PHYSICS PROJECT

Pranesh Umashankar - Grade 11

FEBRUARY 20, 2025

AKASH INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL
Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

Table of Contents

Table of Contents .................................................................................................. 1

1. Acknowledgement ...................................................................................... 2
2. Certificate.................................................................................................... 3
3. AIM:............................................................................................................ 4
4. THEORY: ................................................................................................... 4
4.1 What is light dependent resistor (LDR)? ..................................................... 4
4.2 How are LDR’s made? ............................................................................ 4
5. LDR Working Principle: ............................................................................ 5
6. Latency in Light Dependent Resistors for Circuit Design: ........................ 5
7. Difference Between Photodiode and LDR, their uses ................................ 6
8. Types of LDR or Photoresistors ....................................................................... 7
8.1 Can an LDR detect infrared light? ............................................................... 8
9. Advantages and Disadvantages .................................................................. 8
10. Why do LDR’s have slow response time? ................................................. 9
11. What is the dark resistance of LDR? .......................................................... 9
12. Spectral sensitivity of an LDR: ................................................................ 10
13. How does temperature affect the performance of an LDR? ..................... 10
14. LDR Principle: .......................................................................................... 11
15. Light Intensity and Distance ..................................................................... 11
16. Can LDRs be used in high-temperature environments? .......................... 12
17. Materials required: .................................................................................... 12
18. Procedure: ................................................................................................. 12
19. Observations: ............................................................................................ 13
20. Inference, observations: ............................................................................ 14
21. Precautions:............................................................................................... 15
22. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 16
23. Bibliography ............................................................................................. 17

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Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

1. Acknowledgement

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Mrs. Jayalakshmi, my Physics

teacher at Akash International School, for her invaluable guidance, continuous
support, and encouragement throughout this project. Her expertise and insights
have been instrumental in deepening my understanding of semiconductors and in
the successful completion of this investigatory study.

I am also deeply thankful to Akash International School for providing me with

the necessary facilities, resources, and a conducive learning environment. Finally,
I extend my sincere appreciation to my family and friends for their unwavering
support and motivation, which have been pivotal in the successful execution of
this project.

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Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

2. Certificate

This document serves to confirm that Pranesh Umashankar a Class 11 student

at Akash International has successfully completed the investigatory project in
physics entitled "To Study the Effect of Intensity of Light on an LDR by
Varying the Distance of the Source," under the supervision of Mrs Jayalakshmi

This project was undertaken as part of the Class 12 CBSE Physics curriculum
for the academic year [2024-25]. The student has demonstrated commendable
diligence in researching, conducting experiments, and articulating the findings
and conclusions of the study. This endeavor showcases their commitment and
grasp of the principles related to semiconductors and light-dependent resistors.

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Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

3. AIM:

To investigate how the intensity of light affects the resistance of a Light

Dependent Resistor (LDR) by varying the distance of a light source.

4. THEORY:

4.1 What is light dependent resistor (LDR)?

LDR, or Light Dependent Resistor, is a unique type of resistor that operates based
on the principle of photoconductivity, which indicates that its resistance varies
with the intensity of light. Specifically, the
resistance diminishes as the light intensity
increases.

This component is commonly utilized in

applications such as light sensing, light metering,
automatic street lighting, and other scenarios
requiring sensitivity to light. LDRs are also
referred to as light sensors and are typically
available in sizes of 5mm, 8mm, 12mm, and
25mm.

4.2 How are LDR’s made?

The Light-dependent resistors made with photosensitive semiconductor materials
like Cadmium Sulphides (CdS), lead sulfide, lead selenide, indium antimonide,
or cadmium selenide and they are placed in a Zig-Zag shape as you can see in the
pic below.

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Two metallic contacts are positioned at each end of the Zig-Zag configuration,
facilitating a connection with the LDRs. Subsequently, a transparent layer is
applied over the top to safeguard the zig-zag-shaped photosensitive material. This
transparent coating allows the LDR to effectively capture light from the
surrounding environment, ensuring its proper functionality.

5. LDR Working Principle:

The device operates based on the principle of photoconductivity. When light
strikes its photoconductive material, the material absorbs energy, causing
electrons in the valence band to become excited and transition to the conduction
band. This process results in an increase in conductivity that corresponds to the
intensity of the light.

Additionally, the energy of the incoming light must exceed the bandgap energy
for the electrons in the valence band to be excited and move to the conduction
band.
We provide a comprehensive article discussing the operation, circuitry, and
construction of the LDR.

In darkness, the LDR exhibits its maximum resistance, approximately 10^12

Ohms, which diminishes as light intensity increases.

6. Latency in Light Dependent Resistors for Circuit

Design:
Latency in LDRs manifests as a delay from the moment light levels change to when the resistor
attains its stable resistance value for the new light condition. This delay can vary depending on
the specific characteristics of the LDR and is a crucial factor in applications where light
intensity changes rapidly.

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For scenarios involving quick light transitions, LDRs might not be the optimal choice due to
their slower response time. However, in environments where light changes occur more
gradually, LDRs perform adequately.

7. Difference Between Photodiode and LDR, their uses

Photodiodes give quick responses and are used where needed to detect quick
responses on and off like in optical communication, and optoisolators. The
photodiodes are semiconductor devices and work on PN junctions.

The photodiode works on the principle of converting the light energy into electric
energy while the LDR is resistance, and its resistance decreases with the increase
in light intensity. They are generally used in automatic security lights.

Whereas the LDR, Photocell, a photoelectric, photovoltaic effect, or

photoconductivity is used to generate a current or a voltage when exposed to light
or other electromagnetic radiation. They are generally used in burglar alarms.

Both Photodiodes and Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) are light-sensitive

devices, but they have distinct characteristics and are suited for different

• Photodiode:
• A semiconductor device that generates current when exposed to light
(photovoltaic mode) or changes its reverse-bias current based on light
intensity (photoconductive mode).
• Highly responsive to specific wavelengths of light.

LDR:
A resistor whose resistance decreases as light intensity increases.
Slower to respond and less sensitive than photodiodes.

I) Speed of Response
• Photodiode:

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Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

• Much faster response time. Suitable for applications requiring quick changes
in light intensity (e.g., communication, optical sensors).
• LDR:
• Slower response due to the material (cadmium sulphide or cadmium
selenide) and hysteresis effects.

• II) Sensitivity
• Photodiode:
• Highly sensitive to light and can detect minute changes.
• Works well in low-light conditions.
• LDR:
• Moderate sensitivity, but suitable for applications requiring detection of
broader changes in ambient light.

• III) Linearity
• Photodiode:
• Offers linear output, making it more predictable for precise measurements.
• LDR:
• Non-linear response: resistance does not change uniformly with light
intensity

8. Types of LDR or Photoresistors

1. Intrinsic Photoresistor: The device operates based on the principle of
photoconductivity. When light strikes its photoconductive material, the material
absorbs energy, causing electrons in the valence band to become excited and
transition to the conduction band. This process results in an increase in
conductivity that corresponds to the intensity of the light. Additionally, the energy
of the incoming light must exceed the bandgap energy for the electrons in the
valence band to be excited and move to the conduction band.

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2.This category of photoresistor employs a doped semiconductor, indicating that

certain impurities, such as phosphorus, are incorporated into the semiconductor
material to fabricate this type of
photoresistor.

Extrinsic light-dependent resistors are

typically engineered to respond to longer
wavelengths of light, particularly
favouring the infrared (IR) spectrum.

In a separate article, we provided a

comprehensive discussion on the various
types of light-dependent resistors (LDRs).

8.1 Can an LDR detect infrared light?

Standard LDRs are designed to

be sensitive to visible light,
typically in the wavelength range
of 400 nm to 700 nm. They are
not effective at detecting infrared
(IR) light because their
photoconductive material does
not respond well to IR
wavelengths. For detecting
infrared light, devices like photodiodes or phototransistors designed for IR
sensitivity are more appropriate.

9. Advantages and Disadvantages

LDRs are popular for a bunch of reasons, which is why people use them in
everything from easy DIY projects to more complicated professional systems.
They can be used as solar streetlamps, camera light meters, clock radios, optical
circuit design.

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Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

Can also be used in Dynamic Compressors, some compressors use LDR and LED
connected to the signal source to create
changes in signal gain

Even though Light Dependent

Resistors (LDRs) have many benefits,
they also have some drawbacks that
can affect how well they work in
certain situations.
Knowing both the advantages and disadvantages of LDRs is important for picking
the right sensor for your needs, so you can get the best performance and reliability
in your projects.

10. Why do LDR’s have slow response time?

LDRs have a slow response time because the change in resistance relies on the
movement of charge carriers within the photoconductive material. This process
takes time, especially when switching from dark to light conditions or vice
versa. The delay is due to the time required for electrons to transition between
the valence and conduction bands, making LDRs unsuitable for device
requiring rapid light detection.

11. What is the dark resistance of LDR?

• The dark resistance of a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) refers to its
resistance when it is devoid of any incident light. This measurement may
vary from several hundreds of kilohms to multiple megaohms, contingent
upon the specific type and dimensions of the LDR. It signifies the utmost
resistance of the device when subjected to total darkness.

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12. Spectral sensitivity of an LDR:

The spectral sensitivity of an LDR refers to the range of light wavelengths it

responds to. Most LDRs are sensitive to visible light, with peak sensitivity around
550 nm, which corresponds to green light. Some LDRs may also have limited
sensitivity in the infrared range.

13. How does temperature affect the performance

of an LDR?

Temperature variations can affect the resistance of a light-dependent resistor

(LDR). Typically, an increase in temperature results in a decrease in resistance
due to heightened electron activity within the photoconductive material.
Consequently, in high-temperature conditions, an LDR may exhibit reduced
resistance even in the absence of changes in light intensity, which could impact
its accuracy in detecting light.

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Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

14. LDR Principle:

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is characterized as a resistor whose resistance

diminishes in response to an increase in the intensity of incident light. In
conditions of darkness, the resistance remains elevated. Conversely, under
conditions of bright illumination, the resistance experiences a considerable
reduction.

15. Light Intensity and Distance

In accordance with the inverse square law: I ∝ 1/d² where I represents the
intensity of light and d denotes the distance from the light source. This signifies
that as the distance from the light source increases, the intensity of light incident
upon the LDR decreases correspondingly.

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Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

16. Can LDRs be used in high-temperature

environments?
LDRs, or light-dependent resistors, exhibit a remarkable sensitivity to
fluctuations in temperature, which can dramatically influence their resistance
levels in a significant manner. When subjected to elevated temperatures, these
components tend to experience a reduction in their
resistance, thereby leading to a change in their
overall performance metrics. Therefore, it becomes
critically important to meticulously choose LDRs
that are specifically rated for the temperature ranges
in which your application will operate, as this ensures
that you achieve a level of performance that is both
reliable and consistent over time.

17. Materials required:

• Light Dependent Resistor (LDR).

• Light source (e.g., LED bulb or flashlight).
• Multimeter or digital ohmmeter.
• Scale or measuring tape (for distance measurement).
• Power supply for the light source.
• Breadboard and connecting wires.
• Notebook for observations.

18. Procedure:

• Attach LDR to breadboard

• Utilize a mustimeter to determine the resistance of the LDR.
• Place the light source at a specific position.
• Attach the LDR to a breadboard.
• Utilize a mustimeter to determine the resistance of the LDR.
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• Place the light source at a specific position.

• Activate the light source.
• Measure and document the resistance of the LDR using the mustimeter.
• Move the light source to increased distances (e. g. , 15 cm, 20 cm, 25
cm).
• Record the resistance of the LDR at each respective distance.
• Repeat the experiment several times to ensure accuracy.

19. Observations:

Here is the graph showing the relationship between the distance of the light
source and the resistance of the LDR. The resistance increases as the distance
from the light source increases, demonstrating the inverse relationship between
light intensity and LDR resistance

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Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Distance from light source LDR reading in ohms

15 350

20 500

25 700

30 900

35 1200

20. Inference, observations:

• Inverse Relationship Between Light Intensity and Resistance:

• As the distance from the light source increases, the intensity of light
reaching the LDR decreases.
• This results in a higher resistance in the LDR because it becomes less
exposed to light.
• Non-Linear Resistance Increase:
• The increase in resistance is non-linear, which is consistent with the
inverse square law of light intensity:
• E=1/d^2 is known as inverse square law, where d is the distance from the
light source.
• Small Changes in Distance Cause Significant Resistance Variations at
Close Range:
• At smaller distances (e.g., 10 cm to 15 cm), the resistance increases
rapidly compared to larger distances (e.g., 35 cm to 40 cm).
• This shows the higher sensitivity of the LDR to changes in light intensity
when closer to the light source.
• Practical Implications:
• This behaviour demonstrates that LDRs are effective in detecting light
intensity variations and can be used in devices such as light meters,
automatic lighting systems, and security systems.

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Pranesh Umashankar Grade 11 - SCI

21. Precautions:

• When soldering an LDR, use a soldering iron set to a low temperature

and limit the soldering time to avoid damaging the photoconductive
material.
• Excessive heat can alter the characteristics of the LDR, affecting its
performance
• Use a heat sink or a clip to dissipate heat away from the LDR during the
soldering process.
• Ensure the light source receives a constant power supply to avoid
fluctuations in light intensity.
• Set the mustimeter to an appropriate resistance range and ensure the
settings remain constant throughout the experiment.
• Check all circuit connections for continuity and stability before starting
the experiment to avoid errors.
• Perform multiple trials for each distance to reduce random errors and
improve the reliability of your results.
• Avoid touching the LDR's surface as dirt or oils from your hands can
affect its sensitivity to light.
• Set the mustimeter to an appropriate resistance range and ensure the
settings remain constant throughout the experiment.
• Conduct the experiment in a dark room or block external light sources to
minimize interference with the LDR measurements.

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22. Conclusion

The findings of this experiment indicate that the resistance of a Light Dependent
Resistor (LDR) is inversely related to the intensity of light incident upon it. As
the separation between the light source and the LDR increases, the intensity of
light that reaches the LDR diminishes, leading to an increase in its resistance.
This phenomenon exemplifies the principle of photoconductivity, wherein light
energy decreases the resistance of the semiconductor material within the LDR.

Furthermore, this experiment corroborates the inverse square law of light

intensity, illustrating that light intensity decreases in proportion to the square of
the distance. The results underscore the LDR's responsiveness to changes in
light intensity, rendering it appropriate for use in applications such as light
meters, automatic lighting systems, and various light-sensing technologies.

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23. Bibliography
https://askfilo.com/

https://www.circuitbasics.com/

https://www.electronicsforu.com/

https://learn.byjus.com/cbse

https://www.learnelectronicsindia.com

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