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09054-prelims.qxd 07/14/2003 16:13 PM Page I

DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOMATERIALS

Copyright © 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

09054-prelims.qxd 07/14/2003 16:13 PM Page III

PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRD INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON

DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOMATERIALS, IS LYON 2003,
22 –24 SEPTEMBER 2003, LYON, FRANCE

Deformation Characteristics of
Geomaterials

Edited by

H. Di Benedetto, T. Doanh, H. Geoffroy & C. Sauzéat

Département Génie Civil et Bâtiment (DGCB, CNRS),
Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l’Etat, Vaulx-en-Velin, France

A.A. BALKEMA PUBLISHERS LISSE / ABINGDON / EXTON (PA) / TOKYO

Copyright © 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

09054-prelims.qxd 07/14/2003 16:13 PM Page IV

Copyright © 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher.

Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and the information
herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the authors for any damage to property or
persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.

Published by: A.A. Balkema, a member of Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers

www.balkema.nl and www.szp.swets.nl

Book  CD-ROM: ISBN 90 5809 604 1

CD-ROM: ISBN 90 5809 628 9

Printed in The Netherlands

Copyright © 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

09054-prelims.qxd 07/14/2003 16:13 PM Page V

Defor

Table of Contents

Foreword XV
Introduction XVII
Organisation XIX

Discussion Session 1:
Testing and apparatus (lab and in-situ, data acquisition)
Essais et appareils (de laboratoire et in-situ, acquisition de données)
Measurement of material damping with bender elements in triaxial cell 3
L. Karl, W. Haegeman, L. Pyl & G. Degrande
Applications of multistation surface wave testing 13
S. Foti & M. Fahey
An innovative facility to measure shear-wave velocity in centrifuge and 1-g models 21
M.A. Ismail & Y. Hourani
Development of measuring method for axial and lateral strain distribution using CCD sensor
in triaxial test 31
M. Kishi & K. Tani

Monitoring displacement distribution within the rock mass during a plate load test 37
A.B. Huang, J.J. Liao, I.W. Pan & C.P. Lin

Characterization of deformation process of CPT using X-ray TV imaging technique 43

T. Kobayashi & R. Fukagawa

Sample disturbance of soft organic Oostvaardersplassen clay 49

E.J. Den Haan
A non-resonance method for dynamic soil properties 57
G.J. Rix & J. Meng
Linear dynamic properties of sandy and gravelly soils from large-scale resonant tests 63
F.-Y. Menq & K.H. Stokoe, II
Automating Gmax measurement in triaxial tests 73
A.K.M. Mohsin & D.W. Airey
Derived stress–strain–strength of clays from seismic cone tests 81
A.F. Elhakim & P.W. Mayne
Vieillissement des sols reconstitués utilisés sur les modèles physiques en centrifugeuse
Ageing of remoulded soils used in geotechnical centrifuge modelling 89
L. Thorel, C. Gaudin, G. Rault & J. Garnier
A fundamental study on the strength measured by in-situ rock shear tests 97
T. Nishiyama & T. Hasegawa

V
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Experimental characterization of multi-directional cyclic p–y response of soft clay 105

J.M. Mayoral, J.M. Pestana & R.B. Seed
Microscopic observation of shear behavior of granular material 113
I. Towhata & C.-E. Lin
Behaviour of a tropical residual soil 119
T. Sivadass, C.Y. Lee & M.S.A. Karim
Interpretation of side-mounted bender element results using phase shift and group velocity 127
M. Theron, C.R.I. Clayton & A.I. Best
A new temperature controlled triaxial apparatus 133
C. Cekerevac, L. Laloui & L. Vulliet

Discussion Session 2:
Characterisation I (small and medium strain behaviour,
anisotropy, interface, permeability)
Caractérisation I (domaine des petites et moyennes
déformations, anisotropie, interface, perméabilité)
Identification et prévision du gonflement des sols expansifs 141
A. Bekkouche, A. Djedid & S.M. Aissa Mamoune
Stiffness of Onsøy clay 151
M. Long & T. Lunne

Continuous loading oedometer testing on three Swiss lacustrine clays 159

J.G. Trausch, C. Basler, T. Weber & S.M. Springman
Cyclic deformation characteristics of cemented calcareous soil 169
S.S. Sharma & M. Fahey
Multiscale analysis of the shear behaviour of soil–inclusion interfaces 179
B. Baylac, S. Masson, J. Martinez & M. Hellou
Effects of fabric anisotropy and stress condition on small strain stiffness of sands 187
S. Yamashita, T. Hori & T. Suzuki
Change in microstructure of Pleistocene clays due to one-dimensional consolidation 195
F. Rito, N. Ohmukai, H. Tanaka & M. Tanaka
Judging fabric bonding of natural sedimentary clay 203
D.J. Li, S. Shibuya, T. Mitachi & T. Kawaguchi
Evaluation of deformation modulus of clay at small strains based on isotropic elasticity 211
T. Kawaguchi, T. Mitachi, S. Shibuya & S. Sato
Experimental behaviour of Parco del Cilento silty sand under different loading histories 221
F. Santucci de Magistris & A. Parlato
Sand–structure interface behaviour under cyclic loading from constant normal stiffness direct shear tests 231
V.N. Ghionna, G. Mortara & G.P. Vita
Frictional behaviour between clay and steel by direct shear type apparatus 239
D.A. Sun, H. Matsuoka, K. Morichi, Y. Tanaka & H. Yamamoto
Cyclic triaxial tests on residual deformation and small strain properties of soft rocks 247
J. Koseki, H. Indou & K. Hayano

VI
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A comparative study on shear modulus and damping ratio of cohesive soil from laboratory tests 257
A. Cavallaro, G. Lanzo, A. Pagliaroli, M. Maugeri & D.C.F. Lo Presti
Small strain stiffness from in situ and laboratory tests for the city of Noto soil 267
A. Cavallaro, M. Maugeri & A. Ragusa
Modelling quasi-elastic deformation properties of sand 275
N. HongNam & J. Koseki
The anisotropy of Leighton Buzzard sand under general stress conditions 285
P.J. Naughton & B.C. O’Kelly
Resilient modulus of hydraulic mechanically stabilized slag base-course material 293
N. Yoshida, Y. Sugisako, H. Nakamura & E. Hirotsu
Variation of experimental results of oedometer testing due to the changes of pore fluid 299
V.R. Ouhadi & M. Sedighi
Anisotropic deformation properties of dense granular soils by large-scale true triaxial tests 305
L. AnhDan & J. Koseki
Small-strain stiffness anisotropy: relationship between continuum model and micromechanics model 313
S. Yimsiri & K. Soga
Effect of average straining rate on shear modulus at small cyclic strains 321
M. Vucetic, K. Tabata & L. Matesic
Small strain behaviour of a lime-treated silty sand 329
A. D’Onofrio & A. Penna
Influence of compaction variables on the small strain behaviour of a clayey silt 337
A. D’Onofrio & A. Penna
Permanent deformation behavior of airport pavement granular layers 345
E. Tutumluer & I.T. Kim
Dynamic and cyclic loadings on sands: results and modelling for general stress–strain conditions 353
H. Geoffroy, H. Di Benedetto, A. Duttine & C. Sauzéat
Effect of strain rate on the behaviour of dry sand 365
D. Pham Van Bang & H. Di Benedetto
Stiffness and damping parameters for 1D non-linear seismic response analysis 375
D.C.F. Lo Presti & O. Pallara
Comparison of shear wave velocity measurements in different materials using time and frequency
domain techniques 381
P.D. Greening, D.F.T. Nash, N. Benahmed, C. Ferreira & A. Viana da Fonseca
A study on skin friction properties of SIP by direct shear tests 387
B.S. Chun, H.S. Lim & J.K. Choi
On the resilient modulus and permanent deformation characteristics of stabilized recycled aggregates 393
C.T. Gnanendran
Shear modulus and damping of natural sands 401
Th. Tika, P. Kallioglou, A. Papadopoulou & K. Pitilakis
A study of the effect of wave velocity on solubility of limestone and chalk 409
H. Sadeghi & F. Khosravi
Stress–strain relationship for weak rocks 415
A. Nassif

VII
Copyright © 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands
09054-prelims.qxd 07/14/2003 16:13 PM Page VIII

Discussion Session 3:
Characterisation II (large strain behaviour, time effects)
Caractérisation II (grandes déformations, effets du temps)
Laboratory characterization of Hostun RF sand at very low confining stresses 423
O. Gay, L. Boutonnier, P. Foray & E. Flavigny
Time-dependent stress–strain behavior of natural soft clay 431
D.M. Zhang, P.Y. Hicher & H.W. Huang
Effect of simultaneous consolidation and creep on interpretation of test results 437
A. Krogsbøll & N. Foged
Strength and deformation characteristics of a saturated residual soil profile 443
R.M. Reis, O.M. Vilar & R.F. Azevedo
The dilatant behaviour of overconsolidated clays 451
G. Scarpelli, E. Sakellariadi & V.M.E. Fruzzetti

Stress–dilatancy relationship of various granular materials obtained by the newly developed in-situ
direct shear tests 461
S.H. Liu & H. Matsuoka

The omnipresence of localizations in particulate materials 465

J.C. Santamarina & G.C. Cho

Some factors affecting deformation and strength of coal ash 475

S. Shibuya, T. Mitachi, T. Kawaguchi & H. Ogasawara

Quantitative assessment of thermal acceleration of time effects in one-dimensional compression of clays 479
M. Shimizu
Pre-failure behaviour of a sandstone residual soil 489
F.B. Martins, A.V.D. Bica & L.A. Bressani
Experimental investigation and constitutive modelling of pre-failure deformation of a very densely
compacted gravel 497
G. Modoni, A. Flora, L.Q. Anh Dan & F. Tatsuoka
Basic research on mechanism of the residual strength of clay 505
M. Okawara & T. Mitachi
Effect of K0-condition on liquefaction characteristics of saturated sand 511
S. Sawada, Y. Takeshima & T. Mikami
Effect of anisotropy on drained and undrained shear behavior of in-situ sandy soils 519
M. Hatanaka, A. Uchida & Y. Taya
Undrained monotonic and cyclic behaviour of a coarse sand from undisturbed and reconstituted samples 527
V.N. Ghionna & D. Porcino
Normalization of stress–strain relationship for aged and cemented natural clay 535
Y. Watabe, M. Tanaka, T. Tsuchida & H. Tanaka
Impact du temps de vieillissement sur les caractéristiques rhéologiques et physico mécaniques
des ciments allégés destinés à la cimentation pétrolière 545
M. Khodja (née Saber), M. Khodja, T. Bouziani, C. Kasdi & A. Benmounah
Estimation du comportement mécanique de formations superficielles instables 551
B. Martins-Campina, J. Riss, R. Fabre & B. Clément

VIII
Copyright © 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands
09054-prelims.qxd 07/14/2003 16:13 PM Page IX

Significance of viscous effects in the development of residual strain in cyclic triaxial tests on sand 559
D.-H. Ko, H. Itou, F. Tatsuoka & T. Nishi

Viscous effects coupled with ageing effects on the stress–strain behaviour of cement-mixed gravel 569
L. Kongsukprasert & F. Tatsuoka

Viscous stress–strain properties of undisturbed Pleistocene clay and its constitutive modelling 579
N. Komoto, F. Tatsuoka & T. Nishi

Residual deformations by creep and cyclic loading of reinforced-gravel backfill and their relation 589
D. Hirakawa, Y. Shibata, T. Uchimura & F. Tatsuoka

Shear banding characteristics in plane strain compression of granular materials 597

M. Oie, N. Sato, Y. Okuyama, T. Yoshida, T. Yoshida, S. Yamada & F. Tatsuoka

Shear banding characteristics of granular materials and particle size effects on the seismic stability
of earth structures 607
Y. Okuyama, T. Yoshida, F. Tatsuoka, J. Koseki, T. Uchimura, N. Sato & M. Oie

Viscous stress–strain behaviour of clay under unloaded conditions 617

J.Z. Li, F. Tatsuoka, T. Nishi & N. Komoto

Effects of ageing and viscosity on the stress–strain behaviour of cement-mixed soft clay 627
M. Sugai, F. Tatsuoka & T. Uchimura

Strength and deformation characteristics of cement-mixed gravel for engineering use 637
T.N. Lohani, L. Kongsukprasert, F. Tatsuoka & K. Watanabe

Viscous effects on the shear yielding characteristics of sand and its modelling 645
H. Nawir, F. Tatsuoka & R. Kuwano

Experimental study of sand behaviour at low stresses 655

L. Lancelot, I. Shahrour & M. Al Mahmoud

Strength and stress–strain behaviour of saprolitic granite soils from Guarda – sampling effects 663
C.M.G. Rodrigues & L.J.L. Lemos

Modelling in triaxial cells of the behavior of a soil of a retaining structure 669

C. Gaudin, J.L. Thorel, J. Garnier & J.-F. Serratrice

Shear characteristics of the reconsolidated clay remolded under low water content 677
N. Yagi, R. Yatabe, N.P. Bhandary & M. Fujiwara

Strength characteristics of cement-mixed gravel evaluated by large triaxial compression tests 683
K. Watanabe, M. Tateyama, G.-L. Jiang, F. Tatsuoka & T.N. Lohani
Pre-failure behaviour of the tropical clay soils of Dhaka, Bangladesh 695
D.G. Toll & A.T.M.S. Hossain

Effect of water on particle breakage for decomposed granite soils 701

Y. Nakata, M. Hyodo, H. Murata, A.F.L. Hyde & T.G. Ham

Effect of particle characteristics on drained shear properties of sand 707

Y. Kato, Y. Nakata, M. Hyodo & H. Murata

Effects of structural bonding and particle physical property on one-dimensional compression

behaviour of bonded granular geomaterials 715
D. Katsuki, Y. Nakata, M. Hyodo, N. Yoshimoto & H. Murata
The role of fines in the flow deformation and liquefaction of a volcanic soil Shirasu 721
M. Hyodo, Y. Nakata, N. Yoshimoto, A.F.L. Hyde & T. Okabayashi

IX
Copyright © 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands
09054-prelims.qxd 07/14/2003 16:13 PM Page X

The effects of stress path history on the undrained behavior of saturated loose sands 729
Z. Finge, S. Boucq & T. Doanh

Strain localization extent in sand under drained triaxial tests 737

K. Suzuki & T. Yamada

Deformation behaviour of anisotropic and isotropic compacted soils due to wetting 743
E. Romero, A. Gens, A. Lloret & M. Barrera

Evaluation of the macrostructure

 influence on compressibility tests results 751
C. Ciurea & A. Chirica

The effects of total stress path’s direction on stress–strain–strength characteristics of soft marine
Bangkok clay 757
S. Sambhandharaksa, W. Aimdee & Y. Kurojjanawong

Assessment of mechanical behaviour of rockfill materials using triaxial and direct shear tests 767
M.H. Tofigh Rayhani

An experimental investigation of creep processes in a crushable sand 773

A. Gasparre, M.R. Coop & F. Cotecchia

Experimental study of the mechanical behavior of plastic concrete by triaxial apparatus 779
A. Mahboubi & A.M. Ajorloo

Behavior of loose sand at very high strain rates 785

J.A. Yamamuro & A.E. Abrantes

Discussion Session 4:
Integrated ground behaviour (prediction by numerical methods
of physical model or field behaviour)
Comportement des ouvrages (prédiction par méthodes numériques
du comportement d’ouvrages ou de modèles physiques)
Progressive failure and scale effect of anchor problem in two-layered sand 793
T. Sakai & T. Tanaka

Prediction of deformation of soft rock foundations for embankment dams considering nonlinear
deformability 799
Y. Yamaguchi, T. Akamatsu & N. Okabe

Deformation behavior of structure-sand deposits subjected to cyclic loading and FE analysis 809
S. Yokohama, S. Miura & S. Kawamura

Ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundations and contained yielded zone 817
Y. Kobayashi

Laboratory test of bearing capacity of model pile with nodes 825

Y. Iwasaki, J. Nagaya, S. Yao & A. Ito

A field study of induced slope failure in poorly cemented rock 833

Y.-W. Pan, C.-P. Lin, J.-J. Liao & A.-B. Huang

Dynamic behavior of railroad ballast in shaking table tests 841

T. Ishikawa & E. Sekine

X
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09054-prelims.qxd 07/14/2003 16:13 PM Page XI

Stiffness values and deformation behaviour of soil for the settlement analysis of foundation 849
R. Berardi & R. Bovolenta

Behaviour of near-saturated soils under cyclic wave loading 857

R. Schwab & H.-J. Köhler

Three-dimensional consolidation of clay ground improved by vertical drain 863

W.-J. Baek, T. Moriwaki & Y. Kikuchi

Implementation of a time-dependent constitutive model “TESRA” into the nonlinear FEM scheme 873
M.S.A. Siddiquee, F. Tatsuoka & T. Tanaka

Class “A” footing response prediction from seismic cone tests 883
P.W. Mayne

Estimation of the horizontal resistance of a rubble mound based on the results of an inverse
analysis with in-situ loading tests on piles 889
N. Kobayashi, Y. Yoshitake, A. Murakami & Y. Kikuchi

Horizontal loading of piles: comparative study of P–Y curves-based methods 897

A. Bouafia

Several considerations on a two-dimensional consolidation inverse analysis 905

S. Nishimura, A. Murakami & H. Fujii

Seismic 3-D effective stress analysis: constitutive modelling and application 913
M. Cubrinovski, K. Ishihara & T. Shibayama

Symmetry breaking bifurcation in various soils under shear 921

K. Ikeda, K. Terada & Y. Yamakawa

Modelling deformation of thawing soil under vehicle loading 931

S. Shoop, R. Affleck, V. Janoo & R. Haehnel

Three-dimensional finite element analysis of footing resting on sand 939

A. Ahadi

Stability of rock slopes in complex rock formation 947

T.N. Singh, A. Pandey & S. Puri

Détermination des modules de déformation des sols à partir d’un essai en place avec un pénétromètre 955
H. Arbaoui, R. Gourvès, L. Bodé & Ph. Bressolette

Influence of sample geometry on shear wave propagation using bender elements 963
J. Rio, P. Greening & L. Medina

Elasto-plastic finite element computations for a model of L-type retaining wall 969
T. Tanaka & M. Imada

Characteristics of settlement and bearing capacity of ground improved by granular pile 975
B.S. Chun, Y.H. Yeoh & C.K. Kim

A comparison between observed and predicted behaviour of a deep excavation in soft Bangkok clay 983
N. Kovacevic, D.W. Hight & D.M. Potts
Strength and compressibility behavior of composite geomaterial developed for application as
retaining wall backfill inclusions 991
A.N.A. Ghani, F. Ahmad, R. Hamir & S. Mohd
Multiscale modelling of mechanical behaviour of a tree subjected to a rock impact 997
C. Quetel, F. Berger, F. Nicot, B. Cambou & A. Danescu

XI
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Discussion Session 5:
Modelling (rheological, mathematical, mechanical models)
Modélisation (modèles rhéologiques, mathématiques, mécaniques)
Neural network based prediction of silty sands behavior 1003
S.S. Yasrobi & M. Banimahd
Experimentation and modelling of unsaturated soils behaviour in non-isothermal conditions 1009
F. Jamin, M.S. El Youssoufi & C. Saix
An illustrative model for assessing the influence of elastic non-linearity on the residual behaviour
of a platform subject to traffic loading 1019
M. Abdelkrim & P. de Buhan
Cyclic behaviour of soils, a prediction of permanent deformations 1027
E. Vincens, Ph. Dubujet & B. Cambou
Bifurcation analysis on soil specimens exhibiting diffuse deformation modes and localized slip planes 1035
Y. Yamakawa, K. Ikeda, K. Terada & K. Torii
Application of time-dependent model in tunnelling 1043
A. Purwodihardjo & B. Cambou
Simplified method based on plasticity for the permanent strains of unbound granular materials
for flexible pavements 1051
T. Habiballah, C. Chazallon & C. Petit
Validation of an elastoplastic model to predict secant shear modulus of natural soils by
experimental results 1057
J.A. Santos, A. Gomes Correia, A. Modaressi, F. Lopez-Caballero & R. Carrilho Gomes
Application of fractal dimensions to examine the frictional behavior of granular materials 1063
Z.Y. Yang, T.J. Wu & G.L. Yang
Discrete numerical simulation, quasistatic deformation and the origins of strain in granular materials 1071
G. Combe & J.-N. Roux
A thermomechanical model for clays 1079
I. Einav & A.M. Puzrin
Shear behavior of sand under cyclic loading in general stress systems 1087
T. Nakai, M. Hinokio, Y. Korenaga & H. Nagai
Numerical analysis on liquefaction-induced progressive deformation with a pore water migration 1095
R. Uzuoka, N. Sento & M. Kazama
A simple constitutive model of sand based on strain-path controlled tests 1103
Y. Asaka, K. Tokimatsu, K. Iwasaki & Y. Shamoto
Bounding surface formulation of a unified critical state model for clay and sand 1111
H.S. Yu & C.D. Khong
An elasto-plastic constitutive model at the overall strain ranges (104 to 10%) for weathered soils 1119
S. Oh, G.-C. Kweon & D.-S. Kim
New strain energy hardening functions for sand based on the double yielding concept 1127
S.J.M. Yasin & F. Tatsuoka
A framework for modelling of the time effects on the stress–strain behaviour of geomaterials 1135
F. Tatsuoka, H. Di Benedetto & T. Nishi

XII
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Use of Generalized Plasticity to describe the behaviour of a wide class of non-active natural soils 1145
L. Tonni, G. Gottardi, S. Cola, P. Simonini, M. Pastor & P. Mira
A Cam clay-type model for structured soils 1155
M.D. Liu, J.P. Carter, D.W. Airey & S. Liyanapathirana
Application of Mohr–Coulomb yielding criterion 1161
V. Mircevska & V. Bickovski
Non-linear deformation behavior of granular materials by Elliptic Microstructure Model 1167
K. Maeda & K. Miura
Influence of particles shape on the macroscopic behavior of granular material 1175
C. Claquin, F. Emeriault & C. Nouguier-Lehon
Identification of an elastoplastic model parameters using laboratory and in-situ tests 1183
F. Lopez-Caballero, A. Modaressi & F. Elmi
Unidirectional non-linear stress–strain relationship for sand 1191
E. Ibraim & B. Cazacliu
A rheological model for the viscous behaviour of sand 1201
C. Sauzéat, H. Di Benedetto, B. Chau & D. Pham Van Bang
Anisotropic effects in hypoplasticity 1211
A. Niemunis
Methods to calculate strain in discrete element modelling 1219
C. O’Sullivan & J.D. Bray
A numerical study of shear band formation in anisotropic sand 1227
W. Wu, W. Huang & E. Bauer
Simplifications related to dynamic measurements of anisotropic G0 1233
M. Arroyo & D. Muir Wood
Particulate mechanics considerations as an aid in understanding the mechanical behavior
of geomaterials 1241
P. Kolisoja
A simple model of shear stress–shear strain relationship for liquefied dense sand 1249
M. Ishihara, M. Okamura & T. Oshita
A new constitutive relation for rock joints calibrated by means of a discrete element method 1257
F. Nicot, C. Lambert & F. Darve
Modelling of mechanical behaviour of a coarse soil subjected to rock impact using a discrete
element method 1263
S. Kecili-Laouafa & F. Nicot
A general framework for constitutive models adaptation to unsaturated states 1269
J.-M. Pereira, H. Wong & Ph. Dubujet

Discussion Session 6:
Case history and field or physical model measurements
Expériences tirées de la pratique et mesures sur modèles réduits ou ouvrages
Observational approach for settlement predictions 1279
T.T. Länsivaara

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Settlement control for railway’s roadbed foundation using soilbags 1287

H. Matsuoka, S.H. Liu & T. Kachi
Modelling anisotropic deformation characteristics of gravelly layer in Hualien, Taiwan 1293
Y. Tanaka
Normalization of displacement rate for roughly predicting time to failure in rock slope 1299
Y. Shoji & N. Sugawara
Anisotropy in bearing capacity-lateral deformation behavior of sand ground 1303
S. Kawamura, S. Miura & S. Yokohama
Soil properties and site characterization through Rayleigh waves 1311
V. Roma
Aging effect of sandy soils on liquefaction strength 1319
S. Yasuda, Y. Shimizu, K. Koganemaru & I. Morimoto
Stress–strain behaviors of soil under construction 1325
M. Sahara & N. Akino
Shear-wave velocities from multi-station analysis of surface wave 1335
C.-P. Lin, T.-S. Chang & M.-H. Cheng
Modelling of track foundation behaviour at Zig Zag tunnels near Lithgow, NSW 1345
A. Haque, K. Chan, P. Stone & D. Christie
Long-term residual deformation of prototype geotextile-reinforced gravel structures 1353
T. Uchimura, F. Tatsuoka & I. Tanaka
Compression characteristics of stiff clay to support a bridge foundation evaluated by field and
laboratory tests 1363
T. Yamamoto, H. Miyagawa, S. Yamada, H. Nakajima & F. Tatsuoka
In-situ response of asphalt pavement under moving load 1373
T. Kamo, N. Yoshida & E. Hirotsu
Dynamic response of saturated dense sand in laminated centrifuge container 1381
T. Lai, A. Elgamal, Z. Yang, D. Wilson & B. Kutter
Interpreting the Camastra dam behaviour in 40 years of operation 1389
L. Pagano, S. Sica & G.B. Fenelli
Stress–strain relationships study on different stress path for intermediary Bucharest clay 1395
A. Chiricã, A. Olteanu & M.S. Şerbulea
Evaluating soil nonlinearity from vertical array seismic records at site with anisotropy 1399
T. Ueshima
A case study on the reduction of settlement caused by compaction grouting system 1411
B.S. Chun, Y.H. Yeoh, Y.K. Joung & M. Sagong
Lateral load behaviour of pile and pile groups in soft clays 1417
K. Ilamparuthi & M. Muttharam

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Foreword

Hervé Di Benedetto
Chairman, Scientific Committee, International Symposium on Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials,
IS Lyon 2003, 22–24 September 2003, Lyon, France

Solutions for soil engineering and soil–structure interaction problems require the use of realistic and pertinent exper-
imental and modelling tools. Geomaterials show very complex behaviour, which may change with the amplitude of
the loading domain. Generally, the behaviour is rather linear for very small strain amplitude while strong nonlinear-
ities and irreversibilities appear when loading increases. Failure occurs as a localised or diffuse pattern depending
on materials and boundary conditions. Anisotropy and time effects may have a very high influence in some practi-
cal cases. Considering this complex behaviour, research and developments aiming to improve modelling of soils and
soft rocks over a wide range of loading, from very small up to beyond failure is still a big challenge with important
practical applications. These developments include interpretation of laboratory, in-situ and field observations.
The main themes of the International Symposium on “Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials”, “IS
Lyon 2003”, held under the auspices of the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering (ISSMGE) – Committee TC29 – and co-sponsored by the French Geotechnical Society (CFMS)
and the French Society of Rock Mechanics (CFMR), include:
– experimental investigations into deformation properties: from very small strains to beyond failure,
– laboratory, in-situ and field observation interpretations,
– behaviour characterisation and modelling,
– case histories.
Emphasis was placed on exploring recent investigations into anisotropy and non-linearity, the effects of
stress–strain–time history, ageing and time effects, yielding, failure and flow, cyclic and dynamic behaviour. In
addition, it was aimed to apply advanced geotechnical testing to real engineering problems, and to ways of syn-
thesising information from a range of different sources while engaging in practical site characterisation studies.
The aims of IS Lyon 2003 are to present the recent developments in these topics as well as to have stimulat-
ing exchanges and discussions among the participants. IS Lyon 2003 follows from earlier successful symposia:
IS Hokkaido (1994) and IS Torino (1999).
One of the originalities of “IS Lyon 2003” is the fusion of a classical specialist meeting, involving keynote
and conference papers plus discussion, with a Peer Review Journal special issue.
The successful call for papers is reflected by the number of proposals. From 300 sent abstracts, around 200
papers have been published. Among them, 19 selected papers were published in a special issue of the Journal
Soils and Foundations, available before the Symposium.
The proceedings, delivered to each participant, consist of three books:
– the special issue of Soils and Foundations,
– the proceedings volume I regrouping the conference papers,
– the proceedings volume II covering keynote lectures, panel presentations and written discussions.
It is my hope that this Symposium will be very fruitful and a milestone event for further developments in the
field.
I express my deep thanks to the members of the Scientific and Organising Committees, and especially to the
core members: M. Coop, R.J. Jardine, D.F.C. Lo Presti, S. Shibuya and F. Tatsuoka. The success of this sympo-
sium is mainly due to the work, investment and motivation of the ENTPE team. Thus, it is a pleasure to thank
Hélène, who in the same time was more productive than all of us in field other than geomaterials, Cédric for his
support and efficiency, Doanh, and Stéphanie, who did great organisation work.
Hélène Geoffroy, Thiep Doanh, Cédric Sauzéat and myself are also very grateful to the Ecole Nationale des
Travaux Publics de l’Etat (ENTPE), the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), the Equipment
Ministry (METL Drast), the région Rhône-Alpes and Electricité De France, for the support they offered.

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Introduction

Hervé Di Benedetto
Président, Comité Scientifique, Congrès International sur le Comportement des Sols et des Roches Tendres,
IS Lyon 2003, 22–24 septembre 2003, Lyon, France

La résolution de problèmes de mécanique des sols et d’interactions sol–structure impose l’utilisation d’outils
expérimentaux et de modélisations réalistes et pertinents. Les géomatériaux montrent un comportement très
complexe, qui évolue selon le domaine de chargement considéré. Généralement, le comportement est plutôt
linéaire pour des déformations de très petite amplitude tandis que de fortes non-linéarités et irréversibilités
apparaissent à des niveaux plus élevés. La rupture se produit suivant un schéma localisé ou diffus selon l’état
du matériau et les conditions limites. Les effets de l’anisotropie et du temps peuvent avoir une très grande influ-
ence dans quelques cas pratiques. Face à ce comportement complexe, la recherche et les développements visant
à améliorer la modélisation des sols et des roches tendres dans une large gamme de sollicitations, des très petites
déformations jusqu’à la rupture, constituent encore un grand challenge avec d’importantes applications pra-
tiques. Ces développements incluent l’interprétation des observations faites en laboratoire, in-situ et sur
ouvrages, ainsi que l’amélioration des outils expérimentaux d’investigation.
Les principaux thèmes du Congrès International sur le Comportement des Sols et des Roches Tendres, “IS
Lyon 2003”, qui se déroule sous le parrainage de la Société Internationale de Mécanique des Sols et de la
Géotechnique (ISSMGE) – Comité TC29 – et qui est également co-parrainé par le Comité Français de
Mécanique des Sols (CFMS) et par le Comité Français de Mécanique des Roches (CFMR), sont les suivants:
– investigations expérimentales: des très petites déformations jusqu’à la rupture,
– interprétation des observations en laboratoire, in situ et sur ouvrages,
– caractérisation et modélisation du comportement,
– expériences tirées de la pratique.
L’accent a été mis sur les récentes investigations concernant l’anisotropie et les non-linéarités, l’influence de
l’histoire du chargement, les effets du temps et du vieillissement, l’écrouissage, la rupture et les phénomènes
d’écoulement, les comportements cycliques et dynamiques. Un autre objectif du congrès est d’introduire l’ap-
plication des techniques expérimentales les plus novatrices à des problèmes de mécanique des sols réels, et
également de donner les moyens de synthétiser les informations provenant de différentes sources lorsque sont
engagées des études de caractérisation sur site.
Outre la présentation des développements récents relatifs à ces différents thèmes, les discussions entre les
congressistes ont été fortement encouragées afin de stimuler et de favoriser les échanges.
IS Lyon 2003 s’inscrit dans la continuité des deux congrès précédents: IS Hokkaido (1994) et IS Torino
(1999), au succès largement reconnu. Cependant, l’une des originalités de “IS Lyon 2003” est la fusion d’une
rencontre classique de spécialistes, incluant des conférences d’experts, la présentation d’articles et des débats
avec l’impression d’un numéro spécial de “Soils & Foundations”, revue à comité de lecture.
Les actes fournis à chaque participant, se composent donc de trois volumes:
– l’édition spéciale de “Soils & Foundations”,
– le volume I des actes regroupant les articles du Congrès,
– le volume II regroupant les conférences des spécialistes, les présentations orales et les discussions retran-
scrites à l’écrit.
Le succès de l’appel à communications est reflété par le nombre de propositions. Suite aux 300 résumés reçus,
environ 200 articles ont été publiés. 19 de ces articles constituent l’édition spéciale de “Soils & Foundations”.
Je souhaite fortement que ce Congrès soit très fructueux et constitue un événement important pour les futurs
développements dans le domaine.
J’exprime mes profonds remerciements aux membres des Comités Scientifique et d’Organisation et plus
particulièrement aux “Core Members”: M. Coop, R.J. Jardine, D.F.C. Lo Presti, S. Shibuya et F. Tatsuoka.

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Le succès du congrès est principalement dû au travail, à l’investissement et à la motivation de l’équipe de

l’ENTPE. C’est donc avec plaisir que je remercie Hélène, qui dans le même temps a été plus productive que
nous tous dans un tout autre domaine que les géomatériaux, Cédric pour son soutien et son efficacité, Thiep et
Stéphanie qui a effectué un grand travail d’organisation.
Hélène Geoffroy, Thiep Doanh, Cédric Sauzéat et moi-même sommes également très reconnaissants envers
l’Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l’Etat (ENTPE), le Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
(CNRS), le Ministère de l’Equipement (METL Drast), la région Rhône-Alpes et Electricité de France, pour le
soutien qu’ils ont offert à ce symposium.

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Organisation

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE/COMITE SCIENTIFIQUE

Chairman/Président: Pr H. Di Benedetto (France)

Dr M. Coop (UK)
Pr R.J. Jardine (UK)
Pr D.C.F. Lo Presti (Italy)
Pr S. Shibuya (Japan)
Pr F. Tatsuoka (Japan)
Pr J.B. Burland (UK)
Pr B. Cambou (France)
Pr A. Correia (Portugal)
Pr F. Darve (France)
Pr P.Y. Hicher (France)
Pr K. Ishihara (Japan)
Pr M. Jamiolkowski (Italy)
Pr P.V. Lade (USA)
Pr S. Leroueil (Canada)
Pr D. Muir Wood (UK)
Pr R. Nova (Italy)
Pr M. Pastor (Spain)
Pr A. Pecker (France)
Pr J.P. Piguet (France)
Pr D.M. Potts (UK)
Pr G. Rix (USA)
Pr K.H. Stokoe (USA)
Pr P. Vermeer (Germany)
Pr L. Vulliet (Switzerland)
Pr A.J. Whittle (USA)

ORGANISING COMMITTEE/COMITE D’ORGANISATION

Chairman/Président: Pr T. Doanh (France)

Chairwoman/Présidente: Dr H. Geoffroy (France)
General Secretary/Secrétaire Général: Dr C. Sauzéat (France)

Dr B. Cazacliu (France)
Dr Ph. Dubujet (France)
Dr E. Flavigny (France)
Dr E. Ibraim (UK)

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Discussion Session 1:
Testing and apparatus (lab and in-situ, data acquisition)
Essais et appareils (de laboratoire et in-situ, acquisition de données)

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Measurement of material damping with bender elements in triaxial cell

L. Karl & W. Haegeman

Laboratory of Soil Mechanics, Ghent University, Belgium

L. Pyl & G. Degrande

Department of Civil Engineering, Structural Mechanics Division, K.U. Leuven, Belgium

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a method to measure the viscous damping ratio of soils in isotropic stress
conditions using a triaxial cell equipped with piezoceramic bender elements. The technique is based on the
determination of a frequency response spectrum of the soil specimen by means of a continuous sine excitation
generated by the emitter element. System identification procedures, known from modal testing, are applied for
the interpretation of the spectra. Analytical expressions are found and a finite element model is developed to
encircle the region of the resonant frequency. The test is performed on a reconstituted and undisturbed silt sample.

1 INTRODUCTION The shear strain of a pulse generated by a bender

element is less than 103%, falling in the elastic strain
The application of piezoceramic bender elements (BE) range of soil.
for measurement of damping ratio in the frequency In most of the papers presented in literature bender
domain in a triaxial cell under isotropic confinement elements are used to measure wave velocity in the
is discussed in this paper. time domain. In these methods a pulse is emitted by
To characterize soils dynamically piezoceramic a bender element and the travel time is determined
elements have been increasingly used in the last when the pulse arrives at the second bender element,
30 years. In an early stage piezoceramics were mainly with the tip located at a known distance from the tip
used to generate and receive compression waves. of the emitter.
Since little information about the soil structure can be The work of Brocanelli & Rinaldi (1998) describes
obtained and the P-wave velocities are highly influ- a method to measure the damping ratio and shear wave
enced by pore fluid, the piezoceramics have been velocity, using bender elements while working in the
combined in different forms to generate and receive frequency domain. This technique is revived, new the-
shear waves. Such combined forms of piezoceramics oretical formulations for the interpretation of the test
are known as bender elements. and finally the results of tests on two samples of a silt
Bender elements consist of two thin piezoceramic material are given.
plates rigidly bonded to a central metallic plate. Two
thin conductive layers, electrodes, are glued exter-
nally to the bender. 2 OUTLINE OF THE METHOD
The polarization of the ceramic material in each
plate and the electrical connections are such that The idea of the method is to bring a short cylindrical
when a driving voltage is applied to the element, one soil sample in a shear movement. For that reason the
plate elongates and the other shortens. The net result bottom bender element is excited with a steady sine
is a bending displacement. On the other hand, when signal of constant voltage and the amplitude is meas-
an element is forced to bend an electrical signal can ured at the receiver element. To make this value inde-
be measured through the wires leading to the elem- pendent from the source amplitude it is normalized
ent. A transmitter element and a receiver element are by this amplitude. This process is repeated at differ-
respectively placed in the bottom and top cap of a tri- ent frequencies until the whole spectrum of sample
axial cell. response is defined. The damping ratio is estimated at

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the points of the curve around the natural frequency of of the desired shear oscillation. Therefore the metal cap
the shear mode. For this purpose different techniques was redesigned and a new cap was made of a plastic
are available such as the half-power and the more gen- material with a total mass of about 51 g.
eral circle-fit method, the latter is also using the phase During the test the top cap only rests on the sample,
components of the resonant curves. Preliminary tests the connection to the loading plunger is removed.
on a clay sample showed that it could be difficult to
find the correct peak in the response spectrum corres-
ponding with the shear mode. So it is useful to have 4 NATURAL FREQUENCY OF THE SHEAR
knowledge about the frequency range were this mode MOVEMENT
dominates.
The main tasks to apply this method are, beside the 4.1 Analytical formulations
laboratory test itself: a) finding of a suitable way to
A cylindrical soil sample placed in the triaxial cell
predict the shear mode frequency and b) the calcula-
can be considered in a simplified assumption as a
tion of the damping value from the response spectrum
fixed-free beam with the mass of the top cap attached
itself.
at the free end. Brocanelli & Rinaldi (1998) have shown
by means of a finite element analysis of a 3 cm high
sample that with a relatively light mass at the top, the
3 LABORATORY APPARATUS AND TEST
sample deforms in perfect shear in the first mode and
SET-UP
with the increase of the mass at the top, the shape of the
deformed specimen tends to be of flexural. For a pure
The test triaxial cell in which the sample is subjected to
shear deformation an expression for the angular natural
an isotropic confining water pressure and the periph-
frequency of the first shear mode (S) can be derived
eral devices used in this work are shown in Figure 1.
from the wave equation for a shear wave propagating
Bender elements are mounted at the center of the bot-
in a rod and the force equilibrium at the boundaries:
tom and top cap (Dyvik & Madshus 1985). The signals
to drive the transmitter element are generated by a HP
Dynamic Signal Analyzer and amplified in a separate (1)
device to a peak-to-peak amplitude of about 40 Vp-p.
The receiver bender element is connected to the ana-
lyzer directly. To make comparisons possible between where m is the mass of the top cap, mT is the mass of
the applied and the received signal, the driving signal the sample, L is the sample length, k is the shear fac-
to the sender is observed by the analyzer too. If the tor and VS is the shear wave velocity, latter is con-
dynamic analyzer is used in the swept sine mode and a nected to the shear modulus G and the unit mass  by
frequency-span with a step width is given, the analyzer the expression:
changes the source frequency automatically, calcu-
lates the ratio between source and receiver amplitudes
and draws the response curve. A test takes about 1.5 (2)
minutes.
The mass of a standard metal upper cap is several
times larger than the mass of the soil specimen. This A detailed formulation can be found for instance in
would force the sample to a bending oscillation instead Graff (1991) and Brocanelli & Rinaldi (1998). For
long samples or large masses of the top cap, the first
resonant mode of the beam will be predominately of
the bending. For the case of a pure bending deform-
Signal Analyzer ation Cascante et al. (1998) obtained the following
equation from the Rayleigh approximation:
Source Ch.1/2
Top cap (3)
BE
Amplifier

Sample
Bottom cap E is the modulus of elasticity, I the area moment of
Sample: inertia and h the distance between the end of the sam-
d = 5 cm, h ≈ 3 cm ple and the centroid of the mass of the top cap.
The basic concept in the Rayleigh method is
Figure 1. Schematic test set-up. the principle of conservation of energy. To apply the

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Rayleigh procedure, it is necessary to assume the shape following determinant expression:

of the system in its fundamental mode of vibration.
This assumption of a shape function effectively reduces
the system to a SDOF system. Thus the frequency of
vibration can be found by equating the maximum strain
energy developed during the motion to the maxi- (5)
mum kinetic energy. Detailed information concerning
Rayleigh’s method can be found in Clough & Penzien
(1993).
Because the real behavior of the sample is always
influenced by shearing and bending it could be diffi- with
cult to find criteria to decide what expression is more
suitable. Therefore the Rayleigh expression was
extended by a term for the horizontal shear displace-
ment. This led to the following equation:

(4)

with

and
The natural circular frequency T can be extracted
from this expression.

4.2 Finite element model

The given analytical expressions describe only the first
The derivation of Equation 4 can be found in the flexural mode. Even though the kind of excitation sug-
appendix. The actual shape of the mode is supposed gests that this mode is dominating, a finite element
as the superposition of a bending and a shearing dis- model was used to get an idea what other modes appear
placement.  depends on the ratio between these two and especially to check how they interact with the
parts. The unit of  is m2. A is the area of the cross sec- flexural mode of interest. Furthermore the validity of
tion. The resonant frequency  can be calculated at the Rayleigh and the Timoshenko formulation can be
those  where  becomes a minimum. This follows evaluated.
from the consideration that any shape other than the The system of the cylindrical sample and the top
true vibration shape would require the action of add- cap was modelled in the three dimensional space with
itional external constraints to maintain equilibrium. the FEM-program ABAQUS. All nodes in the bottom
These extra constrains would stiffen the system, adding face of the sample were fixed. The discretization of
to its potential strain energy, and thus cause an increase sample and cap was done by nearly cubic brick elem-
in the computed frequency. Consequently, the true ents of about 4 mm length. Linear elasticity was
vibration shape will yield the lowest frequency obtain- chosen for the behavior of the soil sample and the cap.
able by Rayleigh’s method. The solution of the extreme The latter was modelled with the actual properties
value problem is possible but leads to a very large of the plastic material, i.e. a mass of 51 g, an elasti-
expression and is therefore not given here. city modulus of 3400 MPa, a height of 19 mm and a
Another approach to calculate the natural frequency diameter of 50 mm. The bender elements itself and
of the soil sample is to use the thick beam theory, the
so-called Timoshenko beam theory. The Timoshenko
beam includes beside the bending effects, shear and m

rotary inertia effects. A suitable solution of the system mT, A, E, I, ν, k L

of differential equations of a cantilever beam with a
mass elastically mounted at the free end can be found
in Rossit & Laura (2001). Simplified to the case of
a rigid mounted mass, this solution is given by the Figure 2. Simplified system with parameters of Equation 5.

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Table 1. Natural frequencies found by finite element cal- stress and shear strain are known at each node the
culation for sample S1, 100 kPa and CA  0. k coefficient can be calculated by these data too. The
shear stress at each node in a cross section was taken
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 and averaged. This value was divided by the shear
stress in the middle of the section and provided a k
factor. The k values for the different sections were
again averaged. The final k factor calculated at the
frequency of the 1st mode was k  0.8039, which is
875 Hz 1301 Hz 2171 Hz 2354 Hz 4251 Hz less than Cowper’s shear coefficient. This seems rea-
flexural torsional longi- flexural torsional, sonable since Cowper (1966) points out that his values
tudinal 2nd order of k are most satisfactory for static and low-frequency
deformations of beams and not for high-frequency
vibrations as in our case.
the excitation were not included since the modelling The estimation of the natural frequencies in the
focuses on the extraction of the natural frequencies and experimental part of this work is always done with the
shapes of the modes. The first five modes together with FEM-value k  0.8039.
a verbal description are given in Table 1. This table is
valid for the reconstituted silt sample S1 at 100 kPa
confining pressure and for the coefficient CA  0. 4.3 Influence of the confining water pressure on
From the FEM-calculation it is seen that the low- the natural frequency of the sample
est mode is indeed a flexural mode dominated by The water in the triaxial cell used to apply an isotropic
shear deformation. The frequency of the second mode stress to the sample, is considered as an incompress-
seems to be sufficient higher so not interacting with ible and inviscid fluid. An open water surface does not
the first mode. exist in the closed cell. In this case the influence of
Poisson’s ratio the fluid to the natural frequencies of a rigid cylinder,
The shear wave velocity is determined by time arrival surrounded by the fluid, can be taken into account
measurements on the real sample so the shear modulus by introducing an additional mass to the system. This
is known. However the analytical expressions as well mass results from some of the fluids particles being
as the finite element model need the elasticity modu- permanently displaced by the intruding body and can
lus too. An experimental measurement using pulses of be quantified following Wilson (1984):
compression waves was not done. Therefore, the elas-
ticity modulus was calculated assuming a Poisson’s (7)
ratio of   0.29. The finite element analysis is per-
formed with different  values to evaluate the influ- _
ence of  on the natural frequencies. The differences m a denotes the added mass per unit length, CA is a
between the natural frequencies for the lowest mode, nondimensional added mass coefficient, F is the
dominated by shear deformation, were not crucial. fluid density and d the diameter of the cylinder. It was
Therefore an assumption of   0.29 seems to be observed that, as the cylinder length becomes much
acceptable and is used in all calculations. larger than its diameter, the value of CA approaches a
theoretical limit of unity. For shorter cylinders differ-
Shear coefficient k ent authors give coefficients depending on the length
A shear coefficient k is needed in the Equations 4 and to diameter ratio l/d. For instance Hafner (1977):
5. The coefficient is a dimensionless quantity, depend-
ent on the shape of the cross section and is introduced
to account for the fact that the shear stress and shear (8)
strain are not uniformly distributed over the cross sec-
tion. According to the definition, k is the ratio of the
average shear strain on a section to the shear strain at Equation 8 is given for the case of a moving cylinder
the centroid. Beside the simple, Poisson’s ratio inde- with two free ends. Even though the considered sys-
pendent assumption k  0.9, Cowper (1966) gives the tem of sample and top cap is fixed at one side it can
following expression for a circular cross section: be assumed that this equation gives a reasonable
approximation. The length l is assumed with the total
length of sample and top cap.
(6)
So resonance frequency calculations, including
the effects of the confining water, can be easily per-
This gives for a Poisson’s ratio of   0.29, k  0.886. formed using a virtual mass composed of the actual
Because in a FEM calculation the values of shear body mass and the above given added mass.

6
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Amax Im

A
Re
c
ω1 α1
α2
O f1 fm f2 f ω0 ω2
at Resonance
Figure 3. Resonant curve with variables for half-power
method.
Figure 4. Nyquist plot used in the circle-fit-method.

5 VISCOUS MATERIAL DAMPING

the same way. The material damping can be calculated
The basis for the analysis of the frequency response from points close to the maximum amplitude using
of the soil sample is the identification of different the following expression:
modes of vibration at resonance. The damping ratio D
is calculated at these points of the response spectrum
in the neighbourhood of a resonance peak. (11)

5.1 Amplitude of the response spectrum

The most common method of measuring damping uses
with:
the relative width of the response spectrum. Using the
0, angular frequency corresponding to the maximum
quantities indicated on the curve in Figure 3, the loga-
sweep angular velocity;
rithmic decrement  and the damping ratio D, can be
1, 2, angular frequencies;
calculated from (Richart et al. 1970):
1, 2, angles at both sides of 0.
A circle is fitted to the points of the response curve
(9) close to the resonant frequency to find the center.
Knowing this point makes it possible to determine the
necessary angles .
When D is small, the last term and (1  D2)0.5 can be
taken as equal to 1.0. Further simplification is possi-
ble, if A is chosen equal to Am/20.5:
6 TESTING ON SILT SAMPLES

(10) The bender element test was performed on two silt

samples from the same site. One sample was recon-
stituted (S1) and the other undisturbed (S2). Both
The application of latter expression is usually called were subjected to different isotropic stress levels by
the half-power method. an external water pressure. The backpressure inside
the sample was set to 100 kPa. The external isotropic
pressure was therefore chosen always 100 kPa above
5.2 Circle-fit method
the value of the target effective stress. The absorption
The circle-fit method, described in Ewins (1988) is of water by the sample during consolidation was
able to calculate the damping ratio with very few measured and taken into account for the calculation
points around the resonance peak and the amplitude of the sample mass. The shear wave velocity was
of the peak has only little influence on the result. This determined by the analysis of the wave arrival at each
is an advantage in cases were different modes have stress level. The parameters of the sample before the
frequencies close to each other. installation in the cell are given in Table 2. The prop-
The Nyquist plot of the response spectrum of a erties of the top cap are repeated in Table 3.
single degree of freedom system leads to a circle as Figures 5 and 6 present the measured response
shown in Figure 4. Even though the sample is not such spectra, Tables 4–7 and Figure 7 the predicted and
a system it behaves for selected frequency sections in measured natural frequencies.

7
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Table 2. Parameters of the tested silt samples. Table 4. Sample S1 (reconstituted), sample conditions.

S1 S2 Effective Stress, peff [kPa] 100 200 300

Sample reconstituted undisturbed Water absorption [g] 11.44 10.94 10.24
Effective sample [g] 112.97 112.47 111.77
Length, L [mm] 29.0 29.5 mass, mT,eff
Diameter, d [mm] 50 50 Shear wave [m/s] 216.92 224.52 246.31
Distance bender [mm] 25 25.5 velocity, VS
elements, tip to tip
Mass, mT [g] 101.53 119.49
Unit mass,  [kg/m3] 1783.1 2062.9
Table 5. Sample S1 (reconstituted), measured and
predicted natural frequencies, measured damping ratios.

Effective Stress, peff [kPa] 100 200 300

Table 3. Properties of the top cap.
Resonant frequencies:
Height [mm] 19 CA  0
Diameter, d [mm] 50 Rayleigh Equation 4, [Hz] 888 918 1005
Mass, m [g] 50.74 fRay
Timoshenko [Hz] 962 995 1090
Equation 5, fTBT
FEM, fFEM [Hz] 875 904 989
CA  0.48
Rayleigh Equation 4, [Hz] 773 799 875
fRay
Timoshenko [Hz] 843 871 954
Equation 5, fTBT
FEM, fFEM [Hz] 763 788 862
Experimental result, [Hz] 582 708 807
fmeas
Damping ratio:
Half-power method, [%] 7.9 9.1 8.0
DHPM
Circle-fit method, [%] 7.2 9.9 8.9
DCFM

Figure 5. Frequency response spectra for sample S1

(reconstituted).
Table 6. Sample S2 (undisturbed), sample conditions.

Effective Stress, peff [kPa] 100 200 300

Water absorption [g] 3.22 5.57 6.97
Effective sample [g] 116.27 113.92 112.52
mass, mT,eff
Shear wave [m/s] 197.67 246.14 271.28
velocity, VS

The theoretical estimation of the natural frequencies

of the first mode was done with an added mass coef-
ficient of CA  0.48, which corresponds to a length to
diameter ratio of 0.96, and as well with no added
mass (CA  0) to allow comparisons. As expected,
the frequencies including the added mass component
are lower than the values without the additional mass.
Figure 6. Frequency response spectra for sample S2 For the same CA, the results from the Rayleigh expres-
(undisturbed). sion show a good agreement with the FEM-values.

8
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Table 7. Sample S2 (undisturbed), measured and predicted The damping ratios are in the range of 7.2 to 9.9%
natural frequencies, measured damping ratios. for S1 and between 4.7 and 7.3% for S2. The deviation
between the values from the half-power method and
Effective Stress, peff [kPa] 100 200 300 the circle-fit method are in nearly all cases less than 1%.
Resonant frequencies: A dependence of the damping ratio on the confining
CA  0 stress could be not noticed. The damping values are
Rayleigh Equation 4, [Hz] 799 988 1084 high in comparison with results of field and labora-
fRay tory tests at low shear strains presented in literature.
Timoshenko [Hz] 864 1070 1175 Therefore a resonant column test is performed on
Equation 5, fTBT an undisturbed silt sample from the same boring as
FEM, fFEM [Hz] 787 972 1066 sample S2. A shear strain of about 103% was chosen
CA  0.48 and measurements were taken after isotropic consoli-
Rayleigh Equation 4, [Hz] 696 860 943 dation at 50, 100, 200 and 400 kPa. This test gave for
fRay all cases a viscous damping ratio in the range of 1.0 to
Timoshenko [Hz] 757 937 1028 1.5%. This means the gap between the damping val-
Equation 5, fTBT ues out of both methods is quite significant and still
FEM, fFEM [Hz] 686 847 929 under investigation.
Experimental result, [Hz] 636 766 820
fmeas
7 CONCLUSIONS AND REMARKS
Damping ratio:
Half-power method, [%] 6.2 7.3 5.4 The application to measure the damping ratio in the fre-
DHPM quency domain by means of bender elements installed
Circle-fit method, [%] 5.9 4.7 4.9 in the triaxial cell is discussed in this paper.
DCFM Two basic problems of the test results should be
noticed here. The first is the deviation of the calculated
and the measured resonant frequencies. The assumption
of a beam with top-mass at its one end, even if shear
effects are taken into account, might be a relatively
crude way to describe the very short, about 3 cm long,
sample and the top cap. The finite element model can
partly overcome this geometrical problem, but also in
this case, influences of the rubber membrane and the
not fully rigid mounting of the bottom cap are not
taken into account. Furthermore the consideration of
the water in the cell by an additional mass might not be
sufficiently correct. If the viscosity of the water is taken
into account, a frictional (viscous) drag force, which is
proportional to the velocity of the moving cylinder, has
to be introduced (Wilson 1984). The used coefficient
CA for the added mass depends, besides the cylinder
Figure 7. Calculated and measured resonant frequencies geometry, also on the Reynolds number and the cylin-
for the first flexural mode of sample S2 (undisturbed), der roughness. A more detailed investigation could help
added mass effects are included (CA  0.48). to find a more exact theoretical solution. On the other
hand the prediction of the natural frequency is only
used to find the right resonant peak among several, so
the calculations are already sufficient for a successful
The frequencies calculated by the Timoshenko equa- selection.
tion are always higher. Brocanelli & Rinaldi (1998) used air to apply the
The test results show that the natural frequencies and confining pressure to the sample, which has indeed
the shear wave velocities increase with an increasing no effect on the sample movement.
cell pressure. The amplitude ratios of the observed The second problem concerns the difference
peaks decrease with increasing stress level. between the results of the resonant column device and
The predicted frequencies are in all cases larger than the bender element test. Attention should be given also
the measured. The closest agreement to the experimen- here to the influence of the confining water pressure
tal results is achieved at CA  0.48 by the Rayleigh on the resulting damping ratio, which is not taken into
equation and the FEM. account yet.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS where  is a constant given by   a2/3L  a3. The

horizontal displacement of a rigid mass placed above the
The results presented in this paper have been obtained specimen is estimated from the horizontal displacement
within the frame of the STWW-project IWT000152 y(L) and the tangent y(L) at the top of the specimen:
‘Traffic induced vibrations in buildings’. The financial
support of the Ministry of the Flemish Community is (A3)
gratefully acknowledged.
The mode shape for the shearing displacement yS is
assumed to be linear. This is described by:
REFERENCES
(A4)
Brocanelli, D. & Rinaldi, V. 1998. Measurement of low-
strain material damping and wave velocity with bender and
elements in the frequency domain. Canadian Geotechni-
cal Journal 35: 1032–1040. (A5)
Cascante, G., Santamarina, C. & Yassir, N. 1998. Flexural
excitation in a standard torsional-resonant column device. The superposition of bending and shearing follows
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 35: 478–490. then with:
Clough, R.W. & Penzien, J. 1993. Dynamics of structures
(2nd edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. (A6)
Cowper, G.R. 1966. The shear coefficient in Timoshenko’s
Beam Theory. Journal of Applied Mechanics June 1966: and
335–340.
Dyvik, R. & Madshus, Ch. 1985. Lab measurements of Gmax (A7)
using bender elements. Advances in the Art of Testing
Soils Under Cyclic Conditions; Proc. ASCE, Detroit, 24 The maximum internal potential energy Epot is com-
October 1985: 186–196. New York: ASCE.
puted by taking into consideration the internal energy
Ewins, D.J. 1988. Modal testing: theory and practice.
Taunton: Research Studies Press. of the bending and shearing component of the
Graff, K.F. 1991. Wave Motion in elastic Solids. New York: deformed specimen:
Dover Publications.
Hafner, E. 1977. Untersuchung der hydrodynamischen Kräfte
(A8)
auf Baukörper im Tiefwasserbereich des Meeres. Stuttgart:
Institut für Wasserbau der Universität Stuttgart.
Richart, F.E., Hall, J.R. & Woods, R.D. 1970. Vibration of soils Introducing A6 in A8 gives:
and foundations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Rossit, C.A. & Laura, P.A.A. 2001. Transverse, normal
modes of vibration of a cantilever Timoshenko beam
with a mass elastically mounted at the free end. Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America 110(6): 2837–2840. (A9)
Wilson, J.F. 1984. Dynamics of offshore structures. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.

The maximum kinetic energy Ekin is computed by

APPENDIX presuming harmonic oscillation with frequency .
The component for the specimen is
Resonant frequency: Rayleigh’s method
The mode shape for the horizontal bending displace- (A10)
ment yB of the specimen at elevation x is assumed to
be a third-order polynomial:
or using A6:
(A1)
(A11)
At the lower plate (corresponding to x  0) the dis-
placement and the tangent are y(0)  0 and y(0)  0,
The kinetic energy for a concentrated mass added at a
respectively. Hence, a0  0 and a1  0. Neglecting
distance h above the specimen can be evaluated using
the moment at the top end x  L, EI y(L)  0. Then,
Equation A7 at x  h  L:
Equation A1 becomes
(A12)
(A2)

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Top Cap h
Finally, the circular resonant frequency for the flexural
mode is computed by equating the maximum internal
Sample L potential energy Epot and the maximum kinetic energy
x Ekin, mT  Ekin, m:

m m
E,G= ∞ E,G= ∞ (A14)
mT G=0 mT E=0
a) b) with

Figure A1. Assumed mode shapes a) bending and b)

shearing.
and
and

(A13)
To the same time  and  are replaced by   /.

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Defor

Applications of multistation surface wave testing

S. Foti
Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy

M. Fahey
Centre for Offshore Foundation Systems, Perth, Australia

ABSTRACT: Multistation techniques increase the reliability of the results and shorten the execution time both
in the field and during interpretation for surface wave tests. In this paper some experimental results obtained
using dedicated equipment are presented and compared to existing data from seismic cone tests. Attention is then
focused on strongly inverse profiles in which stiff materials overly softer soils. In particular, some tests have been
performed on the same site prior to and after the removal of a stiff caprock layer. The results give an important
insight into the dynamic behaviour of inversely dispersive deposits, which constitute a peculiar and important
case in soil characterisation using surface waves.

1 INTRODUCTION characterization also because of difficulties in acquir-

ing shear wave data.
Surface wave tests can nowadays be considered routine For the aforementioned reasons, special interest is
tests for soil characterization when the small strain focussed on inversely dispersive profiles, in which
stiffness profile is of interest. The dispersion curve, i.e. stiffer layers are present above a softer one. In surface
the relationship between phase velocity and frequency, wave tests, this situation causes some difficulties in
is obtained by analysing the ground motion associated interpretation, but it can be resolved, at least from a
with surface waves. This is then used in an inversion theoretical point of view. Hence surface wave tests are
process aimed at identifying the parameters of a linear considered of special interest for the characterization
elastic stratified model of the site. of peculiar sites such as the North Shelf of the West
The main advantage of surface wave tests is that Australia Coast. In these sites the presence of a thin
they are non invasive, and hence soil characterization and stiff limestone caprock layer close to the surface
can be performed from the ground surface with no per- often causes foundation problems for oil production
turbation of the natural condition of the soil deposit. platforms. The potential application for such situations
Short testing time and light equipment make these tests has been the motivation for the present study.
highly competitive with respect to other more conven- The paper is organised as follows. After a brief sum-
tional tests. mary concerning the interpretation and the description
One of the most important characteristics of sur- of the dedicated equipment, some experimental results
face wave tests is that in principle they do not suffer are presented starting from well characterised sites for
the same limitations as other geophysical tests per- which results from other geotechnical tests are avail-
formed from the ground surface and they can supply able. Finally the attention is focussed on inversely dis-
information on ground properties also in presence of a persive profiles.
watertable.
Indeed refraction surveys suffer some intrinsic
limitations (hidden layer and stiffness inversion) that 2 TEST INTERPRETATION
make them useful only in well defined conditions
(stiffness always increasing with depth and marked Surface wave tests are based on the dispersive nature
impedance contrasts between layers). On the other of Rayleigh waves in vertically heterogeneous media.
hand, reflection surveys do not suffer the same limita- Indeed the variations of Rayleigh wave phase veloci-
tions but are penalized by longer acquisition and ties with frequency are associated with variation of
processing and they are less used for geotechnical stiffness with depth. The dispersion curve is estimated

13
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starting from field data related to the propagation of a 0

perturbation generated on the ground surface (either
by an impact source or by a controlled source such as 0.5
a vibrator). A subsequent inversion process, based on

time [s]
the numerical simulation of wave propagation in
layered media, leads to an estimate of the shear wave 1

profile at the site.

Surface wave tests in geotechnical engineering have 1.5

been for a long time associated to the two-station setup

used in the SASW test, introduced during the 1980s by 2
the research group of the University of Texas at Austin
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(Nazarian and Stokoe, 1984; Stokoe et al., 1988). The (a) receiver offset [m]
interpretation is based on the phase difference of the
50
two signals, obtained from the phase of the cross power
spectrum (Dziewonski and Hales, 1972). This proced-
ure suffers from internal phases of the instrumenta- 40

frequency [Hz]
tion and from local variations of ground conditions
below the geophones. Some of the drawbacks can be 30
overcome using multistation testing procedures
(Figure 1).
Multistation tests can be analysed in a variety of 20
ways. Most procedures are based on domain transform-
ations: the data are transformed from the space–time 10
domain into more convenient domains where the dis- 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
persion curve is associated directly with energy max- (b) wavenumber [rad/m]
ima (McMechan and Yedlin, 1981; Gabriels et al.,
50
1987). Other procedures based on regression processes
can be used to extend the results covering the dissipa-
tive behaviour of soils (Foti et al., 2003). 40
frequency [Hz]

In the procedure used for the present study the data

are transformed in the frequency–wavenumber domain
30
using a double Fourier Transform. The phase velocity
VR for each frequency f is then obtained from the loca-
tion of the spectral maxima using the relation: 20

10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
(c) wavenumber [rad/m]

where k| fk  max is the wavenumber associated with

250
the spectral maximum.
The sequence of processing steps required to obtain
phase velocity [m/s]

the experimental dispersion curve from the field data

200

Seismograph
150

Impulsive 100
Source 10 20 30 40 50
(d) frequency [Hz]
1 2 3 n
Figure 2. fk analysis of surface waves: exemplification of the
processing procedure. (From top to bottom: (a) seismograms:
D X X particle velocity in time–offset domain; (b) fk spectrum:
amplitude plotted as contour lines; (c) picking the maxima in
Figure 1. Test setup. the fk spectrum; (d) experimental dispersion curve.)

14
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is reported in Figure 2, using the data from the Ewing 3 EQUIPMENT

Street test described later in Section 4.
It can be shown that the phase difference meas- Surface wave tests are typically performed using signal
urement in the conventional 2-receiver SASW test is analysers or field seismographs. Signal analysers allow
formally equivalent to the fk analysis of 2 signals some processing directly on the field but are typically
(Foti et al., 2002). By increasing the number of not robust field instruments; hence they are not water-
receivers in the analysis, the estimate of the disper- proof and need an external power generator. Moreover
sion curve becomes more stable, justifying the prefer- the cost per channel is quite high also because real time
ence for multistation testing (Foti, 2002). Moreover processing is typically implemented.
both testing and processing are much faster, reducing On the other hand seismographs are robust field
costs. instruments characterized by a high number of chan-
The inversion of the experimental dispersion curve nels. Typically their software is mainly aimed at refrac-
is based on the solution of the forward problem of tion and reflection surveys and the possibilities of
Rayleigh wave propagation in a layered system. The on-site manipulation of the data are very restricted. A
layers are considered homogenous linear elastic, hence new generation of seismographs is based on acquisi-
each of them is fully characterised by its thickness, tion boxes directly connected to a robust laptop com-
density and 2 elastic constants. To reduce the number puter. This solution is extremely flexible, allowing the
of unknowns in the inversion process, typically soil connection of one or more boxes to easily increase
density and Poisson’s ratio are estimated a priori on the the number of channels. Yet costs are quite high and
basis of typical values for soils and other available the instrument is not easily adapted for uses other than
information. This practice is justified given the minor in situ tests.
influence of these parameters on the numerical disper- Considering the budget of the project and the aim
sion curve (Nazarian, 1984), but nevertheless it must of having a flexible instrument to be used not only in
be noted that the presence of a watertable induces a rele- situ but also in the laboratory, an acquisition box based
vant change in the Poisson’s ratio of the medium con- on PCI architecture and an acquisition board has
sidered as a continuum, and hence it should be taken in been developed. The board is a National Instruments
account (Foti and Strobbia, 2002). NI4472 capable of sampling simultaneously 8 input
The inversion process starts from a preliminary channels with 24-bit resolution. The board has an
estimate of the shear velocity profile. The profile is embedded antialias filter and its global performances
then adjusted to reduce the difference between the are not inferior to the latest seismographs. The main
correspondent numerical dispersion curve and the advantage is related to the possibility of fully pro-
experimental one. The process can be conducted manu- gramming the acquisition board using LabView™,
ally by trial and error or using automated procedures with implementation time and costs extremely limited.
either based on local search algorithms (e.g. damped For the surface wave tests presented in this paper, ded-
weighted least squares) or global search algorithms icated software resembling a virtual seismograph has
(e.g. neural networks, genetic algorithms). been created. Information is stored in a convenient
Some difficulties in the interpretation of surface way, so that the setting on the field and the successive
wave data are associated with the multimodal nature processing are much faster. The software automatically
of Rayleigh waves. Indeed the relevance of different creates a field book so that each file is easily associated
modes is strictly dependent on the mechanical proper- to the field setup during processing. Moreover the
ties of the soil deposit. It is only in some peculiar situ- software is linked to a Matlab™ script so that process-
ations (e.g. normally dispersive sites with stiffness ing can be done almost in real time on the field, assess-
increasing with depth and no strong contrasts of ing data quality and consequently the necessity of
impedance) that the fundamental mode dominates the further acquisitions.
propagation and the interpretation can be simplified From the hardware point of view, a robust case to
(Gucunski and Wood, 1992; Foti, 2002). Wherever the be used in the field has been built including in it a
other modes are important they must be carefully Pentium processor, a LCD monitor and the acquisition
taken in account. Moreover because of the short arrays board. The system is easily scalable since more acqui-
used in geotechnical testing, because of the interest in sition boards can be added subsequently and the acqui-
the characterization of the shallow subsurface, typic- sition synchronised. The results presented in this paper
ally it is not possible to identify the separate modes, have been obtained using a single board (8 channels).
but the interpretation must be conducted considering The box is powered by an external power generator.
the apparent phase velocity that is associated with During the tests it has been observed that electrical
mode superposition (Foti, 2002). This aspect is particu- noise at 50 Hz and its multiples are not a big issue in
larly important when strong jumps of impedance are the presence of a good signal to noise ratio, but if neces-
present, e.g. a stiff top layer, or bedrock below a soft sary a different solution based on a battery package
soil formation. could be devised.

15
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The particle velocities during the tests have been Dispersion Curve
detected using Sercel L-22D seismometers having a 400
natural frequency of 2 Hz and a shunt resistance such
350

phase velocity [m/s]

that the internal damping is 60% and the response is numerical
almost flat above the natural frequency. The use of 300 experimental
low frequency sensors is essential in surface wave
testing to obtain information about deeper layers. 250

200

4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 150

100
4.1 Comparative tests 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
frequency [Hz]
A series of preliminary tests has been performed on
sites on which other geotechnical test data were avail-
shear wave velocity [m/s]
able to compare the results. All the sites are located
0 100 200 300 400 500
in the metropolitan area of Perth, Western Australia. 0
Because of the limitation in the number of channels,
to cover the whole frequency range of interest typically 3
two testing arrangements were used with different
geophone spacing (1 m and 3 m respectively). A 10 kg
6
sledgehammer was used as the seismic source for

depth [m]
shorter arrays, while for longer ones a weight drop sys-
tem with a mass of either 25 or 50 kg was employed. 9
The inversion process was conducted starting from
a preliminary profile of shear wave velocities, obtained 12
with simplified methods of inversion (Richart et al.,
1970). The iterations are halted when the difference SASW
15
between the experimental dispersion curve and the SCPT1
numerical one for the current profile is within a SCPT2
prescribed range. 18
The results for each site are reported in terms of
shear wave velocity profile in Figures 3–5 along with Figure 3. Experimental results at Ewing Street site.
the results from seismic cone (SCPT). Also the com-
parison between experimental and numerical disper-
sion curve at the last iteration of the inversion process 4.1.2 Vincent Street
is reported in the same figures. At the Vincent Street site, the soil deposit is mainly
composed of sands, but ranging from loose to medium
4.1.1 Ewing Street dense. An SCPT test carried out previously at the site
The soil deposit at the Ewing Street site is composed gave shear wave velocities for depths between 4 and
of medium to dense sands. The experimental disper- 11 m. The agreement with surface wave results is quite
sion curve (Figure 3) covers a frequency range satisfactory (Figure 4), though the SASW results under-
from 10 to 50 Hz allowing the identification of the estimate the stiffness at depth obtained from the SCPT.
first 20 m. At this site it was also possible to obtain information in
The surface wave test was conducted in between the high frequency range (up to 120 Hz), this allows a
the location of two seismic cone tests performed pre- more detailed reconstruction of the stiffness profile at
viously at the site. Unfortunately, SCPT results were very shallow depth. It must be remarked that both the
only available from 10 to 15 m depth, but in this range dispersion curve and the result of the inversion process
the comparison is very good, except for a single point show the presence of a somewhat stiffer layer close to
obtained in one of the two SCPT tests that is likely to the ground surface. This is likely to be due to the con-
be an outlier, being out of trend and different from the struction works made in the past for the nearby overpass
results of the other SCPT at the same depth. bridge. This stiff layer is covered by the softer topsoil.
It must be noted that testing at this site was dis- Also in this case testing was performed in an urban
turbed by the presence of heavy traffic in the nearby environment in presence of heavy traffic on the nearby
road and by noise arriving via the foundations of a roads. The results confirm that for surface wave testing
nearby freeway overpass. Nevertheless the influence ambient noise is not a major concern as for other geo-
of ambient noise on the final result is negligible. physical tests. This advantage is mainly related to the

16
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Dispersion curve Dispersion curve

250 300

phase velocity [m/s]

phase velocity [m/s]

numerical numerical
200 experimental experimental

200

150

100 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
frequency [Hz] frequency [Hz]

shear wave velocity [m/s] shear wave velocity [m/s]

0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
0 0

2
3

4
depth [m]

depth [m]
6

6
9 SASW
SCPT1 left
8
SCPT1 right
12 SCPT2 left
SCTP
10 SCPT2 right
SASW
SCPT2 left long beam
15

Figure 4. Experimental results at Vincent Street site. Figure 5. Experimental results at Westralia Square.

fact that analysis are carried out in the spectral domain

4.2 Strongly inversely dispersive profiles
and more precisely in the frequency wavenumber
domain where different events are separated, so that Not many data are present in the scientific literature
the influence of ambient noise on the seismic data is concerning surface wave tests in sites where marked
negligible. inversion of stiffness with depth is present. As stated in
the introduction such situations are of particular interest
4.1.3 Westralia Square because other geophysical surveys, such as refraction
The soil deposit at the Westralia Square site is mainly seismic surveys, cannot be used for the characterisa-
composed of a silty sand with some intermediate tion. Such sites can be problematic for foundation
clayey or gravelly sand layers. Results from two SCPT design (e.g. “punch-through” failure).
tests and SPT tests carried on in 3 boreholes are avail- The problem of inversely dispersive sites has been
able for comparison. analysed for pavement system characterisation (Heysey
Figure 4 shows that the general trend observed in et al., 1982; Roesset et al., 1990). Nevertheless it must
SCPTs is confirmed by the surface wave test, with be noted that in that situation the thickness of the stiff
some discrepancies in the absolute values of shear wave top layer is limited and the interest in the characterisa-
velocities. In particular the agreement is good at depth tion of the subsurface is confined to the portion of soil
only for SCPT tests performed using a longer beam interacting with the pavement.
to produce horizontally polarized shear waves on the Two very peculiar sites have been investigated for
ground surface. The presence of stiffer layers at depth is the present research, the Willowdale bauxite mine
moreover confirmed by SPT tests, which showed a (Alcoa of Australia), which lies some 80 km south of
jump of NSPT from values around 30 to values around Perth, and a site in Fremantle (East Street), the harbour
50 at a depth of about 9 m. city of Perth. In the former, a very stiff layer is located

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at the ground surface and the seismic source is applied Dispersion curve
directly on the top of this layer. In the latter, the stiff
850 numerical - caprock
layer is embedded between soft layers and the seismic experimental - caprock
source acts on soft material. 750 numerical - no caprock

phase velocity [m/s]

experimental - no caprock
650
4.2.1 Alcoa bauxite mine, Willowdale
550
The presence of very shallow rock layers above softer
materials is a typical situation in bauxite mines in 450
Western Australia. The typical laterite profile, derived 350
from long-term weathering in situ of granitic bedrock,
250
consists of up to a metre of topsoil, overlying one to
two metres of massively-cemented laterite caprock 150
(rich in bauxite), overlying a further metre or two of 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

“B-zone” material – a more friable layer also rich in frequency [Hz]

bauxite. Below this is found the kaolin-rich “pallid
zone” layer, which can be tens of metres in thickness, shear wave velocity [m/s]
overlying fresh granite bedrock. At each new mining 0 200 400 600 800 1000
area the topsoil and overburden is removed and con- 0
served for later rehabilitation, laterite caprock and
B-zone materials are recovered, exposing the pallid
zone material below. 3
To assess the capabilities of surface wave methods,
two tests were performed in adjacent areas at Alcoa’s caprock
depth [m] no caprock
Willoddale mine: one on the top of the laterite caprock
6
where the topsoil and overburden had been removed
prior to mining; and the other where the mining had
removed the caprock and most of the B-zone layer.
The results from the two tests are reported in Figure 9
6. Both dispersion curves show the typical trend of
stiff-over-soft materials with the apparent phase vel-
ocity of Rayleigh waves increasing for high frequen- 12
cies. The shear wave velocity profiles obtained from
the inversion of the experimental dispersion curve are Figure 6. Experimental results at Willowdale bauxite mine.
plotted together in the bottom portion of Figure 6. To
account for the removal of the caprock during mining
operations, the results of the second test have been disturbance due to blasting and to the decompression
shifted 2 m downwards. caused by the removal of 2 m of overburden material.
The inversion process has been carried out consid- On the other hand, it can be postulated that the very
ering the effects of modal superposition that produce stiff top layer caused a shift of the experimental
a shift of dominant mode such that the fundamental dispersion curve towards higher values and this
mode is dominant only at low frequency. aspect could be underestimated during the numerical
The results show a good capability of surface wave inversion.
methods in identifying the characteristics of soil A feature of the original stiffness profile that will
deposits in the presence of a markedly inversely pro- be discussed later is that the change from high stiff-
file. Below the clayey layer the presence of a stiffer ness at the surface to lowest stiffness at 3 m depth
material at 10 m depth is identified during the inter- does not appear to be too abrupt, but is rather gradual,
pretation. This result cannot be directly confirmed by because of the presence of the friable rock layer.
the pre-mining drilling logs because they only go to a
depth of about 6 m, but is well in accordance with the 4.2.2 East Street, Fremantle
geological information available for the site. At the East Street site in Fremantle, a very shallow
One evident difference in the two shear velocity caprock is present in between sandy layers. The for-
profiles is the stiffness of the clayey layer (3 to 10 m mation of the caprock started with the cementation
in the plot). Indeed both tests show an increasing process of a calcareous sand dune due to a weak acid
value of stiffness with depth for the clay but the test created by rain water percolation through shell frag-
performed after the caprock removal led to an esti- ments. Successively the exposition to the elements
mated almost 30% smaller of the shear wave velocity. caused the formation of a surface crust where the cal-
This difference can partially be explained with the cium carbonate, drawn up to the surface by the heat,

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Dispersion curve

850

750
phase velocity [m/s]

650

550

450

350

250

150
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

frequency [Hz]

Figure 7. Experimental dispersion curve at Fremantle site.

Figure 8. Fremantle site: autopower spectrum at a distance
of 4 m from the seismic source.

was deposited forming a strong fine grained lime-

stone caprock.
The stratigraphy of the subsurface can be observed
at a road cutting very close to the testing site. Below
a thin layer of topsoil soil (around 50 cm), a 2 m layer
of well-cemented limestone is found. The underlying
soil is loose non-cemented calcareous sand.
Following the apparently successful work at the
Willowdale site, it had been expected that similar suc-
cess would have been achieved at this site. However,
this was not the case. Indeed using both a light source
(a 10 kg sledgehammer) and a heavier source (a 25 kg
falling weight) it was not possible to obtain useful infor-
mation for frequencies below 50 Hz. The experimental
dispersion curve in the available range (50–120 Hz)
shows the behaviour of a soft top layer underlined by
a stiff material, as expected (Figure 7). But the lack
Figure 9. Green function for 3-layer system with
of information in the low frequency range makes it
Vs  [100, 800, 100] m/s and Thickness  [0.5, 2, inf] m.
impossible to identify the thickness of the caprock and
the mechanical properties of the underlying sand.
The Fourier transform of seismic traces shows that
almost no energy is transmitted for frequencies below shallow and relatively thick stiff layer on the propaga-
50 Hz. For example the power spectrum for a receiver tion of surface waves. In a parametric analysis the
placed 4 m from the source is reported in Figure 8 for mechanical parameters of the intermediate layer in a
different seismic sources, showing also that the mass 3-layer system have been changed to assess the influ-
of the source produces almost no difference. ence on the ground motion associated to surface waves.
The above observations lead to the conclusion that The results are not extensively reported in the present
the soil acts as a low pass filter with respect to the paper, but some relevant conclusions are summarized
seismic input. This filtering effect can be explained in the following. The Green function for a system hav-
postulating a phenomenon of energy trapping in the ing an intermediate layer with thickness 2 m and a shear
very stiff limestone layer. Indeed the strong contrast wave velocity of 800 m/s embedded in a 100 m/s soil
of impedance between the limestone and the soft soil (Figure 9) clearly shows the filtering effect observed in
layers above and below makes energy enter but not the experimental results. Moreover the shape of eigen-
going out towards the soft layers. So it is postulated vectors associated with dominant Rayleigh modes
that the stiff layer acts as a waveguide and the motion shows that almost no energy can be detected at low fre-
is not detectable on the ground surface. quencies on the ground surface for such a system.
To check such hypothesis some numerical simula- Another aspect that needs to be checked (by
tions have been performed to investigate the effects of a numerical modelling and by further testing at the East

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Street site) is whether it is solely the presence of the REFERENCES

soft topsoil layer at East Street that causes the prob-
lem, or whether the abruptness of the change in stiff- Dziewonki A.M., Hales A.L. (1972) “Numerical Analysis of
ness between the limestone and the underlying sand Dispersed Seismic Waves”, in Methods in Computational
is also a contributing factor. (It was pointed out previ- Physics vol. 11 Seismology: Surface waves and Earth
ously that the reduction in stiffness occurred rather Oscillations, B.A. Bolt Ed., Academic Press, New York,
more gradually at Willowdale.) pp. 39–85.
Foti S. (2002) “Numerical and experimental comparison
between 2-station and multistation methods for spectral
analysis of surface waves”, RIG, n. 1, 11–22.
5 CONCLUSIONS Foti S., Lai C.G., Rix G.J. (2003) “Soil stiffness and damping
ratio from multistation surface wave data”, Proc. 3rd Int.
Dedicated equipment for surface wave tests has been Symp. on Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials,
developed using a commercial data acquisition board. Vol. 1, Lyon, Balkema.
With respect to the use of more expansive seismograph Foti S., Sambuelli L., Socco L.V., Strobbia C. (2002)
or signal analyzer, this solution can be considered very “Spatial sampling issues in fk analysis of surface waves”
Proc. of SAGEEP 2002, Las Vegas, USA, February
competitive, especially for the high degree of flexibil-
10–14, CD-Rom.
ity that make the equipment useful for other tests. Foti S., Strobbia C. (2002) “Some notes on model parame-
A comparison of the experimental results from ters for surface wave data inversion”, Proc. of SAGEEP
surface wave tests with the results of seismic cone 2002, Las Vegas, USA, February 10–14, CD-Rom.
confirms the reliability of the former. Gabriels P., Snieder R., Nolet G. (1987) “In situ measure-
Surface wave tests can be profitably used also to ments of shear-wave velocity in sediments with higher-
investigate deposits that are not easily investigated with mode Rayleigh waves”, Geophys. Prospect., vol. 35,
other methods. For example some tests in the presence pp. 187–196.
of a very stiff top layer are presented, showing the cap- Gucunski N., Woods R.D. (1992) “Numerical simulation
of SASW test”, Soil Dyn. and Earthq. Eng., vol. 11 (4),
abilities of surface wave tests. Nevertheless it must be
pp. 213–227.
considered that some peculiar situations cannot be Heisey J.S., Stokoe K.H. II, Meyer A.H. (1982) Moduli of
investigated from the ground surface, indeed some Pavement Systems from Spectral Analysis of Surface
stratigraphic situations lead to a sort of filtering effect Waves, Transportation Research Record 852.
that makes it not possible to investigate the subsoil. This McMechan G.A., Yedlin M.J. (1981) “Analysis of dispersive
observation arising from experimental data has been waves by wave field transformation”, Geophysics,
confirmed by a series of numerical simulations. This vol. 46, pp. 869–874.
situation has to be considered as a sort of physical limi- Nazarian S. (1984) “In situ determination of elastic moduli
tation for surface wave tests. of soil deposits and pavement systems by Spectral-
Analysis-of-Surface waves method”, PhD Diss., Un. of
Texas at Austin.
Nazarian S. & Stokoe II K.H. (1984) “In situ shear wave
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS velocities from spectral analysis of surface waves”, Proc.
8th Conf. on Earthquake Eng. – S.Francisco, Vol. 3,
The Authors wish to thank Alcoa of Australia, for their Prentice-Hall, pp. 31–38.
permission to access the Willowdale site and for their Richart F.E. Jr, Wood R.D., Hall J.R. Jr (1970) “Vibration of
support during tests. Golder Associates kindly made soils and foundations”, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
available the seismic cone and SPT data for the Roesset J.M., Chang D.W., Stokoe K.H. II, Aouad M. (1990)
Westralia place site. The work described was part of a Modulus and Thickness of the Pavement Surface Layer
from SASW Tests, Transportation Research record 1260.
project funded by the Australian Research Council Stokoe K.H. II, Nazarian S., Rix G.J., Sanchez-Salinero I.,
(ARC). The work was carried out while the first author Sheu J., Mok Y. (1988) “In situ seismic testing of hard-to-
was a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of sample soils by surface wave method”, Earthq. Eng. and
Western Australia, supported by the ARC and by the Soil dyn. II – Recent adv. in ground-motion eval. – Park
Centre for Offshore Foundation Systems at UWA. City, ASCE, pp. 264–277.

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Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, Di Benedetto et al. (eds)

An innovative facility to measure shear-wave velocity in centrifuge

and 1-g models

Mostafa A. Ismail & Yousof Hourani

Centre for Offshore Foundation Systems, Civil Engineering Department,
The University of Western Australia (UWA)

ABSTRACT: An innovative technique, incorporating bender elements, has been developed to measure shear
wave velocities of soils in 1-g models, and is readily adoptable to centrifuge models. The technique is based on
the simple concept of fixing two pairs of orthogonal bender elements facing each other to two vertical holders
embedded into a soil sample. This arrangement is repeated over the depth of the tested sample, forming an array
of pairs of transmitters and receivers. In addition to its simplicity and low cost, the main strength of the tech-
nique lies in its ability to quantify stiffness anisotropy over the depth of the test model. The system was cali-
brated against wax, before being used in dense silica sand and clayey slurry. These two soils represent a
deliberate extreme to confirm the effectiveness of the technique. This paper describes the developed system in
detail, and discusses the results obtained.

1 INTRODUCTION There are various techniques to measure Vs, both in

field and laboratory. Despite the fact that determination
Accurate determination of the shear velocity (Vs) of Vs in laboratory element tests is well established and
of elastic waves propagating through geomaterials widely used, there have been relatively few attempts
has received considerable attention over the last to measure it in 1-g model tests, calibration chambers
few decades, because of the direct link that Vs has and centrifuge models.
with the maximum shear stiffness (Gmax) through the Gohl and Finn (1987) were the first to use bender
relationship: elements to both detect and generate shear waves in a
centrifuge model. The receiver bender elements were
(1) placed in a vertical array pointing downwards towards
the source bender element. Despite the success of this
method, two issues in particular need to be resolved
where  is the bulk density of the material. Gmax plays before it can be of optimal use. Firstly, the layout of
a crucial role in design and analysis of a variety of the bender element implies isotropic material, as the
geotechnical problems, particularly in the area of shear velocity will always be only measured in the ver-
machine, traffic, and earthquake-induced vibrations. tical plane. Secondly, the vertical layout of the bender
Moreover, Gmax is a key parameter for many constitu- elements results in the measured shear wave velocity
tive models that predict ground deformations under being an average over the depth between the source
various loading conditions (e.g., Lings et al., 2000; and the receiver. This has significant implications, as
Stallbrass & Taylor, 1997). Even for non-linear large the velocity may vary significantly, according to the
strain analysis, a variety of models use Gmax as the stress state, density and other geological features such
anchor point for the subsequent stiffness degradation as cementation, layering, etc.
(Lings et al., 2000). Kita et al. (1992) used a disk-like piezoelectric
Beside the stiffness, the knowledge of Vs provides oscillator to generate shear waves and two accelerom-
crucial information about the engineering properties of eters, positioned at two different points at the same
geomaterials, in terms of stress state, layering, and other height as the oscillator, to detect the shear waves.
diagenesis such as inclusions and cementation (Stokoe King et al. (1996) used a single pair of bender elem-
& Santamrina, 2000). Moreover, Vs has been used as a ents, placed at a height of 40 mm from the base of
criterion to assess liquefaction potentials due to earth- the centrifuge box, to both detect and generate shear
quake seismic effect (Andrus and Stokoe, 1999). waves. Both techniques overcame the errors associated

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with averaging of the shear velocity over the depth, and vice versa for the receiver (i.e., high electrical out-
though the implicit assumption of stiffness isotropy put from a given mechanical input). As will be shown
remained. This is also the case with Arulnathan et al. later in Fig. 5, this has achieved high-resolution sig-
(2000) and Ghosh and Madabhushi (2002) who used a nals, even at relatively low effective stresses.
mini air-hammer to generate the shear waves in a The bimorph was made from lead zirconate titanate
model sample, which were detected by accelerometers (LZT) ceramic (APC 850: APC International Ltd,
placed at a set distance away from the source. The 2002). Each transmitting bimorph was connected in
shear-wave velocity, and hence the shear stiffness, was parallel (Fig. 2) to ensure that a maximum lateral dis-
still only measured in a single plane. placement (i.e., in the thickness direction) will be
The only systems that have incorporated multi- produced from a given input voltage, according to
directional shear-wave measurements in model tests Equation (2).
consisted of calibration chambers (e.g., Stokoe et al.,
1995; Belloti et al., 1996). These systems relied on
embedding arrays of transmitting and receiving geo- (2)
phones that enabled generation and detection of both
compression and shear waves. As described by Belloti
where: d31 is the piezoelectric charge constant, V is
et al., 1996), the typical spacing between the geophones
the input voltage, h is the element thickness and l is
range between 40–60 cm, and this may need relatively
the free length of the bimorph. The free length of the
big models (for e.g., Belloti et al. used a calibration
element was taken to be 10 mm (the width, w also 
chamber of 1.2 m diameter and 1.5 m height). The
10 mm). This is about 2–2.5 times longer than that com-
measurement of Vs for small models (particularly the
monly used in triaxial testing. Using the values of d31
ones that fit centrifuge facilities) is, therefore, needed.
given by the manufacturer (d31 175 1012 m/V)
The objective of this paper is to present an innovative
suggests that a maximum free lateral displacement of
system that was developed at UWA to enable multi-
about 2 microns would be experienced by the tip of
directional measurement of shear waves in model tests
each transmitter for an excitation voltage of 10 V. This
at a convenient scale. The system has been designed
value is believed to induce shear strain in the range of
such that shear waves propagate in a horizontal direc-
103% (Dyvik & Madshus, 1985), which is deemed
tion, with polarisation in either a horizontal or verti-
to be within the elasticity of geomaterials.
cal direction for each test set-up. This arrangement
On the other hand, the receiving bimorphs (Fig. 2)
allows measurement of the shear-wave velocity in
were connected in series to augment the received
both the horizontal and vertical planes, respectively,
voltage, after the signal propagates into the soil. The
whilst overcoming the errors related to averaging of
received voltage can be calculated from the following
the shear velocity over the depth of a sample.
Equation.

2 DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW SYSTEM (3)

The novel system consists of six pairs of orthogonal

bender elements. Obviously, the number of bender where: F3 is the force applied in the thickness direc-
elements and the vertical spacing between each two tion, and w is the width of the bimorph. The selection
successive pairs depends on the height of the physical of such dimensions of the bender was particularly
model to be tested. The dimensions reported here were essential in this development, because of the possibil-
selected to fit a soil model of 400 mm height. ity that the signal might experience more geometrical
Two typical stainless steel bender holders (Fig. 1) attenuation than in a triaxial sample due to the larger
were manufactured to accommodate the pairs of the size and the more pronounced spatial nature of the
bender elements. The overall height of each bender model tests.
holder was 400 mm, and the section dimensions were As first suggested by Dyvik and Madusu (1985),
35 mm length by 22 mm width. Each holder was pro- each bimorph had two coats of thinned polyurethane to
vided with three circular slots to subsequently secure provide adequate moisture insulation. This step was
the sockets that house the bender elements. essential for testing saturated soils. The required con-
As seen from Fig. 1, the arrangement of each two strained length (about 6 mm) of each bimorph was
orthogonal benders was similar to that attached to a achieved by dipping the coated benders into a chamber
periphery of a triaxial sample (e.g., Kuwano et al., filled with liquid polyurethane, which was left to cure
2000). However, because the system was developed to for about 48 hours. A precautionary, additional thin coat
suit much larger samples, the dimensions of the bend- of a thermal-resistant epoxy was used to allow cali-
ers were chosen to produce a reasonably high mechan- bration of the designed benders by dipping them into
ical energy for a given voltage input for the transmitter molten wax as will be explained later.

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φ96
35 C φ6 C

φ51

150

φ60

Top

View E-E

Bender holder

Ht
Vt E 16 E
100 Bender 10
Bender

Medium 10 8
C C
3
6

Silicon
(Vm, Hm) rubber
22 0.5
6
100
Epoxy
35
Bottom
Section C-C

Dimensions in mm
(Vb, Hb) 50
Elevation

Figure 1. Details of bender elements and their holder.

Figure 3 shows a schematic of the system used to

Shim
Polarization measure the shear-wave velocity. The input signal was
created by connecting the transmitting bimorph to a
Vin Piezo function generator of the type Agilent 33120A, which
ceramic bender is capable of exciting at 20 Volts peak-to-peak: the input
signal was fed to a real-time digital storage oscillo-
(a) Benders in series (receiver) scope (Tektronix TDS220). The received signal was
amplified 100 times before being transferred to the
oscilloscope. The traces of both the transmitted and
received signals were dumped to a PC via an RS-232
Polarization
interface at a frequency of 0.5 MHz. Each reading was
taken as the average of 64 stacked signals. Since a rel-
Vout
atively considerable number of bimorphs were used
in this study (6 transmitters and 6 receivers), the oper-
ation was facilitated by connecting them to two mul-
(b) Benders in parallel (transmitter) tiplexers of 16 channels each, as shown in Fig. 3.
To avoid the likelihood of near-field effect, which
Figure 2. Schematic of bender electrical circuits. may mask the arrival point of the shear wave (Brignoli

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Function generator direction, with polarisation in either a vertical or hori-

PC
zontal direction. This enables the shear-wave velocity
to be measured in both horizontal and vertical planes
respectively, whilst overcoming the errors related to
averaging of the shear velocity over the depth of a sam-
ple. Moreover, a wave propagating in a skew direction
Digital can be detected by a receiving bender, which is not par-
oscilloscope Voltage Multiplexer
allel to the transmitter. This would enable determina-
amplifier tion of the shear stiffness, Gh, along the skew plane
Bender holder Bender holder shown in Fig. 4. This parameter is essential to establish
(Receiver) (Transmitter) the elastic stiffness matrix for anisotropic materials
(Belloti et al., 1996; Fioravante & Capoferri, 2001).
Ht The terminology used in the elevation of Fig. 1 will be
Vt used to refer to the various benders used in the system.
Soil Hm
Model Vm
3 SYSTEM CALIBRATION
Hb
Because of the novelty of the measuring technique, it
was important to calibrate it against a material of known
shear-wave velocity. To this end, paraffin wax was
Figure 3. Schematic showing the different elements of the chosen, with the idea that the bender holders can be
measuring system. placed inside the soft molten wax, before it hardens.
The Paraffin wax was particularly chosen for the fol-
lowing reasons. Firstly, it has a low range of melting
point, which is well below the Curie point (300°C) of
the piezoelectric material used in this study. To avoid
the adverse thermal depolarizing effect on piezoelec-
V
tric materials, it is recommended that the operational
temperature does not exceed half the Curie point (APC
Vhv International Ltd, 2002). The high-quality Paraffin
wax used in this study had a melting temperature of
H 44–46°C, and this was deemed safe for the bender
elements. Secondly, a molten wax hardens relatively
(a) quickly into a uniform, homogeneous and isotropic
H Z
V X medium. The isotropic property is useful in compar-
Y ing the shear-wave velocities measured by a vertical
Vhθ [Vs(hh)] and a horizontal bimorph [Vs(hv)]. Moreover,
as will be shown later, the shear-wave velocity of the
Paraffin wax tested here lies within the range that could
be measured for geomaterials (e.g., cemented sands:
θ
Fernandez & Santamarina, 2000; Baig et al., 1997).
H V
(b) The wax was placed in an aluminium container
inside a temperature-controlled water bath, and the
Wave propagation Wave polarization
temperature of the water was gradually increased while
Figure 4. Schematic showing wave directions and polar- monitoring the temperature of the wax using a tem-
ization for (a) vertical and horizontal planes, (b) skew plane perature probe. After the wax melted completely, the
(Not to scale). bender holders were dipped into it and the wax was
left to harden.
The results obtained from this experiment was com-
et al., 1996), a one-cycle sine wave was used as the pared with that obtained from a conventional triaxial
input signal. It is believed that a pulsed signal of wide bender element test carried out on a wax sample cast
spectrum of frequency may aggravate the near-filed to a cylinder of 72 mm diameter and 700 mm height.
effect and give rise to the compression wave that pre- Moreover, the shear wave of the wax cylinder was also
cedes the actual arrival of the shear wave. measured using a standard contact, normal incidence
As suggested by Fig. 4, the innovative system gen- shear-wave transducer of 100 kHz resonance frequency
erates shear waves that can propagate in a horizontal (Panametrics, V1553).

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Table 1. Results from different bender elements during wax calibration.

Shear wave velocity

From Travel length Arrival Magnitude

(Transmitter) To (Receiver) (mm) Wave direction Polarization time ( s) Type (m/s)

Ht Ht 700 Horizontal Vertical 723 Vhv 968.5

Vt Vt 700 Horizontal Horizontal 728 Vhh 961.9
Hm Hm 700 Horizontal Vertical 722 Vhv 969.8
Vm Vm 700 Horizontal Horizontal 720 Vhh 972.5
Hb Hb 700 Horizontal Vertical 727 Vhv 963.2
Vb Vb 700 Horizontal Horizontal 721 Vhh 971.2
*
Hb Ht 728 Skew Horizontal 752 Vh 967.5
Standard triaxial bender 692 Vertical Horizontal 719 Vvh 962.7
Normal incident 700 Vertical Horizontal 723 Vvh 965.5
shear transducer

*:tan1(200/700) 15.9°, with the horizontal.

10 0.75

Output voltage (mV)

Input voltage (V)

5 T
0.25
0
-0.25
-5 Vm-Vtm R
-10 -0.75
10 0.75

Output voltage (mV)

Input voltage (V)

5 T Hb-Ht
0.25
0
-0.25
-5 R
-10 -0.75
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Time (␮s)

Figure 5. Traces from transmitters and receivers during calibration of the system with Paraffin wax T: Transmitted signal;
R: Received signal.

Initial measurements over short distances showed the of the Paraffin wax, with an average shear-wave
masking effect of the near field effect (Brignoli et al., velocity (Vs) of about 968 m/s, measured over three
1996), which exhibited polarization opposite to that different planes, namely horizontal, vertical and skew
of the true shear signal. This was associated with at an angle of about 15° with the horizontal (Hb to Ht).
L/  0.4, where is the wave length of the received Secondly, the measured Vs is practically the same as
signal (  Vs/fout) and L is the tip-to-tip distance those measured from the conventional triaxial bender
between the transmitting and receiving benders. and the Panametrics shear transducer. Thirdly, Vs dif-
Therefore, it was decided to increase the horizontal fers with only about 1.4% from the value reported by
distance (i.e., the travel length) between the benders Kamioka (1995) on a similar Paraffin wax at a temper-
to lessen this effect, as it persisted even with increas- ature degree close to that recorded in the lab (22.5°C)
ing input frequency. Increasing the travel distance during the test. Figure 5 shows typical traces during
was also desirable to reduce the impact of any error the calibration test.
associated with the arrival time of the high shear-
wave velocity wax.
The results for a horizontal travel distance of 4 SOILS TESTED
700 mm are listed in Table 1. Examining the results of
Table 1 leads to the following observations. Firstly, To verify that the system is operational with soil models,
the developed system captured the stiffness isotropy the device was used to measure Vs in two uncemented

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soils representing two extremes in terms of their Vs.

The first was fine to medium, hard blast, commercial
uniform silica sand. D50 of the sand was 0.19 mm, with
Centrifuge box
a coefficient of uniformity (Cu) of about 2 and a coef-
ficient of gradation (CC) of 1.17. The maximum and
minimum densities of the sand were determined by
Cheong (2002) according to the Australian Standards
(AS 1289.5.5.1-1998) and found to be 1829 and
1517 kg/m3, respectively (equivalent minimum and
maximum void ratios of 0.449 and 0.747 respectively,
for Gs  2.65). The critical state and peak friction Slot Guide PVC plate
angles from direct shear tests were found to be 35° and
39.5°, respectively (Cheong, 2002). Pluviated sand
The second material was a combination of commer-
cial kaolin clay and silica flour, mixed with distilled,
de-aired water to form slurry of 100 % water content.
Figure 6. Alignment of bender holders inside the cen-
trifuge box.

5 TESTING PROCEDURES

5.1 Silica sand

20 mm
The test on the silica sand was performed in a standard
centrifuge box measuring 650 mm length, 390 width
and 350 mm high. This box was selected to ensure that
future implementation of the system is feasible in the
centrifuge. The sand was prepared by dry pluviation Sealant
using an automatic sand hopper, which achieved a uni-
form dry density of 1800 kg/m3 (Dr  91%). The depth
of the sand sample inside the box was 290 mm.
The bender holders were positioned at a distance
of 128 mm apart in the centrifuge box. They were ini-
tially positioned after the first 50 mm thick layer of the
sand was placed.
To ensure that the benders were vertically and hori-
zontally aligned, they were clamped against temporary Slurry
cross bars that were accurately positioned across the
centrifuge box. Thereafter, a 25 mm PVC plate (pro-
vided with slots for the bender channels, Fig. 6) was
placed over the top of the complete sample to assist in
the application of a uniform load. This was further
aided by a cross frame that was placed on top of the
PVC plate to ensure uniform distribution of stresses Figure 7. Measurement of shear wave velocity of kaolin
across the sample. slurry during consolidation by vacuum.
A hydraulic compression machine was used to apply
about 60 kPa increments of vertical stress on the sam-
ple, with shear-wave measurements conducted at each opposite holes, to which vacuum tubes were con-
stress increment from 0 to 240 kPa. Each stress level nected. Drainage was applied via a vacuum pump
was kept constant only for no longer than the time capable of applying suction of up to about 100 kPa at
required to take the shear-wave measurements to 100% efficiency.
avoid creep. To ensure that the vacuum tubes were not blocked
as a result of the fine clay particles, three layers of
filters were used. The first circumferential layer con-
5.2 Consolidation of kaolin clay slurry
sisted of a 30 mm width strip of filter fabric that was
The slurry was placed in a 135 mm diameter, Perspex positioned at the base of the cylinder, lining the cylin-
cylinder, to a height of 340 mm (Fig. 7). The base of der to cover the holes. The second layer contained
the cylinder was provided with two, diametrically various sizes of gravel and pebbles, ranging from

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350 350

300 300
Vs (hv)
250 250
Vs (hh)

Vs( hh) (m/s)

Vs ( ij) (m/s)

200 Me a s ure d, hl pla ne

200
Me a s u re d , Vl p la n e
150 150
Ha rdin a nd Bla ndford, 1989
B o tto m B e nde r

100 P o we r (Me a s u re d , h l p la n e ) 100 Me dium B e nde r

P o we r (Me a s u re d , Vl p la n e ) Top Bender

50 Medium Bender 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Vertical stress, σv (kPa) Vertical stress, σv (kPa)

Figure 8. Variation of Vs (hh) and Vs (hv) with v for medium Figure 9. Variation of Vs (hh) with v at various bender levels.
bender.

diameters of 3 mm to 6 mm. In the third layer, a loading conditions applied to the sample during
specifically designed, 25 mm thick, porous PVC plate the 1-d compression test. Microscopy examination
was placed on top of the gravels and pebbles. Along of the silica sand revealed that the particles are
the circumference of the porous PVC plate an o-ring rounded with no obvious fabric anisotropy. There-
was positioned to ensure no flow of clay through the fore, there is no inherent anisotropy within the
sides. The PVC plate was sandwiched between two sample.
filter fabrics. To ensure an air-tight seal at the surface 3. The shear-wave velocity in both vertical and hori-
of the cylinder (and enhance the vacuum efficiency), zontal planes [Vs(vh) and Vs (hh)] increases from bot-
jelled polymers of polyacrylamide were placed on top tom to top of the sample. This is believed to result
of the slurry. These polymers have the ability to from the cumulative loss of stress due to the friction
absorb up to 400 times (by weight) water and increase between the sand and the centrifuge box walls. This
in volume, thereby work as an excellent sealant. is reinforced by the results obtained by Zeng and
The consolidation time continued over a period of Bin (1999) who carried out 1-d tests using different
72 hours. Shear-wave measurements in both the hori- types of interfaces between the tested sand and the
zontal and vertical planes were taken at various time oedmometer walls.
increments, ranging from every 10 minutes at the ini- The results presented above were compared with the
tial stages and gradually increasing to every twenty- empirical relationship that predicts shear-wave veloc-
four hours at the very end. ities as a function of normal stresses (Hardin and
Blandford, 1989) as given by:

6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

(4)
6.1 1-g Silica sand test
Typical results from the shear-wave velocities have
where OCR is the over consolidation ratio, k is a soil
been plotted against the varying stress and presented
constant depending on the plasticity index of the soil,
in Figs. 8 and 9.
Sij is a dimensionless elastic stiffness coefficient,  is
Three distinct trends are apparent from the results
Poisson ratio (a constant suggested to be isotropic for
obtained.
sand and equal to 0.1), F(e) is the void ratio function 
1. As expected, all the shear-wave velocities increase 0.3  0.7 e2 (where e is the void ratio of the soil),
with increasing stress levels in the form of a power pa atmospheric pressure, and n is a soil constant equal
law relationship, as universally accepted. to 0.5 for sands.
2. The shear-wave velocities in the horizontal plane In Equation (4), i  the direction in which the shear
[Vs(hh)] are always less than the shear-wave velocities wave travels (i.e., h or horizontally in this study), and
measured in the vertical plane [(Vs (hv))] (Fig. 8). j  the direction of polarisation of the shear wave (i.e.,
This behaviour was expected due to the anisotropic particle movement), either horizontal (h) or vertical ().

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Generally speaking, the experimental results of the against time. Three trends have been identified from
shear-wave velocities agree well with those predicted these results:
by Equation (4) for n  0.5 and Sij  1300 (as sug-
gested by Zeng and Bin, 1989), although the meas- 1. The developed system captured the distinct increase
ured shear-wave velocities at the bottom bender tend in the shear-wave velocity of the sample as time pro-
to be marginally less than the predicted ones. gressed. The velocities ranged from 4m/s at the start
However, this observation may, too, be attributed to of the test to a maximum of 107 m/s, measured at
the loss of stress in the sample due to the friction the bottom of the slurry column after about 72 hours
between the walls of the centrifuge box and the sand, (Fig. 10);
as described earlier. 2. The shear-wave velocities measured increased from
top to bottom due to the faster reduction in water
content; and
6.2 Kaolin clay slurry test 3. The system successfully captured the stiffness
isotropy resulted from the vacuuming process for
Figures 10 and 11 present plots of the shear-wave all levels (Fig. 11).
velocity measured at various depths within the slurry

7 CONCLUSIONS
120
An innovative system of bender elements has been
Shear wave velocity, Vs (hh) (m/s)

100 Bottom Bender developed and verified for measuring shear-wave

velocity in 1-g models and calibration chambers. This
80 system is convenient in scale while being flexible in
its application. The method takes into account the
60 Medium Bender possible stiffness anisotropy of a geomaterial. The
development was calibrated against paraffin wax and
40
implemented to test sand and kaolin slurry. This facil-
ity can now be introduced to more sophisticated
applications in the centrifuge, such as modelling of
20 Top Bender
liquefaction under offshore structures. It is also possi-
ble to mimic geological events and monitor the subse-
0 quent change in stiffness.
0 20 40 60 80
Time (hours)

Figure 10. Increase in Vs (hv) as consolidation progressed ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

over time at different elevations.
The work in this paper forms part of the activities of
the Centre for Offshore Foundation Systems (COFS),
120
established and supported under the Australian
Research Council’s Research Centres Program.
100 Vhh
Shear wave velocity, Vs( ij) (m/s)

80 Vhv REFERENCES

Andrus, R. and Stokoe, II, K. (1999). A liquefaction evalua-

60 tion procedure based on shear wave velocity. U.S/Japan
Resources Development Program (UJNR). Joint meeting,
40 31st. Technical memorandum of PWRI 3653, Tsukuba,
Japan, pp. 71–78.
Vertical bottom Element
APC International Ltd. (2002). Piezoelectric Ceramics:
20
Horizontal bottom Elements principles and applications. ISBN: 0-9718744-0-9.
Arulnathan, R., Boulanger, R. W., Kutter, B. L. and Sluis, W. K.
0 (2000). New tool for shear wave velocity measurements
0 20 40 60 80 in model tests. Geotech. Testing Journal, GTJODJ, 23,
T ime (hours) No. 4, 444–453.
Baig S., Picornell M. and Nazarian S. (1997). Low strain
Figure 11. Comparison between the horizontal [Vs (hh)] and shear moduli of cemented sand. ASCE J. of the Geotech.
the Vertical [Vs (hv)] shear wave velocity from bottom bender. and Geoenv. Engrg., 123, No. 6, 540–545.

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Belloti, R., Jamiolkowski, M., Lo Presti, D. C. F. & O’neil, King, A. D., McDermott, I. R., Hurley, S. J. and Smyth, S. J.
D. A. (1996). Anisotropy of small strain stiffness in Ticino (1996). In-flight shear wave measurements in a soft cohe-
sand. Gèotechnique, 46, No. 1, 115–131. sive soil undergoing self-weight consolidation in C-
Brignoli, E. G. M, Gotti, M. and Stokoe, K. H. II, (1996). Core’s geotechnical centrifuge. 49th Canadian Geotech.
Measurement of shear waves in laboratory sepcimens by Conf. of the Can. Geotech Society, pp. 497–504.
means of piezoelectric transducers. Geotech. Testing J., Kita, K., Shibata, T., Yashima, A. and Kobayashi, S. (1992).
GTJODJ, 19, No. 4, 384–397. Measurement of shear wave velocities of sand in a cen-
Cheong, J. (2002). Physical testing o jack-up footings trifuge. Soils and Foundations, 32, No. 2, 134–140.
on sand subjected to torsion. Honour Thesis, Civil and Kuwano, R., Connolly, T. M. and Jardine, R. J (2000).
Resource Engg. Dept, The University of Western Australia. Anisotropic stiffness measurements in a stress-path
Dyvik, R. and Madshus, C. (1985). Laboratory measure- triaxial cell. Geotech. Testing J., GTJODJ, 23, No.2,
ments of Gmax using bender elements. Proc. ASCE 141–157.
Annual Conv., Advances in the Art of Testing Soil Under Lings, M. L., Pennington, D. S. and Nash, D. F. T. (2000).
Cyclic Conditions, Detroit Michigan, Vol. 1 , pp. 39–42. Anisotropic stiffness parameters and their measurement
Fernandez, A. L. and Santamarina, J.C. (2001). Effect of in a stiff natural clay. Gèotechnique 50, No. 2, 109–125.
cementaion on the small-strain parameters of sands. Can. Stallebrass, S. E. and Taylor, R. N. (1997). The development
Geotech. J, 38, No. 1, 191–199. and evaluation of a constitutive model for the predic-
Fioravante, V. and Capoferri, R. (2001). On the use of multi- tion of ground movements in overconsolidated clays.
directional piezoelectric transducers in triaxial testing. Gèotechnique 47, No. 2, 235–253.
Geotech. Testing J., GTJODJ, 24, No. 3, 243–255. Stokoe, K. H., II, Hwang, S. K., Lee, J. N. K. and Andrus, R.
Ghosh, B. and Madabhushi, S. P. G. (2002). An efficient tool D. (1995). Effects of various parameters on the stiffness
for measuring the Shear Wave velocity in the Centrifuge. and damping of soils at small to medium strains.
Personal communication. Proceedings of I International Symp. on Pre-failure
Gohl, W. B. and Finn, W. D. L. (1987). Seismic response of pile Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, Vol. 2,
foundation in a centrifuge. Prediction and Performance in 785–816.
Geotechnical Engineering: 419–426. Stokoe, K. H. II and Santamarina, J. C. (2000). Seismic-
Hardin, B. O. and Blandford, G. E. (1989). Elasticity of par- wave-based testing in geotechnical engineering. GeoEng
ticulate materials. A.S.C.E. Geotech. Engrg. Div., 115, 2000, An International Conference on Geotechnical and
No. 6, 788–805 Geological Engineering, Vol. 1, pp. 1490–1536.
Kamioka, H. (1995). Elastic variations of Paraffin wax dur- Zeng, X. and Ni., B. (1998). Application of bender elements
ing solid–liquid phase transition. JPN J. Appl Phys, 34, in measuring Gmax of sand under Ko conditions. Geotech
2565–2569. Test J, GTJODJ, 21, No. 3, 251–263.

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Deformation Character

Development of measuring method for axial and lateral strain distribution

using CCD sensor in triaxial test

M. Kishi
Tokyo Gas Co, Japan

K. Tani
Yokohama National University, Japan

ABSTRACT: An in-situ triaxial test was proposed to measure stress–strain relationship of a hollow cylindrical
specimen prepared at the bottom of a borehole. This test is more advantageous than conventional field tests on rock
masses such as plate loading tests and rock shear tests. Because both strength and deformation characteristics
can be obtained by the proposed test alone. This study proposes a simpler test method introducing a solid cylindri-
cal specimen without a center small borehole and a novel instrumentation technique to measure distribution of axial
and radial strains.

1 INTRODUCTION principle of triangulation, axial and lateral coordinates

of the markers are obtained. Then, both axial and lateral
Popular test methods to obtain strength and deform- strains can be measured by this single system. Not only
ation characteristics of rock masses are plate loading average strains, but strain distributions are obtained
tests, pressuremeter tests and rock shear tests. Since within the specimen. The details of strain calculation
these field rock tests have many disadvantages, in- method are found in Kishi and Tani (2002).
situ triaxial test was proposed as one of field rock
tests (Tani, 1998; Tani et al., 2001). The specimen for
2.2 Form of measuring system
this test is hollow cylindrical and prepared at the bottom
of a borehole. This proposed test is more advanta- Two scanning systems can be considered; annular con-
geous than conventional field rock tests as plate load- figuration of CCD scanning longitudinal direction is
ing tests and rock shear tests. Because both strength denoted as annular system, and linear configuration
and deformation characteristics can be obtained by this of CCD scanning circumferencial direction is denoted
single test method. But this test has some disadvan- as linear system (Kishi and Tani, 2002). Figure 1 shows
tages. For example, strain measurement is not easy the linear system proposed for laboratory triaxial test.
and preparation of specimen is more complicated In this linear system, two pairs of CCD units (A and
than laboratory triaxial tests. To reduce these difficul- A, B and B) are positioned parallel to the side of
ties, new simple measuring method is devised. Some specimen and travel around for scanning the markers.
characteristic features of the equipment developed for Axial or longitudinal coordinate of the markers is
laboratory experiments are also described below. measured in terms of the elevation of CCD which
identifies them. Circumferential coordinate of the
makers is measured in terms of the position of rele-
2 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF vant CCD unit using encoder.
MEASURING METHOD

2.1 Proposed system for strain measurement 3 EQUIPMENT FOR LABORATORY TEST
A new system for strain measurement in in-situ tri-
3.1 CCD unit
axial test was proposed (Kishi and Tani, 2001; Tani and
Kishi, 2001). In the proposed method, a lot of makers As shown in Table 1, CCD unit is composed of three
pasted on the side of a cylindrical specimen are scanned parts, CCD line sensor, rod array lens and LED (Light
by CCD sensors from different directions. Using the Emitting Diode). Figure 2 shows the arrangement of

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LED (Light Emitting Diode)

Side of specimen

Cap 45⬚
Marker
Marker

Specimen
45⬚
Rod array lens

CCD line sensor

49.0⫾1.3 mm

Figure 2. Configuration of CCD line sensor, LED and rod

array lens.

Measurement range 7 ␮m⫻5000 pixel

=35mm
Pedestal

CCD unit
A 9.65mm
54.6mm

Photo 1. CCD line sensor.

Specimen
B
B’ Observation
by CCD
CCD unit PC
CCD PIC A/D
Direction of scan Board
A’ sensor Computer pro-
gram
Figure 1. Linear configuration of CCD units. servomotor Counter
Board
Encoder
Table 1. Composition of a CCD unit.

Maker, Figure 3. System of CCD measurement.

product name Specification
over the whole side of specimen whose height is
CCD line sensor TOSHIBA, Monochrome,
TCD1501D 5000 pixel, pixel 200 mm, six CCD sensors of 35 mm long for measure-
size 7 m ment range are required. After all, a total of twelve CCD
line sensors are used for two directions. Two pairs of
Rod array lens Nippon Sheet Focus, distance 
Glass, SLA-4D 49.0 mm CCD units, equipped with three CCD line sensors for
Depth  1.3 mm each unit, are arranged at 90 degrees interval around
the specimen as shown in Figure 1.
LED (Light – Green light
Emitting Diode)
3.2 System of CCD measurement
them. The CCD line sensor shown in Photograph 1 is As shown in Figure 3, CCD measurement is controlled
equipped with 5,000 pixels of linearly arranged CCD, by a personal computer. Trigger signal for scanning is
and is widely used for copying machine and scanner. sent to PIC (microcomputer tip) through A/D board,
The rod array lens is also widely used for copying and PIC transmits regulation pulse to CCD sensors
machine and the scanners. The LED was used as a for driving. The output from CCD sensors is sent to PC
light source. The configuration of CCD sensor and through A/D board. At the same time, the circumfer-
LED is set in such a way as the angles of incidence and ential position of CCD units is obtained by the
reflection are 45 degrees to a marker’s face. To scan encoder in the servomotor through counter board.

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Table 2. Specification of equipment.

Size of specimen Diameter 100 mm  height 20 mm

Maximum axial load 20 kN
Maximum cell pressure 98 kPa (by a vacuum)
Rate of scanning 4.5 hours/1 scan
Accuracy of displace- 0.007 mm
ment measurement
PC CPU: 1.5 GHz, RAM: 512 MB

3.3 Specification of equipment

Table 2 shows the specification of laboratory triaxial
compression test apparatus designed for testing geo-
materials from soils to weak soft rocks. Since water-
proof and pressure-proof of the CCD unit are not
considered, cell pressure is replaced by negative pore Photo 2. Membrane with markers.
pressure by vacuum application. Since accuracy of
axial coordinate measurement is 7 micrometers of the Table 3. Specimen prepared for experiment.
pixel size of a CCD, scanning interval for circumfer-
ence coordinate measurement is so designed as the Specimen Purpose
relevant accuracy becomes the same order.
Elastic body To evaluate validity and
polyurethane rubber accuracy of measurement
3.4 Rubber membrane and marker
Homogeneous and To evaluate applicability
As black rubber membrane is used for in-situ triaxial continuous soft rock for large strain measurement
test, similar membrane made from black natural rub- (plaster with sand)
ber is chosen for this laboratory test. The marker is Soft rock including To evaluate applicability
determined as thin aluminum foil with mirror-like a plane of discontinuity for measurement of strain
sunface whose sensitivity for CCD measurement is (plaster with sand, including distribution
found to be the highest. A total of 651 tiny circular a sheet of paper)
markers with a diameter of 1 mm are attached in lattice
form of 1 cm interval on the surface of rubber mem-
brane. Photograph 2 shows the rubber membrane with Table 4. Mixing proportion for artificial soft rock by
these markers. weight ratio.

River Gypsum/ Water/(Gypsum 

Gypsum sand Water sand sand)
4 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
1.00 1.93 1.22 0.52 0.42
Laboratory experiments of triaxial compression tests
were carried out in order to examine the various
aspects of the proposed system for strain measure- at three displacement steps; the axial strains of 0.0, 2.5,
ments (Kishi, 2002). For these experiments, three dif- 5.0%. A total of eight markers placed at the height of
ferent kinds of specimens were prepared as shown in 39 mm and 157 mm at 90° interval were measured,
Table 3. The mixing proportion for artificial soft rock and average values of axial strains and lateral strains
of plaster with sand is shown in Table 4. After isotropic were calculated.
consolidation of 0.098 MPa, each specimen was Table 5 summarizes the test result. The stress–strain
loaded in the axial direction under displacement con- relationship demonstrates almost elastic behavior under
trol, and CCD measurements were made at appropri- deviatoric stresses of less than 220 kPa. As regards
ate interval. Other than CCD instrumentation, a LVDT axial strain a, results of CCD measurement and exter-
was equipped for external measurement for axial nal measurement are in good agreement; thus similar
compression. values of Young’s modulus E are obtained. Although
measurement of lateral strain l was only made by
CCD, a Poisson’s ratio  of about 0.5 is obtained in har-
4.1 Polyurethane rubber
mony with the relevant material property. These results
Figure 4 shows the stress–strain relationship of demonstrate that strains of two directions can be meas-
polyurethane rubber. CCD measurements were made ured by a single measurement system of CCD.

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250 4

l (CCD)
a(external)

a(CCD)
200
C C 3

a(CCD)~
a(strain gage)
Deviatric stress q (kPa)

150

a(CCD) (%)
2
100 B B

a (CCD)~
a(external)

50 1

0 specimen: plaster with sand

A
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
0 1 2 3 4
Strain
a &
l (%)

a(external) &
a(strain gage) (%)

Figure 4. Stress–strain relationship of polyurethane rubber.

Figure 6. Comparison of axial strain measurement
between CCD and external LVDT and strain gage.
1400

l (CCD)
a (external)
1200
l (strain gage)
a (CCD) 0.0

a (strain
(gage)gage) specimen: plaster with sand
Deviatric stress q (kPa)

1000

800
-0.5

1(CCD) (%)

600

400

200 -1.0

0
-1 0 1 2 3
Strain
a &
l(%)
-1.5
-1.5 -0.0 -0.5 0.0
Figure 5. Stress–strain relationship of plaster with sand.
(ga ) (gage) (%)
1 (strain

Figure 7. Comparison of lateral strain measurement

4.2 Plaster with sand between CCD and strain gage.
A total of four strain gages, two gages for axial and
lateral direction respectively, were attached at mid-
height on the side of the specimen. Figure 5 shows the the average strain of mid-section becomes larger than
stress–strain relationship of plaster with sand meas- a(strain gage) which represents the local strains at
ured by CCD, external LVDT and also strain gages. the position where the gage(gage length is 30 mm) is
From the beginning of axial compression until the placed. The moderate decrease of a(strain gage) after
residual state, CCD measurements were made at a total failure demonstrates elastic unloading.
of 11 steps. The calculation method of strains is the Figure 7 compares lateral strain 1 measured by
same as for the case of polyurethane rubber. It turns out CCD and strain gages. In the beginning of loading,
that CCD measurement can be applicable until a large | 1| 0.1%, they are in good agreement. However, only
strain range and residual state like an external LVDT. 1(CCD) becomes larger as deformation of specimen
Figure 6 compares axial strain a measured by CCD proceeds. The reason for this discrepancy is consid-
with external LVDT and strain gages. In the initial ered as the influence of localized deformation after
step of loading, the values of a(external) are slightly failure. As a consequence, it may be justified to state
larger than those of a(CCD) and a(strain gage). It is that CCD is superior to gages in the ability to grasp
because the bedding error is included in the external the average behavior of specimen even to a large
measurement by LVDT, a(external). a(CCD) and deformation.
a(external) agree very well even at large strains of
a 0.5%. It should be noted that a(CCD) and
4.3 Plaster with sand including a sheet of paper
a(strain gage) agree in the beginning of loading up to
a 0.3%. However, as strain increases and localiza- As shown in Figure 8, a sheet of paper of an elliptic
tion of deformation progresses, a(CCD) representing shape was placed at mid-height of homogeneous soft

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100

50 Specimen

150

a sheet of paper 45°

Unit: mm 50

Figure 10. Mesh formation at A before axial loading (left)

and at P after shear failure (right).
Figure 8. Soft rock including a plane of discontinuity.

2000
Deviatric stress q (kPa)

1500 M N
O
L
P Q
K R
1000
J
I
500

B~H
A~R:stages for CCD measurement
0
0.0 A 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Axial strain
a(external)(%)

Photo 3. Specimen after

Photo 3. failure.after failure
Specimen
Figure 9. Stress–strain relationship of plaster with sand
including a sheet of paper.
From the above-mentioned results, it can be con-
cluded that the influences of heterogeneity and dis-
rock as a discontinuity, at an angle of 45° to the axis. continuity of specimens which may affect test results
Figure 9 shows the stress–strain relationship where can be examined properly by the proposed CCD
CCD measurements were made at 18 steps from A to measurement. For example, the following interpret-
R. Calculation of strain distribution with finite elem- ations are made possible by referring to the observed
ent mesh at 20 mm interval is made for the range results of displacement and strain distributions within
between A at the initial state and P after shear failure. the tested specimen.
Figure 10 shows the mesh formation at A and P. 1. Whether the deformation of the specimen is uni-
Moreover, the specimen after the test is shown in form or not;
Photograph 3 with a distinct shear zone developed 2. If the deformation of the specimen is not uniform,
along the inserted paper. Three dimensional coordin- whether the non-uniform deformation is caused
ates of all markers were appropriately measured, by inherent structure of non-uniformity or of dis-
clearly showing a pillar form of specimen before continuous nature, or by the result of localized
loading and a deformed specimen after shear failure. deformation;
Figure 11 shows the displacements of markers, and 3. Whether the test result is representative of the sur-
Figure 12 shows the contour of displacements. These rounding rock mass of interest.
figures clearly demonstrate that the upper half of
specimen is displaced along the potential discontinu- Thus, the proposed measuring system utilizing CCD
ity; i.e. a sheet of paper inserted in the middle. From is proved to be very useful as allowing still more
the displacement distribution, distributions of any sophisticated interpretation of test results which is
form of strain components can be computed. impossible by the conventional measurement.

35
Copyright © 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands
09054-04.qxd 2/7/03 12:17 PM Page 36

2. A triaxial test equipment incorporating this meas-

uring system was developed, and the following
conclusions were obtained from the test results on
three specimen.
(a) By using the proposed measuring system, axial
and lateral strains were accurately measured.
(b) Compared with the conventional measuring
method, the proposed measuring system is more
advantageous, as being mechanically simple,
able to measure displacement in all direction,
and able to obtain displacement and strain distri-
butions.
(c) More sophisticated interpretation of the triaxial
compression test results was made possible with
the displacement and strain distributions, e.g.,
effects of discontinuity and/or heterogeneity of
a specimen can be evaluated.
3. Future works are needed for the following items.
(a) Some more laboratory tests are needed using
real geomaterials to verify the applicability of
the proposed measuring method.
(b) The proposed measuring method should be
introduced to the in-situ triaxial test. The follow-
Figure 11. Displacements of markers (plaster with sand ing points should be examined: (1) the water-
including a sheet of paper). and pressure-proof of CCD units, (2) more
efficient measurement by reducing scanning
time, (3) more improvement of data analysis
algorithm, (4) simplified structure of a CCD
unit, and (5) determination of an appropriate
specimen size.

REFERENCES

Kishi, M.: A fundamental study on new strain measurement

method using CCD sensor for in-situ downhole triaxial
test, Master Thesis, Yokohama National University, 2002
(in Japanese).
Kishi, M. and Tani, K.: Development of measuring method
for axial and lateral strain distribution using CCD sensor
in triaxial test, Proc. of 32nd Rock Mechanics Symposium,
2003 (in Japanese).
Kishi, M. and Tani, K.: Proposal of novel strain measurement
for in-situ triaxial test, Proc. of 11th Japan Symposium on
Rock Mechanics, A11, 2002 (in Japanese).
Kishi, M. and Tani, K.: Proposal of strain measurement
method for in-situ triaxial test without a center small
borehole, Proc. of 56th JSCE Annual Symposium, pp.
634–635, 2001 (in Japanese).
Figure 12. Contour of displacements (plaster with sand Tani, K. and Kishi, M.: Measuring equipment and method
including a sheet of paper). of axial and lateral strains of pillar specimen, Japanese
Patent 2001-197869 (in Japanese).
Tani, K., Tachikawa, H., Kaneko, S. and Toyooka, Y.:
5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS Development of apparatus for new in-situ rock test using
downhole hollow cylindrical specimen, Proc. of 31st Rock
Mechanics Symposium, pp. 82–86, 2001 (in Japanese).
1. A new strain measuring system using CCD sensors Tani, K.: Proposal of two kinds of new field test methods
was developed. By this single measuring system, to investigate strength and deformability of rock masses,
axial as well as lateral strains distributions of a Proc. of 42nd Geotechnical Symposium, pp. 71–76, 1998
specimen can be obtained. (in Japanese).

36
Copyright © 2003 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands
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Friend, The. A religious and Literary Journal published weekly at
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Friends’ Library, The. 10 vols. Phila., 1837.
Friends’ Year Book, 1917. Published by the Representative
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Friends’ Christian Doctrine and Practice and Discipline.
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Fry, John. Alphabetical Extracts of all Annual Printed Epistles sent
to the Quarterly Meeting in London. London, 1762.
Furly, Benjamin, Fox, George, and Stubbs, John. Battledore for
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Griffith, John. Journal of Life and Travels.... London, 1779; Some
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Hicks, Elias. Journal of the Life and Religious Labors of Elias Hicks.
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Indians, A Brief Account of the Committee appointed in 1795 ... for
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Intelligencer, Friends. Published weekly at Philadelphia since
1844.
Kaln, Peter. Travels into North America, 3 vols., first vol.,
Warrington, 1770; second and third vols. London, 1771.
Keith, George. Journal of his Travels.... London, 1706.
Standards of Quakers Examined; An Answer to the Apology of
Robert Barclay. London, 1702.
Lancaster, Joseph. Improvements in Education ... School at
Borough Road. London, 1805.
Laws of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania of 1700-1802, 6
vols. Republished under the authority of the Legislature of
Philadelphia. Phila., 1803.
Laws of Duke of York. Charters of William Penn and Laws of
Pennsylvania, 1682-1700. London, 1805.
Lessons for Youth, Selected for the use of schools. Phila., 1799.
London Yearly Meeting Epistle.... Advice to Parents.... Care for
the Education of their Children.... London, 1723.
Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania. 10 vols.,
published by the State, Philadelphia.
Miscellanies, Moral and Instructive in Verse and Prose for the Use
of Schools. Phila., 1787.
More, Hannah. Strictures on the Modern System of Female
Education (in pamphlets published 1823, 2 vols.). London, 1823.
Murray, Lindley. An Abridgment of Murray’s English Grammar....
London, 1798.
Oldmixon, John. British Empire in America, 2 vols. London, 1708.
Parrish, Edward. An Essay on Education in the Society of Friends.
Phila., 1866.
Pastorius, F. D. Geographical Description of Pennsylvania, 1770.
Translated by L. H. Weiss, Memoirs of H. S. P. Phila., 1850.
Penn, William. Extract from the Advice to his Children. London,
1819.
A Brief Account of the Rise and Progress of the People called
Quakers. London, 1748.
Pennington, Isaac. Works, 4 vols. London, 1784.
Penn’s Letter to his Wife and Children. London, 1822.
Pennsylvania Archives. First Series, 12 vols. Edited by Samuel
Hazard. Phila., 1852-1856.
Pennsylvania Archives. Second Series, 19 vols. Edited by J. B.
Linn and W. A. Egle. Harrisburg, 1878-1896.
Pennsylvania Archives. Third Series, 30 vols. Edited by W. H.
Egle. Harrisburg, 1894-1899.
Pennsylvania German Society Proceedings. Published by the
Society, 20 vols. Lancaster, 1891-1911.
Pennsylvania Historical Society Memoirs, 14 vols. Phila., 1826-
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Pennsylvania Magazine of History, 39 vols. Published by the H.
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Penny, Norman. The Journal of George Fox. University Press.
Cambridge, 1911.
Phipps, Joseph. Original and Present State of Man.... Trenton,
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Pioneer, Der Deutsche. Erinnerungen aus dem Pioneer-Leben
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Prittle, Prattle, or a familiar discourse on the I, thou, he or she,
we, ye, or you etc. ... by a Lover of the Truth. London, 1752.
Protestant Episcopal Historical Society Publications, Vols. 1
and 2. 1915.
Proud, Robert. History of Pennsylvania, 2 vols. Phila., 1877.
Purver, Anthony. Counsel to Friends’ Children on Education, by J.
Freame, with ... poems. London, 1799.
Religious Instruction in our Schools. A letter issued by an
executive of the Friends’ Guild of Teachers, No. 9, in a volume
of pamphlets. York, No date.
Rutty, John and Wight, Thomas. History of Quakers in Ireland.
London, 1811.
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York, 1797.
Some Advice in the Yearly Meeting’s Epistle, 1709, concerning
the education of children.... London, 1710.
Stanton, Daniel. Journal of his Life, Travels and Gospel Labors.
Phila., 1772.
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and Henry Flanders. Harrisburg, 1896-1909.
Tracts on Moral and Religious Subjects. London, 1823.
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Tuke, Samuel. Principles of Religion as professed by the Society of
Quakers. London, 1852.
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Votes and Proceedings of the House of Representatives of
the Province of Pennsylvania, 1682-1776. Phila., 1752-
1776.
Wescott, Thompson. History of Philadelphia, 1609-1829 (made up
of cuttings from the Sunday Dispatch). Phila., 1867-1884.
Wigham, John. Christian Instruction in a discourse between a
mother and her daughter. Phila., No date.
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philosophical view of the American United States, 4 vols.
London, 1795.
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Importance, London, 1773; Works. Phila., 1806; The Journal of
... Introduction by J. S. Whittier. London, 1903.

NEWSPAPERS
Pennsylvania Gazette. Published by B. Franklin, beginning 1729;
incomplete files.
The American Weekly Mercury. Published by William Bradford,
beginning 1719; incomplete files.
The Freeman’s Journal or North American Intelligencer. Incomplete
files from 1781-1787.
The Pennsylvania Evening Post. Incomplete files from 1775-1781.
The Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser. Incomplete files
between 1742 and 1788.
The Pennsylvania Packet or General Advertiser. Incomplete files
from 1771-1800.
The Pennsylvania Chronicle. Incomplete files from 1767-1774.
Note: The newspapers above mentioned were examined in so far
as the rather incomplete files at the New York Public Library and the
library of the Pennsylvania Historical Society permitted. Though the
files of neither were complete, the seven taken together cover the
period studied very well. School advertisements and occasional
anonymous articles on education are the chief items they offer,
which are of value.

SECONDARY MATERIALS
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1884.
Ashmead, H. G., and Johnson, W. S. Historical Sketch of Chester
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Bean, Theodore W. History of Montgomery County. Phila., 1884.
Balderston, G. W. Historical Sketch of Falls, Bucks County,
Pennsylvania. Phila., 1882.
Bowden, James. History of Friends in America, 2 vols. London,
1884.
Bowen, Daniel. A History of Philadelphia to 1837. Phila., 1839.
Brailsford, M. R. Quaker Women, 1650-1690. London, 1915.
Buck, Wm. J. History of Bucks County. Doylestown, 1855; History of
Montgomery County within the Schuylkill Valley. Norristown,
1859.
Bunting, Morgan. A List of Records of the Meetings constituting
the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. Phila., 1906.
Clarkson, Thomas. Memoirs of the Private and Public Life of
William Penn. London, 1813.
Clarkson, Thomas. Portraiture of Quakerism, 3 vols. N. Y., 1806.
Comly, Isaac. Sketches of the History of Byberry, in the Memoirs of
the Pennsylvania Historical Society, vol. 2. Phila., 1827.
Cope, G. and Futhey, John. History of Chester County. Phila.,
1881.
Darby. Proceedings Centennial Anniversary Friends Meeting House.
Darby, Pennsylvania, 1905.
Davis, W. W. H. History of Bucks County, Pennsylvania. Doylestown,
1876.
Dewey, D. R. Financial History of the United States. New York, 1912.
Dewees, W. W. A Centennial History of Westtown Boarding School
from 1799 to 1899. Phila., 1899.
Ellis, Franklin and Evans, S. History of Lancaster County,
Pennsylvania. Phila., 1883.
Fisher, George S. The Making of Pennsylvania. Phila., 1898.
Fiske, John. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America, 2 vols.
Boston, 1899.
Germantown, History consisting of papers read before the Site and
Relic Society of Germantown. Germantown, 1915.
Germantown, Old and New, Lippincott’s Magazine, Feb., 1884.
Glenn, Thomas Allen. Merion in the Welsh Tract. Norristown,
1896.
Gough, John and Sewell, William. A History of the People called
Quakers ... from Works of Sewell, 2 vols. London, 1799.
Gough, John. History of the Quakers, 4 vols. Dublin, 1789.
Green, John R. A Short History of the English People. 4 vols. New
York, 1898.
Gummere, A. M. The Quaker in the Forum. Phila., 1910.
Haverford. A History of Haverford College. Phila., 1892.
Hazard, Samuel. Annals of Pennsylvania, 1609-1682. Phila., 1850.
Heatwole, C. J. History of Education in Virginia. New York, 1916.
Hildeburn, Chas. R. A Century of Printing, The Issues of the Press
of Pennsylvania, 1685-1784, 2 vols. Phila., 1885.
Historical Sketches—A Collection of Papers prepared for the
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History of the Associations of Friends for the Free
Instruction of the Adult Colored Persons in
Philadelphia. Published by direction of the Association. Phila.,
1890.
Hobson, F. G. Addresses on Local History, Early Schools and
School Teachers. 1898.
Holder, Chas. F. The Quakers in Great Britain and America. New
York, 1913.
Indians—Some Account of the Conduct ... of Friends towards the
Indian Tribes, to 1843. London, 1844.
Janney, Samuel M. The Life of William Penn, with selections from
his correspondence and autobiography. Phila., 1852.
History of the Society of Friends from its rise to 1828, 4 vols.
Phila., 1859-61.
Life of George Fox. Phila., 1856.
Jenkins, Howard M. Historical Collections of Gwynedd. Phila.,
1884; Memorial of the City of Philadelphia from its first
settlement to the year 1895, 2 vols., edited by Young. New York,
1895.
Jones, R. M., assisted by Isaac Sharpless, and Gummere, A. M.
Quakers in American Colonies. London, 1911.
Jordan, John W. Colonial Families of Philadelphia, 2 vols. New
York and London, 1911.
Jordan, John W. A History of Delaware County, Pennsylvania. 3
vols. New York, 1914.
Keyser, Naaman H. Old Historic Germantown (an address before
the Pennsylvania German Society, 14th Annual Meeting).
Lancaster, 1906.
Old Germantown. Germantown, 1907.
Knight, Francis A. History of Sidcot School. London, 1908.
Learned, Marion D. The Life of Francis Daniel Pastorius. Phila.,
1908.
Levick, J. J. Early Friends and their Services in America. Phila.,
1883.
MaGill, Edward H., Educational Institutions in the Society of
Friends. Chicago, 1893.
Martindale, J. C. A History of the Townships of Byberry and
Moreland. Phila., 1867.
Merion. Bicentennial Anniversary of the Friends Meetinghouse at
Merion, Pa. Phila., 1895.
Michener, Ezra. A Retrospect of Early Quakerism. Phila., 1860.
Mombert, J. I. Authentic History of Lancaster County. Lancaster,
1869.
Montgomery, M. L. History of Berks County. Phila., 1886.
Moon, Alpheus Wilberforce. Early Quaker Education in New
Jersey (Master’s Ms. dissertation in Columbia University), 1905.
Myers, Albert Cook. Immigration of the Irish Quakers into
Pennsylvania, 1682-1751. Swarthmore, 1902.
Sally Wister’s Journal. Phila., 1902.
Hannah Logan’s Courtship. Phila., 1904.
Quaker Arrivals at Philadelphia. Phila., 1902.
Nodal, John H. Bibliography ... of Ackworth School. Manchester,
1899.
Oberholtzer, Ellis P. The Literary History of Philadelphia. Phila.,
1906; Philadelphia, A History of the City and its People, 4 vols.
Phila., 1911.
Pennypacker, Hon. S. W. The Settlement of Germantown. Phila.,
1899.
Prowell, George R. History of York County, Pa., 2 vols. Chicago,
1907.
Seidensticker, Oswald. Die erste deutsche Einwanderung in
Amerika und die Gründung von Germantown im Jahre 1683.
Phila., 1883.
Sewell, William. History of Friends, 2 vols. London, 1811.
Sharpless, Isaac. Two Centuries of Pennsylvania History. Phila.,
1900.
Shepherd, W. R. History of Proprietary Government in
Pennsylvania. New York, 1896.
Shore, W. T. John Woolman, His Life and Our Times. London, 1913.
Simpson, Henry. Lives of Eminent Philadelphians now Deceased.
Phila., 1859.
Smith, C. H. Mennonites of America. Scottsdale, Pa., 1909.
Smith, H. W. Life of W. Smith. Phila., 1877.
Smith, George. History of Delaware County. Phila., 1862.
Summary of the History, Doctrines, and Discipline of Friends.
London, 1790.
Taylor, Christopher. Account of Waltham Abbey School. Phila.,
1797.
Thomas, A. C. and Thomas, R. H. A History of the Friends in
America. Phila., 1905.
Thomas, Gabriel. Historical and Geographical Account of the
Province and Country of Pennsylvania and of West Jersey.
London, 1698.
Thompson, Henry. A History of Ackworth School. London, 1879.
Totah, K. A. The Friends Secondary Schools in the United States
(Master’s Ms. dissertation at Teachers College), 1912.
Traill, Henry D., editor. Social England, 6 vols. London and New
York, 1909.
Turner, E. R. Negro in Pennsylvania, American Historical
Association Publications. Washington, 1911.
Vaux, Robert. Memoirs of Benjamin Lay and Ralph Sandiford.
Phila., 1815.
Watson, J. Account of the First Settlement of the Townships of
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Watson, J. F. Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, 3 vols.
Phila., 1887.
Wick, B. L. The Amish Mennonites. Iowa City, 1894.
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Private, Public, Elementary and Higher. Lancaster, 1886.
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London, 1915.
Wright, Richard R. The Negro in Pennsylvania. Phila., 1912.
Wright, Paul W. Educational Work in New York Yearly Meeting of
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 ABBREVIATIONS
Am. Wk. Mer.—American Weekly Mercury.
Col. Rec.—Colonial Records of Pennsylvania.
G. S. P. P.—Genealogical Society Publications of Pennsylvania.
H. S. P.—Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Min. Mo. Mtg.—Minutes of the monthly meeting.
Min. Prep. Mtg.—Minutes of the preparative meeting.
Pa. Gaz.—Pennsylvania Gazette.
Pa. Ger. Soc.—Pennsylvania German Society.
Pa. Mag. of Hist.—Pennsylvania Magazine of History.
P. C. S. M.—Penn Charter School Minutes.
Q. Mtg.—Quarterly meeting.
Yr. Mtg.—Yearly meeting.
Wk. Advt.—Weekly Advertiser.
 INDEX

Abington, school land, 106;

school, 106f.
Ackworth School, 22.
Aims of educ., 7ff., 36ff., 161, 268.
Apprenticeship educ., recommended, 9, 85, 86, 159, 206.
Attendance, 180, 185;
in Negro School, 243f.

Baptists, 5.
Barclay, on educ., 31.
Benezet, on educ., 31ff.;
employed in Phila., 57-58, 216ff.;
on keeping slaves, 235f.
Biddle, 73.
Birmingham, 131, 134, 163.
Blue Hill, 151.
Books, distributed, 24;
used in schools, 109, 142, 193ff.
Bradford, 123f., 134, 136ff.
Bristol, school, 88.
Buckingham, school, 95ff.
Budd, educ. scheme of, 36ff.
Buildings and grounds, 65ff.;
interior of, 67ff.
Byberry, school, 74ff.;
report, 76f.;
schoolmasters at, 224f.

Chester, 148ff., 151.

Chichester, 163.
Children, apprenticeship of, 159;
cared for by meetings, 122f., 141.
Classic languages, 11, 59, 71;
not necessary for ministers, 31, 35.
Clerkenwell, school at, 22.
Committees, on schools, functions, 80, 168, 141, 143;
school coms. appointed, 111, 116, 118.
Concord, 162ff.
Cox, criticism by, 26ff.
Crouch, on educ., 34f.
Curriculum, 190ff., 215, 270;
Classical School, 196;
English School, 197;
Negro School, 192;
Latin and Greek, 59, 71;
letter writing, 191;
mathematics, 30, 71f.;
spelling, 192;
 subjects recommended, 29ff.

Darby, 23f., 154ff.

Discipline, 186, 223.

East Bradford, 131.

East Caln, 137f.
Education, before the Quakers, 147;
moral, 86;
for Negro and Indian, 233ff., 269;
practical, by apprenticeship, 9, 10;
provided in Frame of Government, 42;
public, recommended, 30;
recommended by yr. mtg., 20ff., 109, 123, 174.
English School, masters of, 222ff.
Evening Schools, 187.
Exeter, 79ff.

Falls, 86ff.
Fox, sketch of life, 2ff.;
conclusions of, 4;
educ’l creed, 7ff.;
recommended schs., 10;
educ. of ministers, 11f.;
mo. mtgs. recommended, 16.
Free Schools, 180.
Germantown, 77ff.
Girls’ School, 70, 213, 217.
Goshen, 130ff.
Gwynedd, 110, 113.

Haverford, 162.
Horsham, 114ff.

Indians, educ. recommended, 8, 12, 37, 269;

friendly relation with, 262;
issue of rum to, 262;
missionaries among, 263;
aid requested by, 263;
educ’l. work among, 263f.;
occupations taught, 265.
Inner light, 2, 4, 7, 13.

Kennett, 122f.;
discontinued, 124, 137, 169f.

Lampeter, 142.
Land, for school use, 81, 87ff., 106, 125, 131f., 148f., 176f.
Latin School, masters of, 220ff.
Legacies: Carter, 74, 107f.;
Wade, Lineham and Richards, 63;
Bryner and Baldwin, 90;
 Harker, 93, 95;
Holcomb, 95;
Abbitt, Buckman and Twining, 101;
Roberts and Walton, 103;
Keen and Hoskins, 148;
Taylor and Hall, 149;
Turner, 151f.;
Evans, 152;
Meed, 153;
Blunston, 154;
Lobb, 157;
Yarnall, 165;
Barnes, 106f.;
under care of trustees, 75, 107f.
Literature, used in meetings, 199ff.
London, yearly mtg. established, 17;
advices on educ., 172f.
London Grove, 140.

Maiden Creek, 80f.

Makefield, 88.
Meetings, established, 15f., 79, 85, 105, 122, 147.
Mennonites, 4f.
Merion and Valley, 114.
Methods, 197, 199.
Middletown, 92ff., 149f., 151.
Montgomery Township, 112.
Monthly meeting, function, 19, 169, 175.
Morristown, 111.

Nantmeal, 139f.
Negro, educ. recommended, 8, 12, 37, 269;
manumission, 252, 257, 261;
educ. of ⸺ in Phila., 239-246;
Exeter, 248;
Radnor, 248f.;
Middletown, 249f.;
Buckingham, 250ff.;
Kennett, 253;
New Garden and Uwchlan, 138, 254;
Sadsbury and Bradford, 255;
Concord and Goshen, 256;
Abington and Horsham, 258;
Byberry and Gwynedd, 259ff.;
Warrington and Fairfax, 261;
attitude of sects toward ⸺, 231ff.;
meetings for ⸺, 239;
com. on ⸺ affairs, 240f.;
duties of com. on ⸺, 246-7;
⸺ in Pa. 228ff.
Negro School, established, 241f.;
support, 64;
 housed, 70, 71, 215, 217;
status in 1800, 245;
support of, 243f., 247f.;
attendance, 243f.;
teachers in, Patterson, 241;
Houghton, 242;
Benezet, 242;
Britt, Dougherty, Meccum, 243;
Pickering, 244;
Mears, 245.
New Garden, 123f., 128ff., 137.

Organization, of meetings, purpose, 15;

explained, 18;
with regard to schools, 172-190;
weakness of, 268.

Pastorius, 47, 53, 77ff.

Pay scholars, 180.
Penn, on educ., 28ff.;
coming to Phila., 41.
Penn Charter School, 45;
petition to incorporate, 47ff.;
first charter, 49ff.;
rechartered, 52;
self perpetuating corporation of, 53, 106.
Philadelphia, reports on schs. in, 58ff., 71ff.
Plymouth, 112.
Poor, educ. of, 32, 38, 59, 74, 91, 112f., 117, 149, 159.
Preachers, journeys of, 5f.
Preparative meeting, functions, 19.
Printing, encouraged, 152.

Quakers, origin of, 1ff.;

growth of, 6.
Quarterly meeting, functions, 19, 168, 174.

Radnor, 158ff.
Rates, 71ff.
Reading, 81f.
Regulations, adopted for schools, 115f., 125f., 182ff.
Rewards, 186.
Richland, 102f.
Robeson, 80f.

Sadsbury, 141ff.
Salary, 43, 45, 47, 54f., 62, 210f., 154;
compared, 212.
School control, 80, 186, 141, 143;
coms. appointed on, 111, 116, 118.
School day, length of, 186ff.
Schoolhouses, 177ff.;
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