ENG RESEARCH:

Intro

● Anglo-Saxon🡪global language

● 1.5 billion to 2 billion speakers. David Crystal calculated in 2003 that non-native speakers
outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of three to one.
● Stages of spreading: British Isles, colonies, as a second language

● Now is a lingua franca

English as a global language:

English has emerged as a global language with widespread use and influence in various aspects of
communication, commerce, education, technology, and culture. Several factors contribute to the
status of English as a global language:

1. Historical and Colonial Legacy:

The historical influence of the British Empire and, later, American economic and cultural
dominance has played a crucial role in spreading English across the globe. Former British
colonies and territories, as well as regions influenced by American economic power, often
adopted English for administrative, educational, and trade purposes.
2. Economic and Political Influence:
English is commonly used as a language of business and diplomacy. Many international
organizations, including the United Nations, use English as one of their official languages.
The economic influence of English-speaking countries, particularly the United States, has
contributed to the language's prominence in global trade and finance.
3. Science and Technology:
English is the predominant language of science, technology, and innovation. Research
papers, academic publications, and technological advancements are often documented and
disseminated in English. This contributes to the importance of English for professionals and
researchers worldwide.
4. Globalization and Communication:
The rise of globalization has facilitated cross-cultural communication, and English serves as a
common language for individuals from diverse linguistic backgrounds to communicate
effectively. It is often used as a lingua franca, allowing speakers of different native languages
to interact.
5. Media and Entertainment:
English-language media, including movies, television shows, music, and literature, has a
global impact. Hollywood productions, for example, are widely distributed and enjoyed
around the world. The popularity of English-language entertainment contributes to the
global familiarity and usage of English.
6. Education and Academia:
English is a dominant language in higher education, with many universities offering courses
and programs in English. The pursuit of an English-language education is often seen as an
avenue for accessing global knowledge, research, and opportunities.
7. Internet and Technology:
 The internet, as a global communication platform, operates predominantly in English. Many
websites, software, and social media platforms use English as the default language. This
digital dimension further reinforces the global prevalence of English.
8. Tourism and Travel:
English is often used in the tourism industry. Travelers from different countries may
communicate with each other and with locals in English, contributing to its role as a global
means of communication

Kachru’s circle model:

Braj Kachru's Circle Model is a sociolinguistic framework that categorizes English into three
concentric circles, each representing a different domain of use and proficiency. The model was
developed by linguist Braj Kachru to describe the global distribution and functional differentiation of
English. The three circles are:

1. Inner Circle:
Description: The Inner Circle refers to native English-speaking countries where English is the
primary language. This circle includes countries such as the United Kingdom, the United
States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
Use: In the Inner Circle, English is the mother tongue, and it serves as the official language in
various domains, including education, government, media, and everyday communication.
2. Outer Circle:
Description: The Outer Circle comprises countries where English has a significant historical
and institutional presence, and it is often used as a second language. These countries may
have a legacy of British colonial rule or historical contact with English-speaking communities.
Use: In the Outer Circle, English functions as a second language and is used in education,
administration, and as a means of interethnic communication. English may also have official
status alongside other languages.
3. Expanding Circle:
Description: The Expanding Circle encompasses countries where English is learned as a
foreign language. These countries typically do not have a colonial history with English-
speaking nations but recognize the practical importance of English for international
communication.
Use: In the Expanding Circle, English is often taught in schools and universities and may be
used in specific domains such as business, science, and technology. Proficiency levels vary,
and English serves as a global lingua franca in international contexts.

The Circle Model is not only geographical but also reflects sociolinguistic and historical factors.
Kachru's framework recognizes the diversity of English use and the varying degrees of proficiency
and ownership of the language in different parts of the world. It challenges the notion that the Inner
Circle varieties are the only legitimate or "correct" forms of English and acknowledges the legitimacy
of other English varieties.

The model has been influential in shaping discussions about World Englishes and the globalization of
English. It highlights the dynamic and evolving nature of the English language, acknowledging its
multiple roles and forms in different sociolinguistic contexts.
Schneider's Stages:
Peter Trudgill, a sociolinguist, introduced the concept of "Schneider's Stages" in his book "New
Zealand English: its Origins and Evolution." In this framework, Trudgill outlines five stages of
historical development for the varieties of English that have emerged around the world. While it's
not directly attributed to Schneider, it's often associated with Trudgill's work. Here's a summary of
the stages:

1. Foundation: The foundation stage involves the initial settlement of English-speaking

populations in new territories. During this stage, colonizers establish contact with indigenous
populations and other immigrant groups, leading to the emergence of early varieties of
English characterized by linguistic diversity and contact-induced language change.
2. Exonormative stabilization: In the second stage, known as exonormative stabilization,
English speakers strive to maintain linguistic ties with the colonial or metropolitan center.
This often involves attempts to emulate the linguistic norms and standards of the colonial
power, resulting in the adoption of prestigious or standardized varieties of English.
3. Nativization: Nativization marks the third stage, during which local English varieties begin to
diverge from the norms of the colonial center. Speakers adapt and modify English to suit
local linguistic, cultural, and social contexts, leading to the emergence of distinct regional or
national varieties. Nativization involves processes of linguistic innovation, adaptation, and
hybridization, as well as the incorporation of elements from other languages and dialects.
4. Endonormative stabilization: Endonormative stabilization occurs in the fourth stage, as local
English varieties become more established and standardized within their respective
communities. Speakers develop their own linguistic norms and standards, which may diverge
from those of the colonial center or other varieties of English. Endonormative stabilization
involves the codification and institutionalization of local linguistic features, as well as efforts
to promote linguistic pride and identity.
5. Differentiation: The fifth and final stage, differentiation, involves the ongoing diversification
and specialization of local English varieties. Speakers may continue to innovate and adapt
their language in response to internal and external pressures, leading to the development of
subvarieties, dialects, and registers within broader linguistic communities. Differentiation
reflects the dynamic and evolving nature of language, as well as the diverse sociocultural
and historical contexts in which English is spoken around the world.

Varieties of English
British English:

Description: The variety of English spoken in the United Kingdom, including England, Scotland,
Wales, and Northern Ireland.

Characteristics: British English exhibits regional accents and dialects. Examples include Received
Pronunciation (RP), the accent traditionally associated with British prestige, Scottish English,
characterized by distinct Scottish features, and various regional accents such as West Country or
Geordie.

American English:

Description: The variety of English spoken in the United States.

Characteristics: American English has its own set of accents and dialects. Examples include General
American, a neutral accent often used in the media, Southern American English, known for its
distinctive features in the southern states, African American Vernacular English (AAVE), a variety
with unique grammatical and phonological characteristics, and regional variations like New York or
Texan English.

Australian English:

Description: The variety of English spoken in Australia.

Characteristics: Australian English includes distinctive features such as the use of colloquialisms and
a unique accent. Examples include the broad Australian accent and variations across different
regions, such as the Melbourne or Queensland accent.

Canadian English:

Description: The variety of English spoken in Canada.

Characteristics: Canadian English reflects influences from both British and American English.
Examples include the Canadian raising phenomenon in pronunciation and regional variations like
Newfoundland English or Western Canadian English.

New Zealand English:

Description: The variety of English spoken in New Zealand.

Characteristics: New Zealand English has its own accent and vocabulary. Examples include the Kiwi
accent and variations in pronunciation and vocabulary across regions like Auckland or Christchurch.

South African English:

Description: The variety of English spoken in South Africa.

Characteristics: South African English reflects the country's multicultural and multilingual context.
Examples include the influence of Afrikaans and regional variations such as the Cape Town or
Johannesburg accent.

Indian English:

Description: The variety of English spoken in India.

Characteristics: Indian English reflects the linguistic diversity of the country. Examples include the
Indian accent, variations in pronunciation influenced by regional languages, and a unique vocabulary
that blends English with indigenous expressions.

Singaporean English:

Description: The variety of English spoken in Singapore.

Characteristics: Singaporean English is influenced by the country's multicultural environment.

Examples include the Singaporean accent, the use of Singlish (a colloquial form of English with
influences from Chinese, Malay, and Tamil), and unique expressions like "lah" or "lor."

Caribbean English:

Description: English spoken in the Caribbean region.

Characteristics: Caribbean English varies across different islands and territories. Examples include
Jamaican Patois, a distinct Creole language with English roots, Trinidadian English with its own local
flavor, and variations in pronunciation and vocabulary across the Caribbean islands.

Nigerian English:

Description: The variety of English spoken in Nigeria.

Characteristics: Nigerian English reflects the linguistic diversity of the country. Examples include the
Nigerian accent, variations influenced by native languages such as Yoruba or Igbo, and a unique
blend of English with Nigerian Pidgin, a creole widely spoken in the country.

Ethical implications of English as a global language:

1. Linguistic Imperialism:
Issue: The spread of English can be perceived as a form of linguistic imperialism, where the
cultural and linguistic influence of English-speaking nations dominates and marginalizes
other languages and cultures.
Ethical Concern: This raises questions about the preservation of linguistic diversity and the
potential erosion of minority languages, leading to the loss of cultural heritage and
knowledge. For instance, British colonial rule in India led to the promotion of English as the
language of administration, education, and governance, while indigenous languages such as
Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, and Urdu were marginalized.
2. Access to Opportunities:
Issue: Proficiency in English is often a prerequisite for accessing educational, economic, and
professional opportunities on a global scale.
Ethical Concern: The requirement for English proficiency may disadvantage individuals from
non-English-speaking backgrounds, limiting their access to certain opportunities and
perpetuating inequalities.
3. Cultural Homogenization:
Issue: The widespread use of English in media, entertainment, and technology contributes to
a global culture dominated by English-speaking norms.
Ethical Concern: This may lead to cultural homogenization, diminishing the richness of
diverse cultural expressions and reinforcing a Western-centric worldview.
4. Language Privilege:
Issue: English-speaking individuals often benefit from language privilege, as their language is
commonly used as the default in international contexts.
Ethical Concern: This privilege may contribute to unequal power dynamics and reinforce
social hierarchies, disadvantaging those who do not speak English fluently.
5. Educational Inequities:
Issue: English is often the medium of instruction in prestigious academic institutions,
creating disparities in educational opportunities.
Ethical Concern: This can lead to educational inequities, as students who are not proficient in
English may face challenges in accessing quality education and research.
6. Language Proficiency as a Barrier:
Issue: English proficiency can serve as a barrier for individuals who are not native speakers
or who do not have access to quality English language education.
 Ethical Concern: This barrier may limit participation in international discourse, research
collaboration, and the sharing of diverse perspectives, excluding valuable voices from global
conversations.
7. Language Testing Bias:
Issue: Standardized English language proficiency tests may be biased and not adequately
measure an individual's communicative competence.
Ethical Concern: Relying solely on standardized tests may result in unfair assessments and
contribute to the exclusion of individuals who may have valuable skills and knowledge but
may not perform well on such tests.
8. Ethical Use of English in Diplomacy:
Issue: The use of English as a dominant language in international diplomacy can create
power imbalances.
Ethical Concern: Countries where English is not the native language may feel pressured to
conduct diplomatic negotiations in English, potentially disadvantaging non-English-speaking
nations.

Colonization
Colonial Expansion and Imposition of English:

Historical Context: During the era of European colonization, particularly by the British Empire,
English was imposed in various regions as the language of administration, governance, and
education.

Impact: The spread of English through colonization established it as a language of power and
authority, contributing to its global recognition.

Educational Systems and Language Policies:

Colonial Legacy: Many colonized regions adopted English as the language of instruction in schools
and universities, reinforcing its role as a language of education and knowledge dissemination.

Impact: The English language became associated with access to formal education, contributing to its
status as a global language of academia.

Legal and Administrative Structures:

Colonial Influence: English often became the language of legal and administrative structures in
colonies, influencing the development of legal systems, government institutions, and official
documentation.

Impact: The legacy of English in legal and administrative domains persists in many post-colonial
nations, contributing to its recognition in international contexts.

Economic Factors and Trade:

Colonial Commerce: English became a language of trade and commerce during colonization, with
colonial powers using it as a means of communication in economic transactions.

Impact: The association of English with economic activities contributed to its adoption in
international business and trade, reinforcing its status as a global language.

Media and Cultural Influence:

Colonial Media Influence: English-language media, literature, and cultural products produced during
colonial periods had a lasting impact on shaping perceptions of English as a language of culture and
sophistication.

Impact: English-language media, including literature, films, and music, continues to exert influence
globally, contributing to the recognition of English as a cultural and creative language.

Linguistic Legacy and Hybridization:

Colonial Language Contact: English, through colonization, came into contact with local languages,
leading to linguistic hybridization and the development of distinct regional varieties.

Impact: Post-colonial English varieties, often influenced by local languages and cultures, contribute
to the diversity of World Englishes and the global recognition of English as a flexible and adaptable
language.

Migration and Diaspora:

Colonial Migration: The movement of people during colonial periods contributed to the spread of
English through migration and diaspora.

Impact: English-speaking diaspora communities and their influence in various regions have
contributed to the recognition of English as a global language with widespread use and influence.

Key terms:
1. Linguistic Imperialism (emphasized by Robert Phillipson):
Issue: The spread of English can be perceived as a form of linguistic imperialism, where the
cultural and linguistic influence of English-speaking nations dominates and marginalizes
other languages and cultures.
Ethical Concern: This raises questions about the preservation of linguistic diversity and the
potential erosion of minority languages, leading to the loss of cultural heritage and
knowledge. For instance, British colonial rule in India led to the promotion of English as the
language of administration, education, and governance, while indigenous languages such as
Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, and Urdu were marginalized.

2. Linguistic power: Linguistic power refers to the influence, control, or authority wielded by
individuals, groups, or institutions through language. In many societies, proficiency in
dominant or prestigious languages such as English, Mandarin, or French is associated with
greater access to educational, economic, and employment opportunities. For instance,
individuals who speak English fluently may have an advantage in securing high-paying jobs,
participating in international business transactions, and accessing information and resources
available in English-speaking contexts.

3. Language death: refers to the process by which a language ceases to be spoken and loses its
last remaining native speakers, often resulting in the extinction of the language. The
Dalmatian language is an example of an extinct language. Dalmatian was a Romance
 language spoken in the Dalmatian region of present-day Croatia. It developed from Vulgar
Latin and was closely related to the Romance languages of Italy.

4. Language Revitalization Efforts: Despite the challenges of language death, efforts to

revitalize endangered languages can help preserve linguistic diversity and cultural heritage.
Language revitalization initiatives may involve language documentation, preservation of oral
traditions, community language programs, bilingual education, and language policy
advocacy. For example, the Maori language of New Zealand has experienced a revival in
recent decades through government support for Maori language education, media
representation, and community-driven language revitalization initiatives. Efforts to promote
Ainu language education have expanded in recent years, with initiatives aimed at teaching
Ainu language and culture in schools, community centers, and cultural institutions.

5. linguistic complacency: elimination of the motivation to learn a new language

Example: English Linguistic Complacency in the United States
In the United States, English is the dominant language, and the majority of the population
speaks it as their first language. As a result, there can be a sense of linguistic complacency
among monolingual English speakers who may not see the need to learn additional
languages or improve their proficiency in English.

6. Language shift: It involves a gradual transition from one language to another within a
community or population, resulting in the decline or loss of the original language over time.
An example of language shift can be observed in the decline of the Welsh language in Wales
and the rise of English as the dominant language. Historically, Welsh was the primary
language spoken by the majority of the population in Wales.

7. "Language suicide" is a term used to describe the deliberate abandonment or suppression

of a language by its speakers, often as a result of external pressures, social stigma, or
assimilation into a dominant linguistic group. One example of language suicide is the decline
of many indigenous languages in the Americas following European colonization. When
European settlers arrived in the Americas, they imposed their languages and cultures on
indigenous populations, often through coercive means such as forced assimilation,
residential schools, and policies that suppressed indigenous languages and cultures. As a
result, many indigenous languages faced rapid decline and even extinction, as younger
generations were discouraged or forbidden from speaking their ancestral languages and
were instead taught European languages such as Spanish, English, or Portuguese.

8. Hybridization in linguistics refers to the process by which elements from different languages
or dialects are combined to create a new linguistic variety or form. An example of
hybridization involves the use of English loanwords in Japanese, particularly in the context of
youth culture and informal communication. These loanwords, known as "wasei-eigo" (和製英
語) or Japanese-made English, are often adapted to fit Japanese phonology and grammar,
and they acquire specific meanings or connotations that may differ from their usage in
English-speaking contexts. Salaryman is a combination of the English word "salary" and the
Japanese word "man”. It refers to a white-collar office worker, particularly one who works
long hours and is dedicated to their job.
9. The homogenization of culture refers to the process by which cultural differences between
societies, regions, or communities diminish, resulting in greater uniformity or similarity in
cultural practices, values, norms, and artifacts.