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28
Vectors
A vector has direction and magnitude both but scalar has only
magnitude. e.g. Vector quantities are displacement, velocity,
acceleration, etc. and scalar quantities are length, mass, time, etc.

Characteristics of a Vector
(i) Magnitude The length of the vector AB or a is called the
magnitude of AB or a and it is represented as AB or a .
(ii) Sense The direction of a line segment from its initial point to
its terminal point is called its sense.
e.g. The sense of AB is from A to B and that of BA is from B to A.
initial point Terminal point
A B
(iii) Support The line of infinite length of which the line segment
AB is a part, is called the support of the vector AB.
A B
Support

Types of Vectors
(i) Zero or Null Vector A vector whose initial and terminal
points are coincident is called zero or null vector. It is denoted
by 0.
(ii) Unit Vector A vector whose magnitude is unity i.e., 1 unit is
called a unit vector. The unit vector in the direction of n is given
n
by and it is denoted by n.
$
|n|
(iii) Free Vector If the initial point of a vector is not specified, then
it is said to be a free vector.
(iv) Like and Unlike Vectors Vectors are said to be like when
they have the same direction and unlike when they have
opposite direction.
(v) Collinear or Parallel Vectors Vectors having the same or
parallel supports are called collinear vectors.
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(vi) Equal Vectors Two vectors a and b are said to be equal, written
as a = b, if they have same length and same direction.
(vii) Negative Vector A vector having the same magnitude as that
of a given vector a and the direction opposite to that of a is called
the negative vector a and it is denoted by − a.
(viii) Coinitial Vectors Vectors having same initial point are
called coinitial vectors.
(ix) Coterminus Vectors Vectors having the same terminal point
are called coterminus vectors.
(x) Localised Vectors A vector which is drawn parallel to a given
vector through a specified point in space is called localised
vector.
(xi) Coplanar Vectors A system of vectors is said to be coplanar,
if their supports are parallel to the same plane. Otherwise they
are called non-coplanar vectors.
(xii) Reciprocal of a Vector A vector having the same direction as
that of a given vector but magnitude equal to the reciprocal of
the given vector is known as the reciprocal of a and it is denoted
1
by a −1, i.e. if|a| = a , then|a−1| = .
a

Addition of Vectors
Triangle Law of Vector Addition
Let a and b be any two vectors. From the terminal point of a, vector b
is drawn. Then, the vector from the initial point O of a to the terminal
point B of b is called the sum of vectors a and b and is denoted by
a + b. This is called the triangle law of addition of vectors.
B

a+b

O A
a

Note When the sides of a triangle are taken in order, then the resultant will be
AB + BC + CA = 0
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Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
Let a and b be any two vectors. From the initial point of a, vector b is
drawn and parallelogram OACB is completed with OA and OB as
adjacent sides. The diagonal of the parallelogram through the common
vertex represents the vector OC and it is defined as the sum of a and b.
This is called the parallelogram law of vector addition.
B C

a+b
b
b

O a A

The sum of two vectors is also called their resultant and the process of
addition as composition.

Properties of Vector Addition

Let a, b and c are three vectors.
(i) a + b = b + a (commutative)
(ii) a + ( b + c) = (a + b ) + c (associative)
(iii) a + 0 = a (additive identity)
(iv) a + ( − a) = 0 (additive inverse)
Note The bisector of the angle between two non-collinear vectors a and b is
given by
$ ) or λ  a ± b  .
λ (a$ + b
 a b

Difference (Subtraction) of Vectors

If a and b are any two vectors, then their difference a − b is defined as
a + ( − b ). In the given figure the vector AB′ is said to represent the
difference of a and b.
B
a+ b
b

O A
a
–b
a–b

B′
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Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Let a be a given vector and λ be a scalar. Then, the product of the
vector a by the scalar λ is λ a and is called the multiplication of vector
by the scalar.

Important Properties
(i) |λ a| =|λ||a|, where λ be a scalar.
(ii) λ 0 = 0
(iii) m ( −a) = − m a = − ( m a)
(iv) ( − m ) ( −a) = m a
(v) m ( n a) = mn a = n( m a)
(vi) ( m + n ) a = m a + n a
(vii) m (a + b ) = m a + m b

Position Vector of a Point

The position vector of a point P with respect to a fixed point say O, is
the vector OP. The fixed point is called the origin.
Let PQ be any vector. We have,
PQ = PO + OQ = − OP + OQ = OQ − OP
= Position vector of Q − Position vector of P.
P Q

O (origin)

i.e. PQ = PV of Q − PV of P

Collinear Points
Let A, B and C be any three points.
Points A, B, C are collinear ⇔ AB, BC are collinear vectors
⇔ AB = λBC for some non-zero scalar λ.

Components of a Vector
1. In Two-dimension Let P ( x , y ) be any point in a plane and O be
the origin. Let $i and $j be the unit vectors along X and Y -axes,
then the component of vector P is OP = x$i + y$j.
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2. In Three-dimension Let P ( x , y , z ) be any point is a space
$ be the unit vectors along X , Y
and O be the origin. Let $i, $j and k
and Z-axes, then the component of vector P is OP = xi$ + y$j + zk $.

Vector Joining Two Points

Let P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are any two points, then the vector
joining P1 and P2 is the vector P1P2 .
P2 (x2, y2, z2)
Y

^
j
P1 (x1, y1, z1)
X
^ O ^i
k

Z
The position vectors of P1 and P2 with respect to the origin O are
$ and OP = x i$ + y $j + z k
OP = x i$ + y $j + z k $
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

Then, the component form of P1P2 is

$ ) − ( x $i + y $j + z k
P1P2 = ( x2$i + y2$j + z 2k $
1 1 1 )

= ( x − x ) $i + ( y − y ) $j + ( z − z ) k $
2 1 2 1 2 1
$
Here, vector component of P1P2 are ( x2 − x1 ) $i, ( y2 − y1 )$j and ( z 2 − z1 )k
along X-axis, Y -axis and Z-axis respectively.
Its magnitude is|P1P2| = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z 2 − z1 )2

Section Formulae
Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b, respectively
and OP = r.
A
(i) Internal division Let P be a point
dividing AB internally in the ratio m : n. m
Then, position vector of P is a P
m OB + n OA
OP = r n
(m + n )
O B
mb + na b
i.e. r=
m+n
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296 Handbook of Mathematics

(ii) The position vector of the mid-point of P

a+b
a and b is .
2 n
(iii) External division Let P be a point m
O B
b
dividing AB externally in the ratio m : n.
Then, position vector of P is a
mOB − nOA
OP = A
m−n
mb − na
i.e. r= .
m−n

Position Vector of Different

Centre of a Triangle
(i) If a, b , c be PV’s of the vertices A, B, C of a ∆ABC respectively,
a+ b+ c
then the PV of the centroid G of the triangle is .
3
( BC ) a + (CA)b + ( AB)c
(ii) The PV of incentre of ∆ABC is
BC + CA + AB
(iii) The PV of orthocentre of ∆ABC is
a(tan A) + b(tan B) + c (tan C )
tan A + tan B + tan C

Linear Combination of Vectors

Let a, b , c,K be vectors and x , y , z , … be scalars, then the expression
x a + y b + z c + … is called a linear combination of vectors a, b , c, … .

Collinearity of Three Points

The necessary and sufficient condition that three points with PV’s
a, b , c are collinear, if there exist three scalars x, y, z not all zero such
that x a + y b + z c = 0 ⇒ x + y + z = 0.

Coplanarity of Four Points

The necessary and sufficient condition that four points with PV’s
a, b , c and d are coplanar, if there exist scalar x, y, z and t not all zero,
such that x a + y b + z c + t d = 0 ⇔ x + y + z + t = 0.
If r = x a + y b + z c ...
then, the vector r is said to be a linear combination of vectors
a, b , c, . . . .
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Vectors 297

Linearly and Dependent and Independent

System of Vectors
(i) The system of vectors a, b , c, … is said to be linearly
dependent, if there exists some scalars x, y, z, … not all zero,
such that x a + y b + z c + ... = 0.
(ii) The system of vectors a, b , c,K is said to be linearly
independent, if x a + y b + z c + t d = 0 ⇒ x = y = z = t …= 0.

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) Two non-zero, non-collinear vectors a and b are linearly independent.
(ii) Three non-zero, non-coplanar vectors a, b and c are linearly independent.
(iii) More than three vectors are always linearly dependent.

Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectors

If a and b are two non-zero vectors, then the scalar or dot product of a
and b is denoted by a ⋅ b and is defined as a ⋅ b =|a||b| cosθ, where θ
is the angle between the two vectors and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

θ
a
(i) Angle between two like vectors is 0 and angle between two
unlike vectors is π.
(ii) If either a or b is the null vector, then scalar product of the vector
is zero.
(iii) If a and b are two unit vectors, then a ⋅ b = cosθ.
(iv) The scalar product is commutative
i.e. a⋅ b = b ⋅a
$ $
(v) If i , j and k are mutually perpendicular unit vectors $i , $j and k,
$ $
then
$ ⋅k
$i ⋅ $i = $j ⋅ $j = k $ =1
and $ =k
$i ⋅ $j = $j ⋅ k $ ⋅ i$ = 0
(vi) The scalar product of vectors is distributive over vector addition.
(a) a ⋅ ( b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c (left distributive)
(b) ( b + c) ⋅ a = b ⋅ a + c ⋅ a (right distributive)
(vii) ( ma) ⋅ ( b ) = m (a ⋅ b ) = a ⋅ ( mb ), where m is any scalar.
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298 Handbook of Mathematics

$ , then|a|2 = a ⋅ a = a 2 + a 2 + a 2
(viii) If a = a1$i + a2$j + a3 k 1 2 3

or|a| = a12 + a22 + a32

(ix) Angle between Two Vectors If θ is angle between two
non-zero vectors, a, b, then we have
a ⋅ b =|a||b| cosθ
a⋅ b
or cos θ =
|a||b|
$ and b = b i$ + b $j + b k
If a = a1$i + a2$j + a3 k $
1 2 3

Then, the angle θ between a and b is given by

a⋅ b a1b1 + a2b2 + a3 b3
cos θ = =
|a||b| a1 + a22 + a32 b12 + b22 + b32
2

Condition of perpendicularity a ⋅ b = 0 ⇔ a ⊥ b , a and b

being non-zero vectors.
(x) Projection and Component of a Vector on a Line
a⋅b
The projection of a on b = a ⋅ b$ =
| b|
a⋅b
The projection of b on a = b ⋅ a$ = ,
|a|
B

a
(0 < θ < 90°)

θ
l
A C
b
Components of a along and perpendicular to b are
a⋅b a⋅b
⋅ b and a − ⋅b
|b| |b|2
(xi) Work done by a Force The work done by a force is a scalar
quantity equal to the product of the magnitude of the force and
the resolved part of the displacement.
∴ F ⋅ S = dot products of force and displacement.
Suppose F1 , F2 , ... , Fn are n forces acted on a particle, then
during the displacement S of the particle, the separate forces to
quantities of work F1 ⋅ S , F2 ⋅ S , ... , Fn ⋅ S.
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Vectors 299
n n
The total work done is ∑ Fi ⋅ S = ∑ S ⋅ Fi = S ⋅ R
i =1 i =1

Here, system of forces were replaced by its resultant R.

Important Results of Dot Product

(i) (a + b ) ⋅ (a − b ) =|a|2 −|b|2
(ii) |a + b|2 =|a|2 +|b|2 + 2 (a ⋅b )
(iii) |a − b|2 =|a|2 +|b|2 − 2 (a ⋅ b )
(iv) |a + b|2 +|a − b|2 = 2 (|a|2 +|b|2 )
and |a + b | 2 −|a − b|2 = 4 (a ⋅ b )
1
or a ⋅ b = [|a + b|2 −|a − b|2 ]
4
(v) If|a + b|=|a| +|b|, then a is parallel to b.
(vi) If|a + b| =|a − b|, then a is perpendicular to b.
(vii) (a ⋅ b )2 ≤|a|2|b|2

Vector or Cross Product of Two Vectors

The vector product of the vectors a and b is denoted by a × b and it is
defined as
a × b = (|a|| b|sin θ ) n
$ = ab sin θ n
$ …(i)

b
a×b

θ
a

where, a =|a|, b =|b|, θ is the angle between the vectors a and b and n
$
is a unit vector which is perpendicular to both a and b.
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300 Handbook of Mathematics

Important Results of Cross Product

(i) Let a = a1i$ + a2 $j + a3k$ and b = b1i$ + b2 $j + b3k$
$i $j k$
Then, a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

(ii) If a = b or if a is parallel to b, then sinθ = 0 and so a × b = 0.

(iii) The direction of a × b is regarded positive, if the rotation from a to b
appears to be anti-clockwise.
(iv) a × b is perpendicular to the plane, which contains both a andb. Thus, the
unit vector perpendicular to both a and b or to the plane containing is
a ×b a ×b
given by n$ = = .
| a × b | ab sin θ
(v) Vector product of two parallel or collinear vectors is zero.
(vi) If a × b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0 or a and b are parallel or collinear.
(vii) Vector Product of Two Perpendicular Vectors
If θ = 90 °, then sinθ = 1, i.e. a × b = ( ab) n$ or | a × b | = | abn$ | = ab
[Q a = a and b = b]
(viii) Vector Product of Two Unit Vectors If a and b are unit vectors, then
a = | a | = 1, b = |b | = 1
∴ a × b = ab sinθ ⋅ n$ = (sinθ) ⋅ n$
(ix) Vector Product is not Commutative The two vector products a × b and
b × a are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
i.e. b × a = − a ×b …(i)
(x) Distributive Law For any three vectors a , b , c
a × (b + c) = ( a × b) + ( a × c)
(xi) Area of a Triangle and Parallelogram
1 1
(a) The area of a ∆ABC is equal to | AB × AC | or | BC × BA|
2 2
1
or | CB × CA|.
2
(b) The area of a ∆ABC with vertices having PV’s a , b , c respectively, is
1 / 2 | a × b + b × c + c × a |.
(c) The points whose PV’s a , b and c are collinear, if and only if
a × b + b × c + c × a = 0.
(d) The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b is | a × b|.

Contd. ...
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Vectors 301
1
(e) The area of a parallelogram with diagonals a and b is | a × b |.
2
1
(f) The area of a quadrilateral ABCD is equal to | AC × BD |.
2
(xii) Vector Moment of a Force about a Point The vector moment of
torque M of a force F about the point O is the vector whose magnitude is
equal to the product of F and the perpendicular distance of the point O
from the line of action of F.
r ×F
O

θ 90°
A F
N
∴ M =r ×F
where, r is the position vector of A referred to O.
(a) The moment of forceF about O is independent of the choice of point A
on the line of action of F.
(b) If several forces are acting through the same point A, then the vector
sum of the moments of the separate forces about a point O is equal to
the moment of their resultant force about O.
(xiii) The Moment of a Force about a Line Let F be F
a force acting at a point A, O be any point on the
A
given line l and a be the unit vector along the
line, then moment of F about the line l is a scalar
given by (OA × F) ⋅ a . O a
l

(xiv) Moment of a Couple

(a) Two equal and unlike parallel forces whose lines of action are different
is said to constitute a couple.
(b) Let P and Q be any two points on the lines of action of the forces
− F and F, respectively.
O F

P N

The moment of the couple = PQ × F

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Scalar Triple Product

If a, b and c are three vectors, then (a × b ) ⋅ c is called scalar triple
product and is denoted by [a b c].
∴ [a b c] = (a × b ) ⋅ c

Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Triple Product

The scalar triple product (a × b ) ⋅ c represents the volume of a
parallelopiped whose coterminus edges are represented by a, b and c
which form a right handed system of vectors.
Expression of the scalar triple product (a × b ) ⋅ c in terms of
components
$ , b = a i$ + b $j + c k
a = a1i$ + b1$j + c1k $
2 2 2

and c = a $i + b $j + c k$ is
3 3 3
a1 b1 c1
[a b c] = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 b3

Properties of Scalar Triple Product

(i) The scalar triple product is independent of the positions of dot
and cross i.e. (a × b ) ⋅ c = a ⋅ ( b × c).
(ii) The scalar triple product of three vectors is unaltered so long as
the cyclic order of the vectors remains unchanged.
i.e. (a × b ) ⋅ c = ( b × c) ⋅ a = ( c × a) ⋅ b
or [a b c] = [b c a] = [c a b ].
(iii) The scalar triple product changes in sign but not in magnitude,
when the cyclic order is changed.
i.e. [a b c] = − [a c b ]
(iv) The scalar triple product vanishes, if any two of its vectors are
equal.
i.e. [a a b ] = 0, [a b a] = 0 and [b a a] = 0.
(v) The scalar triple product vanishes, if any two of its vectors are
parallel or collinear.
(vi) For any scalar x , [x a b c] = x [a b c].
Also, [x a yb zc] = xyz [a b c].
(vii) For any vectors a, b , c, d; [a + b c d ] = [a c d ] + [b c d ]
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Vectors 303
$ is 1,
(viii) The scalar triple product of cyclic components $i , $j and k
i.e.[i j k] = 1.
a⋅c b⋅c
(ix) (a × b ) ⋅ ( c × d ) =
a⋅d b⋅d
a⋅ u b ⋅ u c⋅ u
(x) [a b c] [u v w ] = a ⋅ v b ⋅ v c ⋅ v
a⋅ w b ⋅ w c⋅ w

(xi) Three non-zero vectors a, b and c are coplanar, if and only if

[a b c] = 0.
(xii) Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b , c, d respectively
are coplanar, if and only if [ AB AC AD ] = 0.
i.e. if and only if [b − a c − a d − a] = 0.
(xiii) Volume of parallelopiped with three coterminus edges a, b and
c is|[a b c]|.
(xiv) Volume of prism on a triangular base with three coterminus
1
edges a, b and c is |[a b c]|.
2
(xv) Volume of a tetrahedron with three coterminus edges a, b and
1
c is |[a b c]|.
6
(xvi) If a, b, c and d are position vectors of vertices of a tetrahedron,
then
1
Volume = |[b − a c − a d − a]|.
6

Vector Triple Product

If a, b , c be any three vectors, then (a × b ) × c and a × ( b × c) are known
as vector triple product.
∴ a × ( b × c) = (a ⋅c)b − (a ⋅ b ) c
and (a × b ) × c = (a ⋅c)b − ( b ⋅ c) a

Important Properties
(i) The vector r = a × ( b × c) is perpendicular to a and lies in the plane
b and c.
(ii) a × ( b × c) ≠ (a × b ) × c, the cross product of vectors is not
associative.
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304 Handbook of Mathematics

(iii) a × ( b × c) = (a × b ) × c, if and only if

b⋅ c
(a ⋅ c)b − (a ⋅ b )c = (a ⋅ c)b − ( b ⋅ c) a, i.e. c = a
a⋅ b
or vectors a and c are collinear.

Reciprocal System of Vectors

Let a, b and c be three non-coplanar vectors and let
b× c c× a a× b
a′ = , b′ = , c′ =
[a b c] [a b c] [a b c]
Then, a′ , b ′ and c ′ are said to form a reciprocal system of a, b and c.

Properties of Reciprocal System

(i) a ⋅ a′ = b ⋅ b ′ = c ⋅ c ′ = 1
(ii) a ⋅ b ′ = a ⋅ c ′ = 0, b ⋅ a′ = b ⋅ c′ = 0, c ⋅ a′ = c ⋅ b ′ = 0
1
(iii) [a′ b ′ c ′ ][a b c] = 1 ⇒ [a′ b ′ c′ ] =
[a b c]
b′ × c ′ c ′ × a′ a′ × b ′
(iv) a = , b= , c=
[a′ b ′ c ′ ] [a′ b ′ c ′ ] [a′ b ′ c ′ ]
Thus, a, b , c is reciprocal to the system a′ , b ′ , c′.
(v) The orthonormal vector triad i, j, k form self reciprocal system.
(vi) If a, b , c are a system of non-coplanar vectors and a′ , b ′ , c′ are
the reciprocal system of vectors, then any vector r can be
expressed as r = ( r ⋅ a′ )a + ( r ⋅ b ′ )b + ( r ⋅ c′ ) c.