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2 POROSITY
In hydrocarbon reservoirs, the pore volume is available for storage of oil, gas, and water. The porosity or a rock is a measure of the amount of internal space that is capable of holding these fluids. Total porosity is defined as the, ratio of the volume of all the pores to the bulk volume of a material, regardless of whether or not all of the pores are interconnected. Quantitatively, the porosity is the ratio of "the volume of the void space to the total volume of void space plus rock matrix. Porosity is normally expressed as a fraction or percentage of bulk volume.

Porosity is
= Vp Vb = Vb Vma Vb (W / ma ) = Vb Vb

Vp Vb Vma W ? ma

= pore volume = bulk volume = volume of matrix minerals = total weight of matrix minerals = matrix minerals density (weight per unit of minerals volume)

Effective porosity is defined as the ratio of interconnected pore volume to the bulk volume of a material. The pore space available in a given rock depends on: the shape of the grains, the uniformity of the grains, the way in which they are arranged or packed, and the amount of cementing material between them. For instance, a "rock" made of cubically packed uniform spheres, without any cementing material would have a porosity of 48 per cent. The porosity is entirely independent of the size of the spheres.

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A rock made of spheres is unknown, but the generalisation can be made that the more uniform the grains, the larger will be the porosity. For instance, if an actual rock is composed of grains with a wide range of grain sizes, then there will be a chance that the smaller grains will fill the interstices between the larger ones. Ordinary loose sand has a porosity of about 30%, but this drops to about 15% in sandstones, according to the degree of compaction and the amount of cementing material. Porosity of sandstones is controlled primarily by textural properties. These are 1. Grain size 2. Sorting 3. Shape (sphericity) 4. Roundness (angularity) 5. Packing Of these, sorting and packing are of major importance, grain size, shape and roundness of relatively minor importance. Porosity in limestones is much more variable in magnitude than it is in sandstones. In some (reef-type) formations it is very high, in a few cases exceeding 50 per cent. However, in general the porosity of carbonate rocks is lower than it is in sandstones. Dolomites have normally good porosities. Identical spheres: A loose sand (uncemented, unconsolidated) can be represented by a particular packing of identical spheres. The porosity of such a packing can be calculated from its geometry. The calculation of porosity for a cubic packing is shown in Fig. 2.1 (48%). This packing is of course very unstable. Yet, porosities of 40 to 45 per cent exist in unconsolidated sand formations (e.g. Venezuela).

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Fig. 2. 1 It is of interest to note that the porosity is independent of the size of the spheres.

The tightest packing of identical spheres is rombohedral, with a porosity of 26%.

Fig. 2.2

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Porosity is a dimensionless ratio with a value between 0 and 1.0. It should be noted that it is often quoted, as a percentage (e.g. 26%) but must be entered in equations and calculations as a decimal fraction (e.g. 0.26). Grain size distribution: Identical spherical grains do not occur in nature, where ranges of grain need to be considered, and where the smaller grains tend to occupy the pore space between the larger ones. Porosity is therefore dependent on the type of packing and the grain size distribution (that is sorting). Wentworth designed a classification system defining grain sizes for siliclastics (Table 2.1), and Archie for carbonates (Table 2.2).

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Table 2.1: Siliclastics

Table 2.1: Carbonates Crystal or grain size

Category

Median grain size in Microns

Symbol

Range in Microns

Gravel 2000 Very Coarse 1000 Coarse 500 Medium 250 Fine 125 Very fine 62 Silt

Large 400 Medium 200 Fine 100 Vefy fine 50 Extremely fine Pore size Symbol Range in microns

1 Micron = 10-3 mm.

B C D

<100 100-2000 >2000

Matrix texture:I = Compact II = Chalky III = Sucrose

The grain size distribution of a sand or sandstone sample is determined by means of employing a vertical stack of sieves, the mesh size decreasing from the top downwards (Fig. 2.3). Martey, A.O 2.5 Univation

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Fig. 2.3. Assembly of sieve trays (finest screens at the bottom) for analysis of the grain-size distribution of sediments. The crushed sample is weighed and placed onto the upper sieve. Vibration of this sieve stack causes the grains to be rapidly distributed over the sieves. The cumulative percentage weight on each sieve is plotted against the mesh size (D) and a distribution curve is obtained (Fig. 2.4).

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Fig. 2.4

The degree of sorting, expressed by the Trask coefficient (So), is defined by the equation: So = (D25 / D75)1/2 in which D25 = grain diameter at 25% of sample weight (larger grains) D75 = grain diameter at 75% of sample weight Table 2.3 indicates the six sorting categories according to Trask.

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Category Extremely well Very well

Trask coefficient 1.00 1.10 1.20

Well 1.40 Moderately 2.00 Poor 2.70 Very poor 5.70

Actual porosity values: These may be as high as 45% in loose sands, and as low as 1 % in still prolific fractured carbonates. A common range of porosities in sandstones and carbonates is as follows: recant sands (loose) sandstones tight sandstones limestones (Middle East) dolomites (Middle East) chalk (North Sea) 35 - 45% 20 - 35% 15 - 20% 5 - 20% 10 -30% 5 -40%

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Some non-productive rocks also have high porosities. Shales, clays, and extremely fine-grained chalks fall into this category. They may have porosities 40% and higher. In general, a field appraisal classification of reservoir porosity is: 5 10% poor 10 20% good > 20% very good

Porosity determination Buoyancy technique - Effective porosity

Porosity is determined routinely on core samples as shown opposite in Fig. 2.5. Bulk volume, Vb , is determined by immersing in mercury. Because of the low atmospheric pressure, mercury does not invade the pore spaces, so the displacement of mercury (measured by Archimedes Principle of bouyancy) is equal to the bulk volume of the rock. Grain volume, Vg, is determined by immersion in chlorothene which, through wetting the grain surface, invades all pore spaces connected to the surface of the sample. Hence the volume of chlorothene displaced is equal to Vg. The reduction in weight is the buoyancy, which is the product of the matrix volume (plus unconnected pore volume) and the density of the saturating fluid. Vg=

( A, sample _ weight )air (D, sample +

scaffold _ weight ) + (C , scaffold _ weight ) chlo chlo chlorothene _ density

From these two measurements, plus dry sample weight in air, porosity and grain density are calculated thus:

Vb Vm Vb
Weight _ in _ air matrix _ volume _ Vm

Matrix density ?m =

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Fig. 2.5

Gas expansion method (Boyle Law Porosimeter) - Effective s porosity

An alternative for measuring grain volume is the Boyle's law method where Helium is used to invade the pore space (Fig. 2.6). The dry sample is inserted in the sample chamber and both chambers are evacuated. The two valves isolating the expansion chamber are then closed, and an initial pressure P1 is applied to the sample chamber. Then the valve on the left of the sample chamber is closed, and the valve between the sample chamber and the expansion chamber is opened. The pressure between two chambers is allowed to equalise to pressure P2.

Fig. 2.6 Martey, A.O 2.10 Univation

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Knowing Vb (again obtained by mercury immersion), Vs and Ve, the porosity can be calculated from the formula shown below. For ideal gases at constant temperature P1V1 = P2 V2 Vs =volume of empty sample chamber Ve = volume of expansion chamber P1 [Vs - (Vb -Vp)] = P2 [Vs -(Vb -Vp) + Ve] P1Vs - P1Vb + P1Vp = P2Vs - P2Vb + P2Vp+P2Ve = Vp Vb =

(P1

P2 ) b + P2Ve (P P2 ) s V V 1 (P1 P2 ) b V

Clearly only connected porosity is measured. If there is non-connected porosity, it will not be invaded by Chlorothene or Helium, and will be included in the grain volume with a consequent reduction in apparent grain density. Additionally Mercury may invade large vugs or fractures or even pore space in very coarse grained rock with a reduction in apparent bulk volume. This leads to a decrease in calculated porosity. Finally the porosity is that of a 'dry' sample dependent on the drying process particularly important in shaly sands.

Pycnometer Method - Total Porosity The weight, W of the cleaned and dried core sample is obtained by weighing the sample in air. The Bulk Volume Vb is measured by immersion of the sample in mercury. A representative portion of the sample is then crushed to individual grain size. The crushed sample is weighed and its volume determined in a pycnometer by displacement of a non-wetting fluid. Martey, A.O 2.11 Univation

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The grain density ?g, will be the weight of the crushed sample divided by its volume. The grain volume, or matrix volume, of the original sample Vg, is calculated by dividing its weight by the grain density. The Total porosity is then equal to the bulk volume minus the grain volume divided by the bulk volume. = (Vb Vg) I Vb or = [Vb - (W / ?g )] I Vb

This measurement gives the best results, but the disadvantage of this method is that the sample is destroyed in the process and no other measurements, such as permeability, can be taken on the sample afterwards.

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IN UNCONSOLIDATED SANDS THE PORE SIZE IS ABOUT 1/3 OF THE GRAIN SIZE. IN COMPACTED SANDS THE PORE SIZE IS ABOUT 1/10 OF THE GRAIN SIZE. DECREASE IN PORE DIAMETER IS THE RESULT OF COMPACTION / DEPTH OF BURIAL

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