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Edexcel IGCSE Chemistry: Your notes

Double Science
Covalent Bonding
Contents
Formation of Covalent Bonds
Covalent Bonds: Dot & Cross Diagrams
Simple Molecular Structures
Giant Covalent Structures

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Formation of Covalent Bonds

Your notes
Formation of covalent bonds
Non-metal atoms can share electrons with other non-metal atoms to obtain a full outer shell of
electrons
When atoms share pairs of electrons, they form covalent bonds
Covalent bonds between atoms are very strong
Covalently bonded substances may be simple molecular structures or giant covalent structures
Simple molecular structures include oxygen and water
Giant covalent structures include diamond and graphite
Shared electrons are called bonding electrons and occur in pairs
Electrons on the outer shell which are not involved in the covalent bond(s) are called non-bonding
electrons
Covalent bonding

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Your notes

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Two chlorine atoms share one electron each to form a covalent bond with a shared pair of electrons
Your notes
Examiner Tip
A key difference between covalent bonds and ionic bonds is that in covalent bonds the electrons are
shared between the atoms, they are not transferred (donated or gained) and no ions are formed.

Electrostatic attractions
There is a strong electrostatic attraction between the shared pair of electrons and the nuclei of the
atoms involved, since the electrons are negatively charged and the nuclei are positively charged

The attraction between the shared pair of electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved in a
covalent bond
In a normal covalent bond, each atom provides one of the electrons in the bond
A covalent bond is represented by a short straight line between the two atoms, H-H
Covalent bonds should not be regarded as shared electron pairs in a fixed position; the electrons are in
a state of constant motion and are best regarded as charge clouds
Sharing electrons in the covalent bond allows each of the 2 atoms to achieve an electron configuration
similar to a noble gas
This makes each atom more stable

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Covalent Bonds: Dot & Cross Diagrams

Your notes
Dot and cross diagrams for covalent compounds
Covalent substances tend to have simple molecular structures, such as Cl2, H2O or CO2
These small molecules are known as simple molecules
Small covalent molecules can be represented by dot and cross diagrams
You need to be able to describe and draw the structures of the molecules below:

Diatomic Molecules

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of hydrogen

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Your notes

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of chlorine

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of oxygen

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Your notes

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of nitrogen

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of hydrogen chloride

Inorganic Molecules

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Your notes

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of water

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of ammonia

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Your notes

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of carbon dioxide

Organic Molecules

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Your notes

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of methane

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Dot & cross representation of a molecule of ethane

Your notes

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of ethene

Examiner Tip
Each covalent bond represents one shared pair of electrons.
For example, there are two covalent bonds between the two oxygen atoms in O2 so four electrons are
shared.

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Simple Molecular Structures

Your notes
Simple molecular structures
Simple molecular structures have covalent bonds joining the atoms together, but intermolecular
forces that act between neighbouring molecules
They have relatively low melting and boiling points because:
There are weak intermolecular forces between the molecules
These forces require little energy to overcome
Most simple molecular structures are either gases or liquids at room temperature
They can be solids with low melting and boiling points but this is less common
As the molecules increase in size, the melting and boiling points generally increase because the
strength of these intermolecular forces increases and so more energy is needed to break them

Covalent bonds are strong but intermolecular forces are weak

C60 fullerene
Fullerenes are a group of carbon allotropes which consist of molecules that form hollow
tubes or spheres
Fullerenes can be used to trap other molecules by forming around the target molecule and capturing it,
making them useful for targeted drug delivery systems
They also have a huge surface area and are useful for trapping catalyst molecules onto their surfaces
making them easily accessible to reactants, so catalysis can take place
Some fullerenes are excellent lubricants and are starting to be used in many industrial processes
The first fullerene to be discovered was buckminsterfullerene which is affectionately referred to as a
“buckyball”
In this fullerene, 60 carbon atoms are joined together forming 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons which
produce a hollow sphere that is the exact shape of a soccer ball
C60 is a simple molecular structure

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C60 can not conduct electricity

Although the fourth electron in C60 is not bonded, the electrons are only freely moving within
the buckyballs and cannot migrate from one buckyball to another, so C60 does not conduct Your notes
electricity
There are weak intermolecular forces between individual buckyballs
Little energy is needed to overcome these forces
Substances consisting of buckyballs are slippery and have relatively low melting points
C60 fullerene

The structure and bonding in C60 fullerene - the football shaped molecule

Examiner Tip
Remember: When explaining the low melting and boiling point of simple molecular structures, it is not
the covalent bonds between the atoms which are broken, but the weak intermolecular forces.

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Melting and boiling point patterns

As the relative molecular mass of a substance increases, the melting and boiling point will increase as Your notes
well
An increase in the relative molecular mass of a substance means that there are more electrons in the
structure, so there are more intermolecular forces of attraction that need to be overcome when a
substance changes state
So larger amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these forces, causing the compound to
have a higher melting and boiling point
The family of organic molecules called alkanes show a clear increase in boiling point as the size of the
molecule increases
The relationship between molecular mass and boiling point

As the molecular mass increases, so does the boiling point

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Conductivity of simple molecular structures

Simple molecular structures are poor conductors of electricity (even when molten) because: Your notes
There are no free ions or electrons to move and carry the charge.
Most covalent compounds do not conduct at all in the solid state and are thus insulators
Common insulators include the plastic coating around household electrical wiring, rubber and wood

The plastic coating around electrical wires is made from covalent substances that do not allow a flow of
charge

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Giant Covalent Structures

Your notes
Giant covalent structures
Giant covalent structures are solids with high melting points
They have a huge number of non-metal atoms bonded to other non-metal atoms via
strong covalent bonds
These structures can also be called giant lattices and have a fixed ratio of atoms in the overall structure
Two examples include diamond and graphite
All giant covalent structures have high melting points because:
There are strong covalent bonds between atoms
These require lots of energy to overcome

Examiner Tip
Giant covalent structures can also be called macromolecules.

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Diamond & graphite

Diamond Your notes
Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon
Both substances contain only carbon atoms but due to the differences in bonding arrangements they
are physically completely different
In diamond, each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron
Each covalent bond is very strong
What are the properties of diamond?
Diamond is very hard because:
Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms
The covalent bonds are very strong
Diamond being hard makes it useful for cutting tool
Diamond has a high melting point because:
It has a giant covalent structure
There are strong covalent bonds between atoms which need lots of energy to break
The bonding and structure in diamond

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Each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms

Your notes
Examiner Tip
Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring mineral, but it is by no means the strongest.
Students often confuse hard with strong, thinking it is the opposites of weak.
Diamonds are hard, but brittle – that is, they can be smashed fairly easily with a hammer.
The opposite of saying a material is hard is to describe it as soft.

Graphite
Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagons, leaving one free
electron per carbon atom
What are the properties of graphite?
Graphite is soft and slippery
Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atom forming layers
The layers are free to slide over each other because there are only weak forces between the layers,
not covalent bonds
Graphite is used as pencil lead
Graphite can conduct electricity and heat
Due to each carbon atom only forming three bonds, one electron from each carbon atom is
delocalised
The delocalised electrons are free to move
Graphite is similar to metals in that it has delocalised electrons
It is often used as electrodes during electrolysis
Graphite has a high melting point because:
It has a giant covalent structure
There are strong covalent bonds between atoms which need lots of energy to break
Bonding and structure in graphite

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Your notes

In graphite, each carbon is bonded to three other carbon atoms forming layers

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Don’t confuse pencil lead with the metal lead – they have nothing in common.
Pencil lead is actually graphite, and historical research suggests that in the past, lead miners
sometimes confused the mineral galena (lead sulfide) with graphite; since the two looked similar they
termed both minerals ‘lead’.
The word graphite derives from the Latin word ‘grapho’ meaning ‘I write’, so it is a well named mineral!
Remember: Explaining the melting point for any giant covalent structure is always the same:
They have giant covalent structures
There are many strong covalent bonds
These need lots of energy to break

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