of the centre
of formation of the road is used as the origin .the cuts above the formation are
retained as plus and those below as minus. The distances to the right are positive
and those to the left are negative.
Simple rule . Arrange the coordinates in ccw in the form of fractions, the initial
fraction repeated to give a closed boundary.
y1 y2 y3 y1
= = = ... = Then multiply along the marked diagonals and add the
x1 x2 x3 x1
products all positive, multiply along unmarked diagonals and add the products all
negative and add the products all negative. The difference gives the double area.
Trapezoidal rule.

sd sd

1 d 1
s s
b
Cut

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

b
s
d 1

sd sd
Fill
A = bd + sd 2

Area of cut and fill section

1 in n
b/
L
C

1 h2
s1 A2
d s2
A1 c
h1 1

d1 d2
A1=Area in cut
A2=Area in fill
When c is to the right of the point of zero fill
(b - 2nd) 2 (b + 2nd) 2
A1 = and A2 =
8(n - s1 ) 8(n - s2 )
When c is to the left of the point of zero fill
(b + 2nd) 2 ¢ (b
A1¢ = - 2nd) 2 and A2 =
8(n - s1 ) 8(n - s2 )

Area of irregular section

Assumes the boundaries could be approximated by a straight line, if the interval L
between offset measurements is very small
( trapezoidal rule )

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

L L L
O1 A1 A2 An On+1
A3

O2 On
O3

A = A1 + A2 +...+ An
A = L / 2[O1 + On+1 + 2(O2 + O3 +...+ On )]

Simpson’s rule
Assumes, instead, that the boundaries consist of a series of parabolic arcs
For this rule to apply, N must be an odd number

L L L
O1 A1 A2 An On+1
A3

O2 On
O3

A1 + A2 = L / 3(O1 + 4O2 + O3 )
A3 + A4 = L / 3(O3 + 4O4 + O5 )
A = L / 3(O + O + 4 even offsets+ 2
1 N å å remaining odd offsets)

Average end area method

Volume of a right prism equals the average area multiplied by the length
A1 + A2
V12 = l
2
V = l / 2[( A1 + An ) + 2( A2 + A3 + ... + An-2 + An-1)]

Prismoidal method
A prismoid is a solid whose ends are parallel and whose sides are plane or warped
surfaces
The Volume of a prismoid is: Vab = l 6 ( A1 + 4 Am + A2 )
V13 = l 3( A1 + 4A2 + A3 )
V35 = l 3( A3 + 4A4 + A5 )
V15 = l 3(A1 + A5 + 2A3 + 4(A2 + A4 ))
V = l 3( A1 + AN + 2(remaining odd areas) + 4(even areas))

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
A1 & A3 are parallel end areas a distance l apart and A2 the area at the mid-
length, found out by interpolating the linear dimensions.

Mass haul diagram

Is a continuous curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum of the cuts (+ve)
and fills (-ve) from some initial station to any succeeding station
Ordinates of the mass curve are plotted with reference to a horizontal scale of
distances
It is convenient to tabulate the cumulative sum of cuts and fills at a station before
drawing a Mass diagram
Mass haul diagram-drawing procedures
1) Calculate areas at cross-sections
2) Calculate the volume of fill and cut; cut is +ve and fill –ve.
3) Correct the volume calculated by shrinkage and swell factors
4) Tabulate the corrected aggregate volume
5) Plot the mass haul diagram
(scale: 1:2000 H and 1:500 or 1:1000 (cm:m3)V)
6) Join points by a straight line or curves
7)
Stations Individual Bulking/ Corr. Indiv. Aggregate
volume Shrinkage volumes Vol.
Cut Fill factors Cut Fill

Characteristics of Mass-haul Diagram

 A mass diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earthwork and
embankment involved in a project and the manner in which the earth is to be
moved. Its horizontal or x-axis represents distance and is usually expressed in
meters or stations. It is drawn to the same horizontal scale as the profile. The
vertical or y-axis represents the cumulative quantity of earthwork in cubic
meters. The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered positive,
and embankment as negative. Preliminary to drawing the mass curve, it is
convenient to tabulate the cumulative volumes of cuts and fills at each station.
 The mass diagram allows a highway engineer to determine direction of haul and
the quantity of earth taken from or hauled to any location. It shows “balance
points”, the stations between which the volume of excavation (after adjustment
for “shrinkage” or “swell”) and embankment are equal.

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

Figure 4.9 Profile and mass diagram. AC = free-haul distance; HJ – AC = overhaul

distance; BB = free-haul volume; A’A = C’C = overhaul volume; OD = length of
balance.

A study of the mass diagram (or curve) shown in figure 4.9 will verify the following
statements:
 The ordinate at any point on the mass curve represents the cumulative
volume to that point on the profile.
 Within the limits of a single cut, the curve rises from left to right; within the
limits of a single fill, it falls from left to right.
 Sections where the volume changes from cut to fill correspond to a maximum;
sections where the volume changes from fill to cut correspond to a minimum.
Evidently the maximum and minimum points on the diagram occur at, or
near, grade points on the profile.
 Any horizontal line, as AC, cutting off a loop of the mass curve, intersects the
curve at two points between which the cut is equal to the fill (adjusted for
shrinkage). Such a line is called a balance line.
 The loops convex upward indicate that the haul from cut to fill is to be in one
direction (to the right in this case); loops concave upward indicate a reverse
direction of haul.
 The final point on a mass diagram for a given project gives the overall net
amount of earthwork for the entire project. This amount, if positive, would
indicate a surplus of excavation material and a need to waste that quantity of
material. If the final point on the mass diagram is a negative amount, it
indicates a net shortage of earthwork for the project and a need to borrow
that quantity of earthwork material.

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Determination Of Overhaul From The Mass Diagram: One of the important
uses of the mass diagram, aside from balancing cuts and fills and indicating the
most advantageous distribution of the same, is to establish definitely the overhaul
distance and the portion of the total volume which is to be regarded as hauled
beyond the specified free-haul limit.

Referring to figure 4.9, proceed as follows:

 Assuming the free-haul distance to be 150m, find by trial a horizontal line

intersecting the curve at points A and C, such that AC = 150m. Then the
material above line AC will be hauled at no extra cost. The amount of this
material is given by the ordinate from line AC to point B and is a measure of
the volume in cut from a to b, which makes the fill from b to c.

 Consider now the volume above the balance line OD. A study of the mass
curve and the corresponding profile shows that the cut from o to b will make
the fill from b to d. But since part of this solidity, the part above the balance
line AC, is included in the free-haul limit, the other part between lines OD
and AC – which is measured by the ordinate A’A – is subject to overhaul
unless wastage and borrow take place. That is, some or all of the volume from
o to a may be “overhauled” to make the fill from c to d.

 The average length of haul of the solidity from o to a to make the fill from c to
d is the distance between the centers of gravity of cut o to a and fill c to d. The
gravity lines are found as follows: Bisect AA’ at M and draw a horizontal line
intersecting the mass curve at H and J. These points H and J are assumed to
be vertically below the desired centers of gravity. Therefore the average haul is
given by the length of line HJ, and the overhaul is this distance HJ less the
free haul distance AC. The overhaul distance (in stations) multiplied by the
net volume gives the station-volumes of overhaul.

 It should be note that the foregoing graphical method of determining the

center of gravity of the masses in cut and fill is inaccurate when there is
abruptness in the mass curve. In such cases, a more accurate method is to
divide the volume in parts and take moments about a vertical line of reference
just as is done in finding the center of gravity of a system of forces.

 The mass diagram may be used to indicate the most economical procedure for
disposing of excavated material, what part of it should be moved forward or
backward, and whether borrowing and wasting are advisable. Thus if the
balance line OD is continued horizontally to point X, it will be seen that the

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
cuts and fills from o to f are balanced, but the solidity represented by the
ordinate at G is excess cut (from f to g) which may be carried forward,
backward, or wasted. If the project ends at point g or if there are no fills
immediately ahead, then this excavated material should be carried backward
to help make the fill from b to c (it being downhill and within the free-haul
limit), while an equivalent amount of volume from the cut o to a would be
wasted, thus reducing the station-volume of overhaul.
Distribution Analysis of Earthwork Terminologies
1) Haul Distance: distance from point of excavation to point where the material
is to be tipped
2) Average Haul Distance is the distance from the centre of gravity of the
excavation to the centre of gravity of the tip
3) Free-haul Distance: is the distance (usually specified in the contract) over
which a charge is paid only for the volume of earth excavated and not for its
movement (300m). Free-haul is part of the haul, which is contained within the
free haul distance.
4) Over-haul Distance: is the distance in excess of the free-haul distance, over
which it is necessary to transport material. An extra charge will be paid for
transport. Over-haul is part of the haul which remains after the free haul has
been removed.
5) Haul: is the sum of the product of each volume of material and the distance
through which it is moved. On the mass-haul diagram, it is the area
contained b/n the curve and the balance line
6) Waste: is the volume surplus or unsuitable material, which must be
exported from a section of the site.
7) Borrow: is the volume of material which must be imported in t a section of
the site due to deficiency of suitable material
Limit of Economical Haul
When there are long hauls, it may be more economical to waste and borrow
materials rather than pay for the cost of overhauling. Equating the cost of
excavation plus overhaul to the cost of excavation from both the roadway and
borrow pit, one can estimate the limit of economic haul for making the
embankment. Thus, let

c = cost of roadway excavation per cubic meter

b = cost of borrow per cubic meter
h = cost of overhaul, on the bases of 1m3 per station
x = economical length of overhaul

Cost to excavate and move 1m3 material from cut to fill = c + hx………….(a)

.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================
Cost to excavate from cut, waste, borrow, and place 1m3 material in fill
=b+c ……………………………… .. ……….….……………………………… ..(b)
Equating equations (a) and (b) and solving for x, we have x = b/h (s + a) ..(c)
Adding the free haul distance to equation (c), we get the limit of economical haul.
Example
For the tabulated volume of cut and fill data given below:
1) draw the mass-haul diagram, and
2) estimate the total cost of excavating and moving earth
If, the cost of excavation is 6birr/m3, cost of borrow is 6 birr/m3, cost of overhaul
is 12birr/station-m3, and the free haul distance is 1.1km. Use a shrinkage factor
of 0.9.

Indiv. volume Bulking/ Corr. Indiv. Agg. Vol.

Sta *103 m3 Shrinkage Volumes
km+m factors *103 m3
Cut Fill Cut Fill

0+000
2.00 - 0.9 1.80 1.80
0+100
1.2 - 0.9 1.08 2.88
0+200
0.8 - 0.9 0.72 3.60
0+300
0.15 - 0.9 0.14 3.74
0+400
- 0.65 0.65 3.09
0+500
- 1.50 1.50 1.59
0+600
- 2.00 2.00 - 0.41
0+700
- 1.80 1.80 - 2.21
0+800
- 1.60 1.60 - 3.81
0+900
2.00 - 0.9 1.80 - 2.01
1+000
1.80 - 0.9 1.62 0.39
1+100
1.60 - 0.9 1.44 1.05
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
==================================================================

1+200
- 1.00 1.00 0.05
1+300
- 1.00 1.00 - 0.95
1+400
3.00 - 0.9 2.70 1.75
1+500
1.00 - 0.9 0.90 2.65
1+600