PHIMNA Education

Syllabus

Course Code: ENG 155 Credits: 3

Subject Title: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar Prerequisite: EDU 533

Course Description:
The course engages learners in understanding the distinctions between and among the four
types of grammar: functional, descriptive, prescriptive, and pedagogic. Aside from the emphasis
on how teaching and assessment vary considering the four types, the course also provides
opportunities to discover the role of grammar in achieving communicative competence. The
course includes a practical component e.g. lesson plans, demo-teaching and test construction.

Course Objectives:
A. Distinguish the four types of grammar: functional, descriptive, prescriptive and
pedagogic
B. Discuss various approaches to teaching grammar and compare them
C. Offer a variety of methods for assessing grammatical categories
D. Critically evaluate currently available grammar activities and books
E. Develop lesson plans for introducing grammatical categories using modern approaches
(grammar in context)
F. Use various recourses for the design of grammar classes, including electronic ones

COURSE OUTLINE AND TIMEFRAME

Week Course Content/Subject Matter
1 Orientation
Overview about Teaching, Assessment and Grammar
Lesson 1: An Overview: Four Types of Grammar
2 Lesson 2: Prescriptive/Descriptive Grammar:
Lesson 3: Discourse Function, Negation, Coordination, and Subordination
3
Lesson 4: Spoken vs. Written Grammar; Grammar in the ESL Curriculum; Methods
of Teaching Grammar; Error Correction; and the Anti-Grammar Movement
4 Lesson 5: Theoretical Views on L2 Grammar Acquisition: The Noticing Hypothesis,
Its Application in Computer Assisted Language Learning, and Its Opponents

Lesson 6: Inductive Approaches to Teaching Grammar in Theory and Practice;

Examples of Sample Lessons Using Inductive Approaches

5 1st Periodic Examination

Lesson 7: The Use of Scripted Dialogues, Authentic Texts, Dictoglosses, and Genre
Analysis to Teach L2 Grammar; Focus on Form Instruction in Theory and Practice
6 Lesson 8: Practicing Grammar via Drills, Information Gap Activities, and
Personalization Tasks
Lesson 9: Fluency vs. Accuracy; Approaches to Dealing with Errors and Mistakes

7 Lesson 10: Integrating Grammar in the Classroom in Theory and Practice

Lesson 11: Poor Choices in L2 Grammar Instruction; Testing Grammar Using

Discrete-item Tests and Oral Performance Exams
8 Lesson 12: The Relationship between Assessment and Instruction
Lesson 13: Strategies for Classroom-based Evaluation
9 2nd Periodic Examination
Lesson 14: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Evaluation; Practicality; Reliability; and
Validity
10 Lesson 15: Planning for and Implementing Classroom Observations; Portfolios;
Conferences; Journals; Questionnaires; and Interviews
 Lesson 16: Using Tests: Norm-referenced Tests, Objectives-referenced Tests, and
Domain-references Tests
11 Lesson 17: Developing Open-ended and Closed-ended Test Tasks
Lesson 18: Assembling and Scoring Tests
12 Lesson 19: Interpreting Test Scores; Standardized Tests
Lesson 20: No Child Left Behind (NCLB): Testing Requirements and Difficulties

13 Lesson 21: Issues in Computerized Testing: The Differences between the Paper-
based and Computerized Versions of Tests
3rd Periodic Examination

References:
Larsen-Freeman, D. Teaching Grammar – From Grammar to Grammaring, 2003. Heinle
Cengage Learning
Dykes, B. Grammar for Everyone: Practical Tools for Learning and Teaching Grammar 2007.
Acer Press
Rothstein, E. & A. English Grammar Instruction That Works! Developing Language Skills for All
Learners, 2009. Corwin Press

Course Requirements:
1. Attendance, active class participation/recitation is a must during IN-sessions.
2. The students are expected to pass the major exams: 1st Periodic, 2nd Periodic and 3rd
Periodic.
3. Written Outputs
1st Periodic: Critical Analysis on the Four Types of Grammar
2nd Periodic: Lesson Plan on Teaching Grammar and 20-minute Demo Teaching in
Digital Form
3rd Periodic: 75-item Written Grammar Test for a specific grade

Grading System:
The Prelim (PG), Mid-term (MG), Tentative Final (TFG) will be composed of using the formula
below.

Grade = Periodical Exam Grade + Class Standing

2

The components of class standing, as well as the weight of each component will be as agreed
upon in the class. The passing score in the Periodic Exam is 60 %.

The Final Grade for this course will be computed by using the following formula:
Final Grade: 0.13PG + 0.13MG + 0.14TFG + 0.60 Final Exam

To pass this course, a student should obtain a final grade not lower than 3.0
 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #1

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Introduction of Flexi-Module Learning and Course Materials:

Orientation Activity Sheets
Lesson Objectives PowerPoint Presentation
At the end of this module, I should be able to: References:
1. familiarize the course objectives, course requirements and https://www.gettingsmart.com/2018
grading system; and /08/why-flexible-learning-
2. equip with the nature of flexible learning and its relevance to environments/
the current education set-up.

Productivity Tip:
“Start strong! Train your brain to shift to work mode by setting a regular time during the day for your lessons.
Set an alarm and stick to your working hours.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)

Gutten morgen students! Welcome to English 155 – Teaching and Assessment of Grammar.
To make it easy for you to remember – let’s call it TAG. Welcome to TAG!
Truth be told, some people nowadays are allergic to the word ‘grammar’.
However, you are future English teachers who can remedy this situation.
This course will serve as a challenge to you but I will be here to guide you.
It will equip you to teach grammar as well as find effective means to test your
students’ grammar. So, without further ado, please continue to the next part.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Before we dive into our main lessons. Let me give you an overview to prepare you for this subject. Here
are some guide questions to reflect on:

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is ENG 155?

2 What are the objectives of this

course?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #1

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

3 What is flexible learning? Why

flexible learning?

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

Course Overview and Objectives

What is ENG 155?

The course engages learners in understanding the distinctions between and among the four types
of grammar: functional, descriptive, prescriptive, and pedagogic. Aside from the emphasis on how
teaching and assessment vary considering the four types, the course also provides opportunities to
discover the role of grammar in achieving communicative competence. The course includes a practical
component e.g., lesson plans, demo-teaching and test construction.

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish the four types of grammar: functional, descriptive, prescriptive and pedagogic;
2. Discuss various approaches to teaching grammar and compare them;
3. Offer a variety of methods for assessing grammatical categories;
4. Develop lesson plans for introducing grammatical categories using modern approaches
(grammar in context); and
5. Use various recourses for the design of grammar classes, including electronic ones.

Since this is a mix of theory and practice, it is necessary that you come-up with lessons, lesson plans
as well as demo-teaching.

I will be distributing your 2-pager so that we can discuss in detail the course requirements, grading
components, teacher’s contact details and other concerns you may have.

FLEXIBLE LEARNING

What is flexible learning?

1. Systems in which students may choose to complete some of their learning on-campus and some of
their learning off-campus.
2. An approach to learning in which the time, place, and pace of learning may be determined by learners.
https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/classification-approaches-web-enhanced-learning/11249

What is a flexible learning environment?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #1

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

When people think of a flexible learning environment, they often think only of the physical space.
While it is true that the space is flexible in nature, there is much more to a flexible learning environment
than just the physical floor plan or furniture choices. Modern flexible learning environments also address
other elements of the learning environment such as how students are grouped during learning and how
time might be used more flexibly during the day.

Does a flexible learning environment improve learning?

When teachers are working more collaboratively, they see connections across the skills and
content from their specific courses. Students felt that their teachers knew what was going on in other
classes, and the students were more likely to make connections between subjects than those not in a
flexible learning environment. Interdisciplinary planning and conversations allow teachers to develop
common language for skills that transcend subject areas. Additionally, using flexible grouping and time
allows students to be pushed further in their areas of strength and to get additional time and support in
areas of challenge. A study by the Rand Corporation indicates “that compared to their peers, students in
schools using personalized learning practices are making greater progress over the course of two school
years, and that students who started out behind are now catching up to perform at or above national
averages”.

https://www.gettingsmart.com/2018/08/why-flexible-learning-environments/

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you understand the lesson. These are open-
ended questions. There are no right or wrong answers. Write your answers in the space provided after
each question.
1. Why is this course important to you?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

2. Why do we need to adapt flexible learning systems in our current education set-up?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

You are doing great! Please go back to the questions in the Activity 1 and write your answers
based on what YOU HAVE LEARNED in the third column. Write the things you have learned from
today’s lesson. After which, please proceed to activity no. 5. Keep it up!
a. Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)
Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if otherwise.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #1

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

_______ 1. Flexible learning is an approach wherein students can determine the time and place of
learning.
_______ 2. Because of flexible learning environments, teachers are able to work more collaboratively.
_______ 3. ENG 155 is purely theoretical course where the focus is only on its abstract principles.
_______ 4. Grammar has a lesser significance in achieving communicative competence.
_______ 5. There are 4 types of grammar that will be discussed thoroughly in this course: functional,
descriptive, prescriptive, and pedagogic

“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on
your paper.”

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)

A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

1. What are your suggestions to assure the effectiveness of flexible learning in class?

2. If you have any questions or clarifications, please write them down.

FAQs
1. During off-campus schedules, will the faculty-in-charge reach us for online classes?

Your professor will reach out to you for off-campus consultations but not merely via online platforms. It
is highly suggested that you disclose your active contact details so that your teacher may have more
options to reach you. Please write your contact information below.

2. In case of online consultations, can I use my other email addresses?

For security reasons, you are required to use your PHINMA UI email for all your academic
transactions. This will secure all our files in class and will reduce privacy breaches

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #2

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Overview about Teaching, Assessment and Materials:

Grammar Activity Sheets
Lesson Objectives PowerPoint Presentation
At the end of this module, I should be able to: References:
1. create a graphic organizer which shows the relationship Buijs, Joseph A. "Teaching:
between teaching, assessment and grammar; and profession or vocation?." Journal of
2. justify the importance of grammar Catholic Education 8.3 (2005): 326-
345.
Chapelle, Carol A., and Geoff
Brindley. "What is language
assessment." An Introduction to
Applied Linguistics (2010): 247-
267.

Productivity Tip:
“Before sleeping tonight, recite three important terms you learned today.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Hi there! Last meeting, we discussed the course, its objectives and we discovered how flexible
learning helps us in these times. Today, we will define some important terms to help us appreciate this
subject.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

To make it easier for you to appreciate this subject, let us first define the most important terms:
teaching, assessment and grammar. I have prepared three questions for you to answer by the end of
this lesson.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 How do you define teaching?

2 What is the difference

between assessment and
testing?

3 What does grammar mean

to you?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #2

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

In teacher education programmes – and in continuing professional development – a lot of time is

devoted to the ‘what’ of teaching – what areas we should we cover, what resources do we need and so
on. Since teaching is a very broad term, we will define it into three concepts.

✓ Teaching as a Vocation
A teacher who practices teaching as his vocation responds to the strong feeling, or calling, for
service, just like the historic biblical figures, with utmost dedication. Vocation is only for some who are
really dedicated not just to work but also to serve other people. Below is an example of how teaching as
vocation is exemplified:
A volunteer named Joy is addressed as a teacher for teaching and serving the children of a far
rural community. She travels almost 20 kilometers everyday for the sake of her students learning and
development.
✓ Teaching as a Mission
Every teacher has its own purpose, or objective, and unique mission that they need to accomplish.
Teachers are expected to contribute to the betterment of this world in our unique way.
✓ Teaching as a Profession
Profession requires a “long and arduous years of preparation” and a “striving for excellence”. For
us to be able to be able to give more (service), which is the end goal of a profession, continuing
professional education is a must. If you take teaching as your profession, this means that you must be
willing to go through a long period of preparation and a continuing professional development.

Assessment is the act of gathering information on a daily basis in order to understand individual
student’s learning and needs. In the context of language teaching and learning, assessment refers to
the act of collecting information and making judgments about a language learner’s knowledge of a
language and ability to use it (Carol Chappelle and Geoff Brindley, 2010).
.
Testing is a salient part of assessment. More specifically, language testing is the practice and
study of evaluating the proficiency of an individual in using a particular language effectively (Priscilla
Allen, 2003)

Grammar is an umbrella term that covers two aspects of language:

✓ The structure and function of individual words;
✓ The arrangement of those words within a given sentence

How can second language students learn the English grammar effectively? Is it enough to just
learn the grammar rules from A-Z?

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #2

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

https://images.app.goo.gl/6bgKcJpAeymEffX66

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Based on our lesson, create a graphic organizer that will show a relationship between teaching,
assessment and grammar in the space provided below. You may also include key words or phrases
to help you make a good graphic organizer. Diagrams may vary.

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #2

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

You are doing very well! Now, I want you to answer the questions from Activity 1.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned

1 How do you define teaching?

2 What is the difference

between assessment and
testing?

3 What does grammar mean

to you?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Read each statement and identify what is described.
___________ 1. It is an important part of assessment which means evaluating a student’s efficiency in
a certain language.
___________ 2. It entails a continuing commitment and pursuit of professional development.
___________ 3. It may involve the organization of words in sentences.
___________ 4. It is the act of collecting information and making judgements about a language
learner’s needs.
___________ 5. It means using grammar to maximize meaningful interactions.

“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on
your paper.”

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

1. Do you think contextualization is the best way when teaching grammar? Why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #3

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: The Four Types of Grammar Materials:

Lesson Objectives: Student Activity Sheet
At the end of this module, I should be able to:
1. differentiate among the four types of grammar: and References:
2. make a matrix to compare functional, pedagogic, prescriptive Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C.
and descriptive grammar. M. (2013). Halliday's introduction to
functional grammar. Routledge.
3. Celce‐Murcia, M. (1991). Grammar
pedagogy in second and foreign
language teaching. TESOL
quarterly, 25(3), 459-480.

Productivity Tip:
“After finishing this module, list down important concepts and terms that you remember. Do this for about 5
minutes. Compare your list to the module materials after and see what you got right or if you missed
something.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Welcome to our first lesson in TAG (Teaching and Assessment of Grammar)! I hope you are
ready to learn. In this lesson, we will learn four important types of grammar. It is possible that
you have heard or are a little familiar with these terms as you have encountered them in your
previous subjects. Let us discuss them in detail today.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Here are some questions to warm up your brain cells. Try answering them based on your
current knowledge. Write your answers in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is functional grammar?

2 What is pedagogical
grammar?

3 What is prescriptive grammar?

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #3

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

4 What is descriptive grammar?

B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

https://images.app.goo.gl/yBVNLVmoZy5YJBXF9

Functional grammar puts together the patterns of the language and the things you
can do with them. Therefore, it is based on the relation between the structure of a
language and the various functions that the language performs. Functional
grammar is all about language use. It is about communicative grammar that
learners can use in the typical situations that they find themselves in as they go
about their daily lives. Moreover, it’s an approach in which grammar is not seen as
a set of rules, but rather as a communicative resource.
Halliday’s An Introduction to Functional Grammar 4 th Edition, 2014

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The term is commonly used to denote
(1) pedagogical process--the explicit treatment of elements of
the target language systems as (part of) language teaching
methodology;
(2) pedagogical content--reference sources of one kind or
another that present information about the target language
system; and
(3) combinations of process and content
D. Little, "Words and Their Properties: Arguments for a Lexical Approach to
Pedagogical Grammar." Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar, ed. by T.
Odlin. Cambridge University Press, 1994).

Pedagogical grammar is a description of how to use the grammar of a language to communicate,

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #3

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

for people wanting to learn the target language. It contains assumptions about how learners learn,
follow certain linguistic theories in their descriptions, and are written for a specific target audience.

Prescriptive Grammar

Focuses on rules governing grammar, mechanics and

usage of a certain language
For example, one never says “I is a student,” but following
prescriptive grammar rules, one says “I am a student.” The
example explains that the pronoun “I” will always be followed by
“am”, and this explains prescriptive grammar.

WHY PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR MATTERS

Take a pause and read this witty comic strip that explains why prescriptive grammar still matters even if
you have to memorize a lot of rules. Enjoy!

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
_

It takes the principle that the language usage can vary

according to varied speakers. Thus it does not consider what
is ‘correct’, unlike prescriptive grammar which insists on
specified grammar rules.

Thus, descriptive grammar observes and records how

language is used in function, and advocates teaching the
function or use of grammatical structure. It is very practical in a
sense!

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #3

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
In order to increase your understanding, summarize the differences between functional and
pedagogical grammar and prescriptive versus descriptive grammar. You can check your
references and online sources to complete this activity.

Functional vs. Pedagogical

Functional Pedagogic

Prescriptive vs. Descriptive

Prescriptive Descriptive

You did it! Now, I want you to answer this question thoughtfully. Feel free to express your
personal opinion. Write your answer in the space provided.

As a future English teacher in the new normal, which type of grammar would you like to
emphasize or give importance in teaching? Justify your choice.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Since we have finished our discussion, I want you to reflect on these questions again
and see if you write different answers from the ones you written before we started.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is functional grammar?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #3

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

2 What is pedagogical grammar?

3 What is prescriptive grammar?

4 What is descriptive grammar?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Quiz Time!
Answer the questions below by circling the letter of the correct answer.

1. Ms. Cruz is a traditional English teacher. She always corrects her students’ grammar on the
spot and in their writing. What type of grammar does she adhere to?
A. functional grammar
B. pedagogical grammar
C. prescriptive grammar
D. descriptive grammar

2. Teacher Joji begins her class by sharing the lesson objectives with her students. She draws a
rectangle on the side of the board which she calls “Park It”. Whenever a student makes a
grammar mistake, she writes it on the corner without interrupting the student. She only
discusses these at the end of the lesson. What approach to grammar does she observe?
A. functional grammar
B. pedagogical grammar
C. prescriptive grammar
D. descriptive grammar

3. Ms. Lisa uses authentic texts in teaching her Korean ESL students the structures and
functions of the English language. What type of grammar does she apply?
A. functional grammar
B. pedagogical grammar
C. prescriptive grammar
D. descriptive grammar

4. Sir Jose, a Science teacher highlights the important scientific and technical terms in his
Biology lessons. He uses the vocabulary building and enrichment activities to increase students
understanding and meaning-making. What approach to grammar is he utilizing?
A. functional grammar
B. pedagogical grammar
C. prescriptive grammar
D. descriptive grammar

5. If you are teaching grammar in the high school level, which approach should be the most
useful?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #4

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date:__

Lesson title: Nature of Grammar, Standard/ Non-standard Materials:

English, History of Prescriptive Grammar Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: References:
1. describe the nature of grammar; Crain, S., & Pietroski, P. (2001).
Nature, nurture and universal
2. differentiate standard from non-standard English; and grammar. Linguistics and
3. summarize the history of prescriptive grammar. philosophy, 24(2), 139-186.
Labov, W. (1969). A Study of Non-
Standard English.

Productivity Tip:
Create a five-item quiz about this topic. Take the quiz two days after finishing the
module. This will help you check what you remember!

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Hello there! How is your week so far? Today, we are going to focus our attention on three
things:
a. The nature of grammar,
b. Standard and non-standard English, and a
c. Brief history of prescriptive grammar

What comes into your mind when you hear the word ‘nature’?
According to the Oxford Languages dictionary nature means
(a) the basic or inherent features of something, especially when seen as characteristic of it.
e.g. By nature, he didn't smile, but would he turn away from her or tolerate her?
Nature means the essence or identity of someone or something.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Here are some questions for you to ponder on. Try to answer them based on your present
knowledge.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is the nature of
grammar?
2 How do I know if it is standard
English or not?

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #4

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date:__

3 When and how did prescriptive

grammar begin?

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

The term is used to refer to the rules or

principles by which a language works, that is,
its system or structure; the systematic study
and description of a language. A set of rules
and examples dealing with the syntax and There are some fallacies concerning the
nature of grammar:
word structures (morphology) of a language.
a) One of the fallacies is that some
languages do not have grammar or have
little grammar. The grammar defines the
main operations of the language, then
we can arrange that each language has
its grammar and is adequate
b) Another fallacy about the change of
grammar is that is results in deterioration
Grammar is more than just order and hierarchy; it or alternatively evolution
is a way of expressing complex multidimensional c) A final fallacy involves equating the
schemas in one dimension. The need to grammar of the spoken language with
communicate these schemas is the concern of that of the written language.
language, but how they are communicated is the
concern of grammar. Because grammar does not
necessarily rely on the preexistence of language,
it is possible for the elements of grammar to be
prototyped as features of other mental systems
before language appears. These elements can
then be exacted as needed for language. So the
genesis of language and the genesis of grammar
do not necessarily need to be considered as a
single process.
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Standard and Non-standard English
We all know that a language has different dialects and pronunciations in various areas where it is
spoken depending on the culture and ways of people. But are you aware of the term standard and non-
standard language? Or more specifically Standard and non-Standard English? Apart from the

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #4

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date:__

differences in spellings, dialects and pronunciations, a language differs in its form depending on the
audience it is used for.

Standard English Non-Standard English

The formal type of English language that is In contrast, non-Standard English is

mostly spoken and written in government the opposite of Standard English. It is
agencies and environments is called Standard used is everyday life by anyone from
English. Apart from government institutions, a little kid to a 70-year-old person
Standard English is also engaged in media with basic words that are common
conversations, school announcements and and easily understandable by the
international communications. local community. Non-Standard
English does not make use of
Standard English is not an alien language but is complex terms and is sometimes
very similar to normal English language that we missing the proper punctuation as
use in our daily life. The only difference between well.
the two is that Standard English makes use of
complicated terms which are otherwise not very One major difference between
common in our everyday communications. This Standard English and non-Standard
makes this language very formal and perfect for English is that standard English does
settings like government authorities, media and not have differences depending on
international dealings. the area or community it is spoken in
and is used in the same way through
In other words, you can say that Standard the world. Whereas non-Standard
English is the language that is used by educated English has word preferences
speakers in their speeches, researches, depending on the area and the locals
interviews or any other kind of public discourse. that it is spoken by.

Examples:

We lost the game and everyone was sad. (Non-Standard English)

Manchester United lost the game and the team was devastated. (Standard English)

Both these examples clearly show the differences in the formality of sentences. The non-standard English
sentence is very informal and is used to convey news about lost game to someone close. Whereas, the
Standard English sentence is more formal, contain complex terms and complete information about the lost
game and the team’s behavior.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #4

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date:__

History of Prescriptive Grammar

First half of 18th century--the Augustan Age, characterized
by a search for stability in all matters. Correctness is an ideal.
Rules are formulated which, if followed, lead to correctness.
Finally, reason was the most important consideration in deciding
upon the standard.

These intellectual tendencies were clearly seen in the approach to standardize, refine, and fix
English. People first began to consider the grammar of English in this period. It wasn't fixed to rule (like
that of Latin and other 'dead' languages). There was a large degree of language variation "even among
educated speakers" and this was seen as a bad thing (well, it still is in many circles). There was a
desire to 'ascertain' the language [reduce it to rule, settle disputed usage questions, and fix it
permanently in this 'perfect' form]

18th century England--Latin was still considered the language of educated people, but the
English empire had become quite powerful, and London was the most important city in England. This
forced the London dialect into "important world language" status. In order to make English "better",
people often tried to make English more like Latin.

In the absence of an academy, many individuals attempted to right the wrongs of English and
establish a standard. Now for the first time, an effort was made to engage the general public in
discussion of such matters. At this point, English still had no dictionary and no descriptive grammar.

Grammarians:

• 1755--Samuel Johnson published the first English dictionary. It was far from ideal by today's
standards, but a major achievement at the time.
• 1761--Joseph Priestly published The Rudiments of English Grammar.
• 1762--Robert Lowth published Short Introduction to English Grammar.
• 1763--John Ash, Grammatical Institutes
• 1764--Noah Webster, A Grammatical Institute of the English Language, Part II, in America.
These were the first English grammars not written for foreigners or for the purpose of teaching
Latin. Grammarians hoped to codify the principles of language and reduce it to rule, settle disputed
points, and point out common errors. They essentially tried to make absolute what was common but not
universal in speech of the time.

The idea began to circulate that usage was the most important standard for considering grammar.
That is, what people say is the best indicator of what is right. Joseph Priestly was the strongest
advocate of this position in the 18th century. Some might call him radical even today. George Campbell
also argued this point. "For what is the grammar of any language? It is no other than a collection of
general observations methodically digested.” These early grammarians failed to recognize the
importance of usage, did not understand processes of linguistic change, and because of these,

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #4

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date:__

approached their task in the wrong way--logic is not the way to determine what is right, and forcing
people to use one linguistic form over another is never successful.

Prescriptive Rules of English first set out in the latter half of the 18th century. Eg.
• lie - intransitive / lay - transitive
• differentiation of between and among
• use of comparative when only two things are being compared
• condemnation of this here and that there
• condemnation of double negative--Lowth first stated the rule that two negatives make a
positive (NOT!)
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Complete these tasks:

a) Describe the nature of grammar in your own words:

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
____________

b) Write a sentence in Standard English and another sentence in non-standard English

Standard English:
________________________________________________________________
Non-standard English:
_____________________________________________________________

c) Summarize the history of prescriptive grammar in just five sentences.

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Are you getting tired? That’s fine. Try to breathe in and relax for a minute before answering the
third column of this activity. Compare your answers in Activity 1.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is the nature of grammar?

2 How do I know if it is standard

English or not?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #4

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date:__

3 When and how did prescriptive

grammar begin?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

We are almost done! Time for a short quiz. Read each statement carefully. Write POSITIVE if
the statement is correct and NEGATIVE if the statement is incorrect.

___________ 1. Grammar of spoken language can be equated with that of the written l
language.
___________ 2. Grammar is limited to order and hierarchy.
___________ 3. Slang can be classified under non-standard English.
___________ 4. Prescriptive grammar began in first half of 18th century where correctness is
an ideal.
___________ 5. Conversation between/ among friends should be in standard English.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

Write three things that you learned today.
a)
____________________________________________________________________________
b)
____________________________________________________________________________
c)
____________________________________________________________________________

FAQs
1. How can I improve my grammar?
According to Christopher, reading and listening to radio stations, such as Radio National, are
great ways for your brain to absorb grammar. "Your brain is learning grammar even though maybe
you consciously don't know."
Secondly, Christopher says it’s important to use and learn grammar "in context". He advises
students to "read books about topics that you love rather than reading for just study purposes."
In addition, using social media or joining 'meet up' groups are also ways to "use language in

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #5

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

Lesson title: Discourse Function, Negation, Coordination and Materials:

Subordination Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives: PowerPoint Presentation
At the end of this module, I should be able to: References:
1. classify sentences according to their use in discourse; McLean, S. (2011). Business English
for success.
2. identify coordination and subordination in writing; and
https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_busi
3. use negation to express disagreement. ness-english-for-success/s10-02-
coordination-and-subordination.html

Productivity Tip:
“Start strong! Train your brain to shift to work mode by setting a regular time during the day
for your lessons. Set an alarm and stick to your working hours.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)

Have you ever noticed yourself giving statements or declarations? Asking questions?
Making commands or requests? Or simple, expressing a strong emotion? Yes, we do that every
day. Though most of the time we are unaware, we are utilizing the four sentence types.
Technically speaking, we call them discourse functions. Have you also observed that the
translated subtitles in Korean dramas or foreign dramas are comprised of discourse functions?
They also incorporate a lot of coordination and subordination as well as negation. That is what
makes them so engaging! After our discussion, I want you to watch at least two episodes of
your favorite drama and write down 5 lines that shows discourse function, coordination,
subordination and negation. Just for fun and enrichment of the lesson.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Read these questions and answer them based on what you know.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What are the four types of
sentence?

2 How do you coordinate ideas in

sentences?

3 What is the use of subordinating

conjunctions?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #5

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

The Discourse Functions of Sentences

Sentences may be classified according to their use in discourse. We recognize four main sentence
types:

1 Declarative
Declarative sentences are used to convey
information or to make statements. For
example:

David plays the piano.

I hope you can come tomorrow.
We've forgotten the milk.

Declarative sentences are by far the most

common type.

2 Interrogative
Interrogative sentences are used in asking questions:
• Did you receive my message?
• Have you found a new job yet?
The examples above are specifically YES/NO INTERROGATIVES, because they elicit a response which is
either yes or no.

ALTERNATIVE INTERROGATIVES offer two or more alternative responses:

• Should I telephone you or send an email?
• Do you want tea, coffee, or espresso?
Yes/no interrogatives and alternative interrogatives are introduced by an auxiliary verb.

WH- INTERROGATIVES, on the other hand, are introduced by a wh- word, and they elicit an open-ended
response:
• What happened?
• Where do you work?
• Who won the Cup Final in 1997?

Questions are sometimes tagged onto the end of a declarative sentence:

• David plays the piano, doesn't he?

• We've forgotten the milk, haven't we?

These are known as TAG QUESTIONS. They consist of a main or auxiliary verb followed by a pronoun or
existential there

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #5

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

3 Imperative 4 Exclamative

Imperative sentences are used in issuing orders Exclamative (exclamatory) sentences are
or directives: used to make exclamations:

Leave your coat in the hall What a stupid man he is!

Give me your phone number How wonderful you look!
Don't shut the door
Stop! See how they express strong emotions!

Tag questions are sometimes added to the end

of imperatives:

Leave your coat in the hall, will you?

Write soon, won't you?

In an imperative sentence, the main verb is in

the base form. This is an exception to the
general rule that matrix clauses are always
finite.

The four sentence types exhibit different syntactic forms. For now, it is worth pointing out that
there is not necessarily a one-to-one relationship between the form of a sentence and its discourse
function. For instance, the following sentence has declarative form:

You need some help.

But when this is spoken with a rising intonation, it becomes a question:

You need some help?

Conversely, rhetorical questions have the form of an interrogative, but they are really
statements:

Who cares? (= I don't care)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Coordination and Subordination
Coordination. Joining two related ideas of equal importance.
Subordination. Joining two related ideas of unequal importance.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

Coordination joins two independent clauses that contain related ideas of equal importance.
Original sentence: I spent my entire paycheck last week. I am staying home this weekend.

In their current form, these sentences contain two separate ideas that may or may not be
related. Am I staying home this week because I spent my paycheck, or is there another reason for my
lack of enthusiasm to leave the house? To indicate a relationship between the two ideas, we can use
the coordinating conjunction so:

Revised sentence: I spent my entire paycheck last week, so I am staying home this weekend.

To help you remember the seven coordinating conjunctions, think of the acronym FANBOYS:
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Remember that when you use a coordinating conjunction in a sentence,
a comma should precede it.

Subordination joins two sentences with related ideas by merging them into a main clause (a
complete sentence) and a dependent clause (a construction that relies on the main clause to complete
its meaning). Coordination allows a writer to give equal weight to the two ideas that are being
combined, and subordination enables a writer to emphasize one idea over the other. Take a look at the
following sentences:

Original sentences: Tracy stopped to help the injured man. She would be late for work.

To illustrate that these two ideas are related, we can rewrite them as a single sentence using
the subordinating conjunction even though.

Revised sentence: Even though Tracy would be late for work, she stopped to help the injured man.

In the revised version, we now have an independent clause (she stopped to help the injured
man) that stands as a complete sentence and a dependent clause (even though Tracy would be late for
work) that is subordinate to the main clause. Notice that the revised sentence emphasizes the fact that
Tracy stopped to help the injured man, rather than the fact she would be late for work.

Tip

To punctuate sentences correctly, look at the position of the main clause and the subordinate
clause. If a subordinate clause precedes the main clause, use a comma. If the subordinate clause
follows the main cause, no punctuation is required.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

Negative forms

Negation is the process that turns an Contracted forms

affirmative statement into its opposite denial.
Negative forms can be contracted.
Example: She is a nice girl - She is not a nice
girl Long negative Short negative
forms forms
Verbs in English are negated by placing the
word not after an auxiliary or modal. do not don't

Examples: does not doesn't

am 'm not (*not amn’t)

I am not from Germany
I do not like playing tennis. are not aren't
She does not listen to classical music.
I have not read this book yet. is not isn't
I did not go to Moscow.
I had not had dinner when they came in. did not didn't
You should not sleep late.
I cannot help you. have not haven't
I will not participate in that competition.
had not hadn't

should not shouldn't

would not wouldn't

will not won't

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Task 2:
Combine each sentence pair into a single sentence using a coordinating conjunction. Then copy
the combined sentence onto your own sheet of paper. Afterwards, share with a classmate and
compare your answers.

1. Pets are not allowed in Mr. Taylor’s building. He owns several cats and a parrot.
2. New legislation prevents drivers from sending or reading text messages while driving.
Many people continue to use their phones illegally.
3. The coroner concluded that the young man had taken a lethal concoction of drugs. By
the time his relatives found him, nothing could be done.
4. Amphibians are vertebrates that live on land and in the water. Flatworms are
invertebrates that live only in water.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #5

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

5. Ashley carefully fed and watered her tomato plants all summer. The tomatoes grew juicy
and ripe.
6. When he lost his car key, Simon attempted to open the door with a wire hanger, a credit
card, and a paper clip. He called the manufacturer for advice.

Task 3:
Combine each sentence pair into a single sentence using a subordinating conjunction and then
copy the combined sentence onto your own sheet of paper.

1. Jake is going to Mexico. There are beautiful beaches in Mexico.

2. A snowstorm disrupted traffic all over the east coast. There will be long delivery delays
this week.
3. My neighbor had his television volume turned up too high. I banged on his door and
asked him to keep the noise down.
4. Jessica prepared the potato salad and the sautéed vegetables. Ashley marinated the
chicken.
5. Romeo poisons himself. Juliet awakes to find Romeo dead and stabs herself with a
dagger.

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Since we have finished our discussion, answer these questions again from Activity 2.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What are the four types of
sentence?

2 How do you coordinate ideas in

sentences?

3 What is the use subordinating

conjunctions?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

A. Identify whether the sentence is declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamative. Write
DEC, INT, IMP or EXC in the space before each number.

______ 1. Be sure to enclose a stamped, self-addressed envelope.

______ 2. Which is longer, a meter or a yard?
______ 3. The phoenix and the unicorn are mythical creatures.
______ 4. What a dreadful sight that was!
______ 5. Natives in Borneo once used human skulls as money.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #5

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

B. Supply an appropriate end mark for each sentence on the line provided.
1. Stop in the name of the law _____
2. Did the caller leave a number _____
3. What a weird coincidence that was _____
4. Run for your lives _____
5. Currents are fast-flowing streams within larger bodies of water _____
6. Who won the Oscar for best actor last year _____
7. Now that’s what I call hot chili _____
8. Penguins keep their eggs warm by holding them next to their bodies _____
9. Be sure to let us know what you decide _____
10. Americans spend a great deal of money on pet food _____

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

Write two things about the lesson that confuses you and share this with your study buddy.
a) _____________________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________________

FAQs
1. Why is it important to use coordination and subordination in writing?
Connecting sentences with coordinate or subordinate clauses creates more coherent paragraphs,
and in turn, produces more effective writing.

KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3 – answers may vary
Activity 5
A. B.
1. IMP 1. ( ! ) 6. ( ? )
2. INT 2. ( ? ) 7. ( ! )
3. DEC 3. ( ! ) 8. ( . )
4. EXC 4. ( ! ) 9. ( . )
5. DEC 5. ( . ) 10. ( . )

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #6

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

Lesson title: Spoken vs. Written Grammar; Grammar in the ESL Materials:
Curriculum; Methods of Teaching Grammar; and Error Student Activity Sheet
Correction PowerPoint Presentation
Lesson Objectives:
References:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997).
1. distinguish between spoken and written grammar; Corrective feedback and learner
2. discover the methods of teaching grammar uptake: Negotiation of form in
3. list alternative ways of correcting grammatical errors communicative classrooms. Studies in
1. second language acquisition, 37-66.
Alzu’bi, M. A. (2015). Effectiveness of
inductive and deductive methods in
teaching grammar. Advances in
Language and Literary Studies, 6(2),
187-193.
Truscott, J. (2007). The effect of error
correction on learners’ ability to write
accurately. Journal of second
language Writing, 16(4), 255-272.
;

Productivity Tip:
“To get a fresh set of ideas, try studying in a different place.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Hello! How is your week so far? I hope you are taking a lot of time reviewing our past lessons
since 1st Periodic Exams are fast approaching. How fast time flies, right?

Today we will discuss a lot more of grammar. We will find out the differences between spoken
and written grammar, the importance of grammar in an ESL curriculum, correcting errors in
grammar as wells as methods of teaching grammar.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 Are there differences between
written and spoken grammar?

2 Why is teaching grammar in an

ESL curriculum important?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #6

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

3 What are the different methods

in teaching grammar?
How do we correct grammatical
errors?
How can we avoid intrusive
correction of errors?

B. MAIN LESSON

1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

Speech and writing are distinctly different manifestations of language. Language as speech is
intuitive, natural, dynamic, evanescent, and situated. Speech can be altered mid‐utterance to account
for understanding and processing by others. Language as writing is de‐situated, requiring time for
planning, organizing, composing, editing, and revising.

Spoken vs. Written Grammar

Here is an examples of how spoken and written can differ.
Though/Although - both of these are correct grammatically, but, in the spoken form, though is six
times more frequent than although. Why is this? It's not enough to say 'it's shorter and easier to say' or
'it's only one syllable'. We need to analyze it a little more.
Though is the 175th most commonly used word in British English and the 190th in American
English. (It should be noted that if a word is ranked 1 to 2000, it is very important - we can't do without
it.)
There are two parts of spoken grammar:
• form (syntax)
• function (there will be functions of spoken grammar that aren't necessary in writing)
Though has two meanings - therefore, it is used more. It can be used at the very end of a
sentence. So, it's greater frequency may be due to its flexibility. Using though at the end of a sentence
is very rare in written English. (Form)
Though is also much more commonly used to resume a conversation which has been interrupted.
(Function)

This is an evidence of a difference between spoken and written grammar

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

We don't notice what we say in the same way as we do when we write. Spoken grammar is
flexible in its word order. This is good news for language learners. Spoken grammar is much less
strict than written.
Let's look at the word know as an example. Know is the 14th most commonly used word in
spoken British English and the 22nd in American English. Know is a transitive verb and most of its
uses in writing have an object. Conversely, most of its uses in speech have no object. Its most
common use is in the expression, 'You know'.
A similar situation arises with the verbs, 'see' and 'mean'.
In spoken language, we have common knowledge - gauging what the other person
understands, sharing a common view. So, we constantly use checking phrases like 'Do you see?' or
'You know what I mean'.
Spoken grammar also has 'response tokens' not used in written grammar - wonderful,
certainly, great, definitely, etc. These are very important to effective oral communication.
In conversation, people have no difficulty understanding such things as: 'His cousin in London,
her boyfriend, his parents, bought him a car for his birthday.' Such constructions with multiple subjects
and lots of different noun phrases are not found in writing. When we write them down, they look
strange, but in speaking, they sound fine.

Grammar in the ESL Curriculum

In connection with the previous discussion, grammar taught in the ESL curriculum heavily
comprises that which is written.
Grammar is the base of English language. English especially as a second or a foreign
language is not acquired naturally; instruction and structured learning are important. Through
grammar, an ESL learner learns how to operate at the sentence level and studies the governance of
the syntax or word orders that are the rule of the game in the language. While, it is argued that some
learners ‘notice’ grammar rules and logic naturally, yet it cannot be denied that if one hopes to acquire
and use English language accurately and fluently, grammar learning is necessary.
The three dimensions of grammar: form, meaning and use that tutored grammar learning
brings to the learner’s attention enable him/her to progress in their language competencies. Their risk of
hitting a learning plateau is largely reduced thus, in comparison to those who went through an
untutored language learning process.
Remember, grammar is the backbone of a language and without it any single thing you know
may be flux, in a sort of jelly without much consistency. In a nutshell, grammar provides you with the
structure you need in order to organize and put your messages and ideas across.
Since we have reiterated the importance of teaching grammar in an ESL curriculum, let us now
look into the methods of teaching grammar.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #6

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

Methods of Teaching Grammar

Diagramming Sentences

One of the older forms of teaching

grammar, diagramming sentences, first
appeared in the 19th century. This method
involves visually mapping the structures of
and relationships between different aspects
of a sentence. Especially helpful for visual
learners, this method disappeared from
modern teaching at least 30 years ago.
Different forms of diagramming are used to
visualize sentences, from the Reed-Kellogg
System to dependency grammar, but all
organize the functions of a sentence in a
way that illustrates the grammatical
relationships between words.

Learning Through Writing

This method is often used in schools in the U.S. and

Canada. Students are encouraged to explore
language through creative writing and reading,
picking up correct grammar usage along the way. If
there are specific problems with certain grammatical
rules, these are covered in a more structured lesson. An
emphasis is now being placed upon language
acquisition over language learning, as it has been
observed that learning grammar by memorization
does not work well and that students are better able
to recognize and understand grammatical rules when
lessons are more interactive (i.e., they have to apply
these rules in their own writing). Repeated practice is
also important and easily achieved through creative or
personal writing exercises. To better equip future adult
writers, teachers in the 21st century should consider
dropping outdated grammar teaching techniques in early
education and opt for learning through writing
techniques.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________
Deductive Teaching

The deductive method of teaching grammar is an approach that focuses on instruction before practice.
A teacher gives students an in-depth explanation of a grammatical concept before they encounter the
same grammatical concept in their own writing. After the lesson, students are expected to practice what
they have just been shown in a mechanical way, through worksheets and exercises. This type of teaching,
though common, has many people—including teachers—rethinking such methods, as more post-
secondary level students are revealing sub-par literacy skills in adulthood. As one former teacher states,
deductive teaching methods drive many students away from writing because of the tediousness of
rote learning and teacher-centered approaches.

Interactive Teaching

Another method of teaching grammar is to incorporate interactivity into lessons. Using games to teach
grammar not only engages students but also helps them to remember what they’ve learned. This method
allows teachers to tailor their lessons to the different learning styles of students. For instance, each
student can be given a large flashcard with a word on it, and the students must physically arrange
themselves into a proper sentence. Other games can include word puzzles or fun online quizzes.

Inductive Teaching

The inductive method of teaching grammar involves presenting several examples that illustrate a specific
concept and expecting students to notice how the concept works from these examples. No explanation of
the concept is given beforehand, and the expectation is that students learn to recognize the rules
of grammar in a more natural way during their own reading and writing. Discovering grammar and
visualizing how these rules work in a sentence allow for easier retention of the concept than if the students
were given an explanation that was disconnected from examples of the concept. The main goal of the
inductive teaching method is the retention of grammar concepts, with teachers using techniques that
are known to work cognitively and make an impression on students’ contextual memory.

As a future grammar teacher, it is easy to teach given the available methods and strategies.
However, do you think it is easy to correct grammatical errors? How can we correct our students
when they commit mistakes or blunders?

Ways to Correct Errors

a) Elicitation is a correction technique whose aim is to engage the learners in identifying and
correcting their own errors. Lyster and Ranta (1997) described elicitation as the most effective way
of addressing learners’ errors because it involves the learner in the correction process, which in
turn leads to the most amount of uptake.
b) Correspondingly, Bartran and Walton (1994) also described a type of elicitation which is called as
peer correction, whereby learners are encouraged to help each other identify errors and correct
them
c) Another technique identified by Lyster and Ranta (1997) is the use of clarification requests.
According to them, this technique is a clear way to indicate to the learner that there is a problem
with his or her utterance, and that it needs to be reformulated.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #6

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

d) Two additional techniques identified are recasts and repetition. According to Lyster and Ranta
(1997), recasting is the reformulation of all or part of the student’s erroneous utterance minus the
error, whereas repetitions refer to the repeating of the learners’ previous erroneous utterance by
adjusting one’s intonation as a way to highlight the error.
e) A somewhat different type of correction, body language, has also been suggested as an effective
tool in handling language errors. It refers to nonverbal cues through which the learner’s attempt to
communicate is non-verbally interrupted.

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Read each question carefully and answer briefly.

a) Which method of teaching grammar would be most effective with high school students?
Why?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

b) When you were an elementary or high school student, what grammatical errors did you
often commit? How did your teacher/s correct these errors?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Read these questions again and write your answers in the third column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned

1 Are there differences between
written and spoken grammar?

2 Why is teaching grammar in an ESL

curriculum important?

3 What are the different methods in

teaching grammar?
How do we correct grammatical
errors?
How can we avoid intrusive correction
of errors?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #6

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

A. Multiple Choice
Read each statement carefully and answer the question that follows. Choose the letter of
the correct answer and encircle it.
1. Sir Noel paired up his students and asked them to give feedback on each other’s writing
task. What error correction technique did he use?
A. Elicitation
B. Repetition
C. Peer correction
D. Body language
2. Ms. Joji frowns at her student every time they make subject-verb agreement in their
spoken and written grammar. What error correction technique is this?
A. Elicitation
B. Repetition
C. Peer correction
D. Body language
3. Teacher Sheena gives students grammar examples first and then gives them ample
opportunity for practice. After which, she asks the students to come up with the grammar
rule or concept through discussion. What method of teaching grammar is she using?
A. Learning through writing
B. Inductive method
C. Deductive method
D. Interactive method
4. Sir Mario uses games, puzzles and songs to teach simple grammar concepts to his
students. What method is he using?
A. Diagramming sentences
B. Deductive method
C. Interactive method
D. Inductive method
5. Which is the best reason for incorporating grammar in the ESL curriculum?
A. Grammar is the foundation of language.
B. Grammar helps students write correctly.
C. Grammar makes students more fluent in the language.
D. Grammar enables ESL students to improve their accent.

“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your
score on your paper.”

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #7

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: ______________

Lesson title: Theoretical Views on L2 Grammar Acquisition: The Materials:

Noticing Hypothesis, Its Application in Computer Assisted Student Activity Sheets
Language Learning
Lesson Objectives: References:
Ellis, R. (1989). Understanding second
At the end of the lesson, I should be able to:
language acquisition (Vol. 31). Oxford:
1. differentiate between acquisition and learning; Oxford university
2. examine the theoretical views on L2 grammar acquisition; press.https://www.slideshare.net/AbirA
and boutaha/second-language-acquisition-
3. discuss the implications of SLA in computer assisted theories-88345892
language learning

Did you know that exercise can improve your concentration? That makes you absorb more concepts and
ideas as you learn. Get energized by working out for even a few minutes in the morning. Go out and jog or
walk around your neighborhood. Make sure you wear a mask whenever you are outdoors!

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Our lesson for today will open your eyes to the difference between acquisition and learning and the
theories about grammar acquisition. As we mentioned in the previous lessons grammar is the structure
of language. One cannot learn a language without its grammar. So prepare yourselves because this
lesson can get ‘technical’ but we will try to simplify it for you.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Here are some questions to prep your brain cells. Try answering them first based on your prior
knowledge. Write your answers legibly on the first column. Next, call your study buddy and share your
ideas before starting the main lesson.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is the difference between
acquisition and learning?
2 What are the different theories
on L2 grammar acquisition?
3 What are the implications of
SLA in computer assisted
language learning?

B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)
Let us first define important terms before we begin our discussion:
a. Acquisition vs. learning
Acquisition Learning
• Used to refer to picking up a second • Used to refer to the conscious
language through exposure study of a second language

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #7

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: ______________

Based on the definitions above, we can say that ‘second language acquisition’ refers to the
subconscious or conscious processes by which a language other than the mother tongue is
learn in a natural or tutored setting.
b. Computer-assisted language learning
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is the general term for the range of processes and
activities that employ computers in the teaching and learning of a new language.

Theoretical Views on L2 Grammar Acquisition

Second language acquisition refers to all aspects of language that the language learner needs to
master. However, the focus has been on how L2 learners acquire grammatical subsystems, such as negatives
or interrogatives, or grammatical morphemes such as the plural (s) or the definite and indefinite articles.
Research has tended to ignore other levels of language.

1 2

3 4

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #7

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: ______________

5 6

7 8

9 10

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #7

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: ______________

11 12

13 14

The Noticing Hypothesis by Richard Schmidt

The noticing hypothesis is a concept in second-language acquisition proposed by Richard Schmidt in

1990. He stated that learners cannot learn the grammatical features of a language unless they notice
them. Noticing alone does not mean that learners automatically acquire language; rather, the hypothesis
states that noticing is the essential starting point for acquisition. There is debate over whether learners must
consciously notice something, or whether the noticing can be subconscious to some degree.

Application of Computer Assisted Language Learning

Classroom discussion is a relevant application of computers in the language classroom. Students

received questions through the computer in order to test their reading comprehension, open and maintain
classroom discussion using the target language. Students also provided their own ideas and feelings of the

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #7

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: ______________

story via computers to their classmates and teachers. This gave them the opportunity to work at their own
pace. This classroom discussion provides students with authentic tasks that enhance the proper conditions of
SLA. Likewise, the fact that the task of the activity was intended to provide students with the opportunity of
using target language without the teacher-frontedness is seeing as positive for language acquisition.

Beatty (2003) offers some principles for teaching CALL. These principles are, indeed, significant for
language teachers intending to use CALL in their lessons and institutions and promote SLA. These are:

(1) Evaluate the appropriateness of the software program or computer-based resource and this
responsibility relies on instructors.

(2) Create an environment in which CALL is supported. Beatty (2003) suggests arranging “the
CALL classroom to maximize interactions” (Beatty, 2003, p. 253).

(3) Monitor learner participation in CALL programs and encourage autonomy. Computers offer a
great opportunity for monitoring and providing feedback to learners in electronic ways.

(4) Encourage the use of CALL programs for collaboration and learners’ interaction. The internet
is also a place where collaboration can occur via electronic mail, chat, blogs and threaded
discussions. These are relevant aspects of the implications and applications of CALL on SLA.

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
A. Complete the table below by writing down how you can apply the language / grammar acquisition
theories in teaching grammar. Write two for each theory.

Eg. Krashen’s Theory – Affective Filter Hypothesis: Ensure that the learning environment is conducive
to learning. The teacher should not raise her voice at her students.

SLA Theory Classroom Application (Teaching Grammar)

1.

Behaviorism (Skinner)
2.

3.

Innatism (Chomsky)
4.

5.

Krashen’s Theory of SLA

6.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #7

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: ______________

B. Answer this question briefly:

1. In what ways can the Noticing Hypothesis improve students’ acquisition or learning of grammar?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

2. How effective is computer assisted language learning in teaching grammar?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Answer these questions once again and compare whether you still have the same answers in Activity 1.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is the difference between
acquisition and learning?

2 What are the different theories

on L2 grammar acquisition?

3 What are the implications of

SLA in computer assisted
language learning?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

You did a great job! Now before answering this short quiz, take a 3-min break to relax your mind. You
can answer when you are ready.

Identification: Read the statement and give what is asked. Write your answer in the space provided
before each number.
_____________ 1. It refers to the conscious study of a language.
_____________ 2. It is the child’s innate capacity to acquire a language.
_____________ 3. This hypothesis suggests that grammar acquisition begins with perceiving.
_____________ 4. A term for the range of processes and activities that employ computers in the
teaching and learning of a new language.
_____________ 5. This hypothesis states that the acquisition of language rules and grammatical
structures follow a predictable order.

“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on
your paper.”

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #8

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Inductive Approaches to Teaching Grammar in Materials:

Theory and Practice; Examples of Sample Lessons Using Student Activity Sheets
Inductive Approaches
Lesson Objectives: References:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: Celce‐Murcia, M. (1991). Grammar
1. evaluate the effectiveness of the different approaches in pedagogy in second and foreign
teaching grammar; and language teaching. TESOL
2. plan a grammar lesson using the inductive approach. quarterly, 25(3), 459-480.Silvia, A.
(2004). Deductive and Inductive
1.
Grammar Teaching'. Applied
Linguistics, 24, 126-145.

Productivity Tip:
After finishing this module, explain quickly what you’ve learned to your parents / friend / pet. Check your
module materials again if your explanation is accurate.

A. LESSON PREVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Good day dear students! In this lesson, there will be a mini-hands on activity awaiting you
towards the end of this module. Make sure you read and study very well the content notes
before answer the skill-building activities. You can consult some books and online references to
assist you.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Read the questions and write your answers in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Act.4)

1 Aside from the inductive approach,

what are the other approaches to
teaching grammar?

2 How effective are these approaches

in teaching grammar?

3 Which approach would you prefer in

teaching grammar?

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #8

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

Approaches to Teaching Grammar: An Overview

The audiolingual approach (Fries, 1945; Lado, 1964) represents the first attempt by U.S.
structural linguists to influence the teaching of modern foreign languages.
● Grammatical structures were very carefully sequenced from basic to more complex (based on
linguistic description) and vocabulary was strictly limited in the early stages of learning.
● Consonant with the then-current behavioral school of psychology, audiolingual proponents
assumed that language learning was habit formation and overlearning; thus mimicry of
forms and memorization of certain sentence patterns were used extensively to present rules
inductively.
● A variety of manipulative drill types was practiced with objective of minimizing (or preventing
altogether) learners’ errors, which were viewed as bad habits that would be hard to break if they
become established.
● Teachers were told that they should correct all errors that they were not able to prevent. The
focus on instruction rarely moved beyond the sentence level.

The cognitive code approach (Jakobovits, 1968, 1970), largely a reaction to the behaviorist
features of audiolingualism, was influenced by the works of linguists like Chomsky (1959) and
psycholinguists like Miller (1973).
● Language learning was viewed as hypothesis formation and rule acquisition, rather than
habit formation.
● Grammar was considered important, and rules were presented either deductively or
inductively depending on the preferences of the learners.
● Errors were viewed as inevitable by-products of language learning and as something that the
teacher and learning could use constructively in the learning process.
● Error analysis and correction were seen as appropriate classroom activities with the teacher
facilitating peer and self-correction as much as possible.
● The source of errors was seen not only as transfer from the first language but also as normal
language development.
● The focus was still largely sentence-oriented, and material writers often drew on Chomsky’s
early work in generative grammar (1957, 1965).

The comprehension approach (Wintz, 1981) represents attempts by many language methodologists
working in the U.S. during the 1970s and 1980s to recreate the first language acquisition experience for
the second/ foreign language learner.
● Comprehension is primary and that it should thus precede any production epitomizes this
approach; a pedagogical offshoot is the view that comprehension can best be taught initially by
delaying production in the target language while encouraging the learner to use meaningful
nonverbal responses to demonstrate comprehension.
● Some practitioners of this approach carefully sequence grammatical structures and lexical
items in their instructional programs (Asher, 1977; Winitz, no date); they thus present grammar
inductively.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #8

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

● Others propose that a semantically based syllabus be followed instead and that all grammar
instruction be excluded from the classroom since they feel that it does not facilitate language
acquisition; at best it merely helps learners to monitor or become aware of the forms they use.
● Proponents of this approach believe that error correction is unnecessary, perhaps even
counterproductive, since they feel that errors will gradually self-correct as learners are
exposed to ever more complex, rich and meaningful input in the target language

The communicative approach, which came to the fore in the mid-1970s, originates in the work of
anthropological linguists in the U.S. (Hymes, 1972) and functional linguists in Britain (Halliday, 1973),
all of whom view language as an instrument of communication.
● Those who have applied this philosophy of language teaching, claim that communication is the
goal of second or foreign language instruction and that the syllabus of a language should not
be organized around grammar but around subject matter, tasks/projects or semantic notions
and/or pragmatic functions. In other words, language instruction should be content-based,
meaningful, contextualized and discourse-based (rather than sentence based).
● The teacher’s role is primarily to facilitate language use and communication; it is only
secondarily to provide feedback and correct learner errors.

Inductive Approach to Teaching Grammar

The inductive approach represents a different style of teaching where the new grammatical
structures or rules are presented to the students in a real language context (Goner, Phillips, and
Walters 135). The students learn the use of the structure through practice of the language in context,
and later realize the rules from the practical examples. For example, if the structure to be presented is
the comparative form, the teacher would begin the lesson by drawing a figure on the board and saying,
“This is Jim. He is tall.” Then, the teacher would draw another taller figure next to the first saying, “This
is Bill. He is taller than Jim.” The teacher would then provide many examples using students and items
from the classroom, famous people, or anything within the normal daily life of the students, to create an
understanding of the use of the structure. The students repeat after the teacher, after each of the
different examples, and eventually practice the structures meaningfully in groups or pairs. (Goner,
Phillips, and Walters 135-136) With this approach, the teacher role is to provide meaningful contexts to
encourage demonstration of the rule, while the students evolve the rules from the examples of its use
and continued practice (Rivers and Temperley 110).
This approach starts with some examples from which a rule is inferred. In grammar teaching,
teachers present the examples at the beginning then generalizing rules from the given samples.
Inductive approach is often correlated with Direct Method and Natural Approach in English teaching. In
both methods, grammar is presented in such way the learners experience it. “In Direct method,
therefore, the rules of the language are supposedly acquired out of the experience of the understanding
and repeating examples which have been systematically graded for difficulty and put into a clear
context.” (Thornburry16, 2002

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Complete the table below. For each approach, write down its advantages and disadvantages in
teaching grammar. Write your answers briefly.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #8

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

Approach Advantages Disadvantages

1. Audiolingual approach

2. Cognitive code
approach

3. Comprehension
approach

4. Communicative
approach

In the box below, write a mini-lesson or activity for teaching a grammar rule using the
inductive approach.

For example:
Inductive approach in teaching perfect tense
Study the two sets of sentences:
A. Daniel has lived in Iloilo City for 10 years.
Kathryn has been learning to drive for six months
B. Enrique has lived in Cebu City since 1992
Liza has been out of work since January
Students are then tasked to choose between “for” or “since” to complete the following sentence.
1. Anna has been _____ 14 years.
2. Jeff has been studying French ____1995.

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Read and answer again these questions from Activity 1.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #8

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 Aside from the inductive approach,

what are the other approaches to
teaching grammar?

2 How effective are these

approaches in teaching grammar?

3 Which approach would you prefer

in teaching grammar?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

True or False
Directions: Write True if the statement is accurate and False is otherwise.
_______ 1. The audiolingual approach is in consonance with behaviorism.
_______ 2. In communicative approach, the syllabus is organized around subject matter or
tasks/projects.
_______ 3. Comprehension approach views error correction as unnecessary and destructive.
_______ 4. Rules are provided then examples are given in inductive approach.
_______ 5. The cognitive code approach uses a variety of manipulative drill types for
instruction.

“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your
score on your paper.”

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

Which of the approaches that we have just discussed will you apply most of the time in
teaching grammar?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #10

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

Lesson title: The Use of Scripted Dialogues, Authentic Texts, Materials:

Dictoglosses, and Genre Analysis to Teach L2 Grammar; Focus Student Activity Sheets
on Form Instruction in Theory and Practice PowerPoint Presentation
Lesson Objectives: References:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: www.jurnal.unsyiah.ac.id
Thornbury, S. (1999). How to teach
1. analyze the use of scripted dialogues, authentic texts,
grammar (Vol. 3). Harlow:
dictoglosses and genre analysis to teach L2 grammar;and Longman.Current Issues in the
2. discuss the importance of focusing on form in grammar Teaching of Grammar: An SLA
instruction. Perspective
http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/
poole/article.pdf

Productivity Tip:
After finishing this module, write some tips on what helped you learn on your Learning
Tracker in Thinking About Learning

A. LESSON PREVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Welcome once again to TAG! How were your first periodical exams? I know you are quite
stressed and anxious about the results! But now, I want you to focus your attention on our next
lesson which will be about scripted dialogues, authentic texts, dictogloss and genre analysis.
Also we will discuss the focus on form instruction.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Read the questions and write your answers on the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What are scripted dialogues,
authentic texts, dictoglosses and
genre analysis?

2 How useful are they in L2

grammar instruction?

3 Why should teachers focus on

form when teaching grammar?

B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

The Use of Scripted Dialogues, Authentic Texts, Dictoglosses, and Genre Analysis
to Teach L2 Grammar

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #10

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

Sources of Texts
There are at least two implications to text-level view of language. The first is that if learners are
going to be able to make sense of grammar, they will need to be exposed to it in its contexts of use,
and at the very least, this means in texts.
Secondly, if learners are to achieve a functional command of a second language, they will need to
be able to understand and produce not just isolated sentences, but whole texts in that language. But a
text-based approach to grammar is not without its problems. These problems relate principally to the
choice of texts. There are at least four possible sources of texts: the course book; authentic sources
such as newspapers, songs, literary texts, the Internet, etc; the teacher; and the students themselves.

A. Scripted Dialogues
The first rule in using a text (scripted dialogue, to be specific) for the introduction of a new
grammatical form is that the students understand the text. In most cases, the teacher chooses a text
that she estimates is within the students’ range. At low levels this will usually mean a scripted text, i.e.
one that has been specially written with learners in mind. Teachers should also choose a text with a
high frequency of instances of the targeted grammar item. This will help learners notice the new item
and may lead them to work out the rules by induction (inductively).
But simply giving the students the chosen text is no guarantee that they will understand it. The
teacher needs to apply a series of steps. Steps 1 to 3 are the checking stage, during which the teacher
guides the learners to a clearer understanding of the general gist of the text through a carefully staged
series of tasks.
From Step 4 onwards, she prepares students to home in on the target language: the instances in
the text where the grammatical items are presented numerous times. From Steps 1 to 5, each
successive listening to the conversation requires learners to attend more and more closely to form. As
a rule of thumb, listening tasks should generally move from meaning-focus to a form-focus.
Having isolated and highlighted the structure in Steps 5 and 6, she then set tasks that require
learners to demonstrate their understanding of both the form and the meaning of the new item.

B. Authentic Texts
A teacher should choose a text which is both authentic and rich in examples of the
grammatical item that needs to be taught. Because it is authentic rather than simplified, the teacher
has to work a little harder to make it comprehensible, but, for the sake of presenting language in its
context of use, this is an effort that is arguably worth making. As pointed out earlier, authentic texts
offer learners examples of real language use, undistorted by the heavy hand of the grammarian.
In Steps 1 and 2 the teacher aims to achieve a minimum level of understanding, without which any
discussion of the targeted language would be pointless. As in the example for scripted dialogues, the
shift of focus is from meaning to form, and it is in Step 3 that the shift is engineered. But even while the
focus is on the form, the teacher is quick to remind students how and why it is used. To consolidate this
relation between form and use, he directs them back to the text (Step 4), which they use as a resource
to expand their understanding of the passive. Note that there are one or two slipper examples in the
text: is, for example, the wounds had become infected an example of the passive? In fact, strictly
speaking, it is passive in meaning but not in form. Is Jessica is self-employed passive? This looks like a
passive, but here self-employed is being used as an adjective. It is often the case that authentic
materials throw up examples that resist neat categorization. The teacher’s choices here include: a)

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #10

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

removing these from the text, or rephrasing them; b) explaining why there are exceptions; c) enlisting a
more general rule that covers all these uses.
Steps 5 tests the ability of learners to produce the appropriate forms in context. The teacher has
chosen a writing task rather than a speaking one, partly because the passive is not used in spoken
English to the extent that it is in written English, but also because a writing exercise allows learners
more thinking time, important when meeting relatively complex structures such as the passive. They
then have a chance to personalize the theme through a speaking and writing activity (Step 6): the
writing also serves as a way of testing whether the lesson’s linguistic aim has been achieved.

C. Dictogloss
Digtogloss was formulated by Wajnryb in 1990 to emphasize grammar. It involves students in
listening to a short text read at normal speed then reconstructing as well as paraphrasing or
interpreting (the ‘gloss’-part) the text. According to Wajnryb (1990), the task focuses not only on
learning in a whole class setting (on learner output) but also on learner interaction. In implementing the
Dictogloss technique, teachers easily fit the stages of Dictogloss tasks creatively into students‟ needs.
In the different stages of Dictogloss, learners may be involved in listening, remembering and/or writing
Wajnryb (1990) has stated that Dictogloss is a recent technique in language teaching which takes
a little step after the dictation technique (hence part of its name), which consists of asking learners to
reconstruct a dictated text and to capture as much as possible of the information content accurately and
in an acceptable linguistic form. Swain and Lapkin (1998) in extensive research on learning outcomes
in a French immersion program found that Dictogloss was effective in helping students internalize their
linguistic knowledge by making them aware of language form and function.

D. Genre Analysis
Language is context-sensitive. To understand language, we need to have some knowledge of its
context. Context can also determine the kind of language that is used. For example, a request for a
loan will be worded differently if it is made to a friend rather than to a bank manager. The study of
ways in which social contexts impact upon language choices is called genre analysis. A genre is
a type of text whose overall structure and whose grammatical and lexical features have been
determined by the contexts in which it is used, and which over time have become institutionalized.
An example of using genre analysis in grammar instruction is through the Internet news bulletin –
in order to teach ways in which news is reported. A genre is a text-type whose features have become
conventionalized over time. A sports commentary, an e-mail message, a political speech and an
Internet news bulletin are all examples of different genres.

Focus on Form Instruction (Theory)

Mayo (2002) has said that focus on form is a form approach that addresses the students ‘need to
attend to form; the term ‘form’ itself is often used to refer exclusively to ‘grammar’. Long and Robinson
(1998) have said that focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code
features by the teacher and/or one or more students triggered by perceived problems with
comprehension or production.
“Focus on forms” refers to instruction involving a structure-of-the-day approach, where the
students’ primary focus is on form (i.e., accuracy) and where the activities are directed
intensively at a single grammatical structure. This approach, then, involves teaching grammar in a
series of separate lessons.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #10

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

Alternatively, focus on form can be incidental, where attention to form in the context of a
communicative activity is not predetermined but rather occurs in accordance with the participants’
linguistic needs as the activity proceeds. In this approach, it is likely that attention will be given to a
wide variety of grammatical structures during any one task and thus will be extensive. Focus on form
implies no separate grammar lessons but rather grammar teaching integrated into a curriculum
consisting of communicative tasks.
In short, focus on form instruction is a type of instruction that, on the one hand, holds up the
importance of communicative language teaching principles such as authentic communication and
student-centeredness, and, on the other hand, maintains the value of the occasional and overt study.
Teachers can help their students and learners can help their peers notice the forms that they currently
lack, yet should know in order to further their overall L2 grammatical development.

Focus on Form Instruction (Practice)

In this section, only three out of the eleven teaching techniques of focus on form will be
introduced. Figure 3 below indicates the degree of obtrusiveness of each technique (Doughty and
Williams, 2006). Obtrusiveness, in this case, means that grammar structures are presented explicitly by
using metalingustic terms (see Fig. 3). Figure 3 shows that the most implicit technique is the Input
flood, whereas the most explicit technique is the Garden path.

Unobtrusive Obtrusive
Input flood X
Task-essential language X
Input enhancement X
Negotiation X
Recast X
Output enhancement X
Interaction enhancement X
Dictogloss X
Consciousness-raising tasks X
Input procession X
Garden path X

Technique 1: Input flood

Input flood means that a teacher provides students with “plentiful exemplars” of a linguistic
feature both orally and textually so that students can acquire ample opportunities to encounter a certain
linguistic feature. That is to say, a target grammar is repetitively presented by input flood; therefore,
students are likely to notice the form, function, and meaning of the grammar unconsciously without
metalinguistic explanations or error corrections (Doughty and Williams, 2006).
Using input flood, Martha Trahey and Lydia White conducted an experiment in which the
purpose was to discover whether students could correct the grammatical error of putting an adverb

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

between a verb and a direct object. According to the result of input flood, students made a grammatical
error such as “Anne watched quietly the television” even though sufficient input such as “Anne quietly
watched the television” was repeatedly provided during class. For this reason, Doughty and William
state that using input flood alone is “too implicit to be maximally effective”.

Technique 2: Recast
Recast is similar to a child’s L1 acquisition wherein mother frequently recasts her child’s
incorrect utterance and presents a correct one. Ellis defines recast as “reformulations of deviant learner
utterances”. In other words, a teacher reformulates a learner’s incorrect form into a correct form
indirectly, not saying that their utterance was wrong.
Example:
STUDENT: And they found out the one woman run away.
TEACHER: OK, the woman was running away. [Recast]
STUDENT: Running away

Technique 3: Garden path

Garden path, the most explicit technique, refers to a process in which a teacher encourages learners to
make overgeneralizations concerning a grammatical rule in order for the learners to notice the form
more effectively. That is to say, when a teacher plans to teach a certain target form, the teacher only
briefly explains the major rules of the form instead of its exceptions. Then, the teacher corrects
students’ errors, providing the rule of the exceptions when students’ overgeneralizations actually occur
(Doughty and William, 2006).
Example:
Garden path adjectives
Path
Cute the cutest
Sexy the sexiest
Grand the grandest

Exception
Beautiful the *beautifulest Point out error here

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
A. Provide the grammatical item/structure that can be taught using scripted dialogues,
authentic text, dictogloss and genre analysis. Write at least two for each.

Scripted Dialogue Eg. Present perfect tense

1.
2.
Authentic Text 1.
2.
Dictogloss 1.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: ______________

2.
Genre analysis 1.
2.

B. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of using the focus on form approach.
Advantages Disadvantages

“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your
score on your paper.”

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Read the questions below and write your answers on the third column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What are scripted dialogues, authentic

texts, dictoglosses and genre analysis?

2 How useful are they in L2 grammar

instruction?

3 Why should teachers focus on form when

teaching grammar?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Write POSITIVE if the statement is correct and NEGATIVE if otherwise. Write your answer in
the space before each number.
__________ 1. Focus on form involves teaching grammar in a series of separate lessons.
__________ 2. All students find authentic texts interesting and relevant.
__________ 3. The study of ways in which social contexts impact upon language choices is
called genre analysis.
__________ 4. Garden path is the most explicit technique based on the focus on form
approach.
__________ 5. Using scripted texts involves students listening to a short text read at normal
speed then reconstructing as well as paraphrasing or interpreting the text.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #11

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________ Date: ____________

Lesson title: Practicing Grammar via Drills, Information Gap Materials:

Activities, and Personalization Tasks Student Activity Sheets
Lesson Objectives: References:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: Eisenberg, S. L. (2013). Grammar
1. criticize the effectiveness of drills, information gap activities intervention: Content and procedures
and personalization tasks in practicing grammar; and for facilitating children's language
2. design drills, personalization tasks and information gap development. Topics in Language
Disorders, 33(2), 165-
activities for a chosen grammatical item/structure.
Sharifian, F. (Ed.). (2009). English as
an international language:
3. Perspectives and pedagogical
issues (Vol. 11). Multilingual Matters.

Productivity Tip:
Schedule doing practice drills similar to the ones in this module two more times this
week. Doing short drills on different days will help you master the process!

A. LESSON PREVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Welcome once again to TAG! Today, we will discuss the use of drills, information gap activities
and personalization tasks. You will also get to choose a grammatical item; and design a lesson
using these drills, information gap activities and personalization tasks.
Since you are going to do a lot of hands-on activities after the main lesson, get your creative
juices flowing as well as your papers and pens and/or laptops!

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Here are some questions that will guide you in understanding our topic. Kindly answer them
based on what you know. Answers must be written on the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned

(Activity 4)
1 What is drill-based practice? How
useful are they in grammar
instruction?

2 What are information gap activities?

Why use them in teaching grammar?

3 On what approach did

personalization tasks originate? Why
are they necessary in teaching?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #11

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________ Date: ____________

B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

How to Teach Grammar: Drill-Based Practice

Before using drills, Eisenberg (2007) does not recommend the use of discrete skill instruction
[e.g., grammar analysis, modeling, imitation drills, error detection, and sentence combining] as the sole
intervention approach, without embedding use of newly acquired structures in meaningful activities
Students must have a reason for doing the things that lead them to learn and use grammar so that they
can read, write, and speak better. In summary, there is a time and a place for drill-based practice.
Research suggest that drills are not created equal. Drills supported in the literature include:
• Imitating contrasting sentences (Connell, 1982)
• Modeling combined with production (Fey & Proctor-Williams, 2000)
• Combining sentences (Strong, 1986; Weaver, 1996)
Here is a walk though of the three strategies:
1. Modeling Combined with Production
Modeling (with or without student imitation) helps students produce new targets (Connell, 1987).
Students produce more untrained exemplars when they do have the opportunity to imitate the model.

2. Imitating Contrasting Sentences

Just having students imitate productions doesn’t help generalization, but contrastive imitation does
(Connell, 1982; Connell, 1986). The child imitates both the target and a contrasting form that is
semantically and/or grammatically related to the target. Here are some examples:
• Pronouns: The boy is walking. He is walking.
• Past Tense Verbs: He is eating. He ate.
• Auxiliary Verbs: He will eat. He is eating.
“The most effective timing of the imitation drill is immediately prior to an activity that involves contextual
use of the same structure” (Eisenberg, 2007).

3. Combining Sentences
Another approach is to provide students with two or more sentences and prompt them to create a
single, longer sentence (Strong, 1986). There are two types:
Cued Combining: The teacher underlines components to be combined and/or gives students
to use (e.g., conjunctions).
Example: I sometimes wonder SOMETHING. Superheroes do exist. (WHETHER) –> I sometimes
wonder whether superheroes do exist.
Open Combining: The teacher doesn’t give specific instructions and allows the student to
creatively combine the sentence.
Example: I like to eat cereal. I watch TV. –> I like to eat cereal before I watch TV.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________ Date: ____________

Teaching Grammar: Information Gap Activities

Teachers are often searching for activities to make their classroom more
interactive; language teachers in particular are also looking for activities that
promote target language use. Info Gap activities are excellent activities as
they force the students to ask each other questions; these activities help
make the language classroom experience more meaningful and authentic.
This section will explain in more detail what Info Gap activities are and why
they are useful; it will also give some examples of Info Gap activities for any
language classroom.

What is an Info Gap activity?

An information gap refers to when students don’t have all the information they need to complete
a task or activity. An Info Gap activity takes place between students, not between a student and a
teacher, though a teacher can certainly demonstrate the activity. Information gap activities require
students to speak and to practice teamwork, working with their classmates to acquire the missing
information. Once they’ve learned the information from their classmates, they can fill the “gap” and
complete the task or activity. The two students will be asking each other questions to which they don’t
know the answer; these questions are called referential questions. The goal of the activity is for the
students to discover certain information, whether about the other person or related to a specific activity.

What are referential and display questions?

A referential question is a question to which the person asking does not know the answer. For
example, you might ask a new student: “Where are you from?” or “What is your name?”. The teacher
does not know the answer to these questions; the purpose of asking these questions is to discover
information, similar to the Info Gap activities.
A display question is a question to which the person asking does know the answer. For
example, you might ask a student: “What color is my sweater” or “Do I have long or short hair? The
teacher clearly knows the answer to these questions; the purpose of asking is to promote student
speaking, or to prompt students to remember certain information (whether it be vocabulary, grammar,
etc.).
You may search this link to look for examples of Info Gap Activities:
https://bestofbilash.ualberta.ca/info%20gap%20activities.html

Communicative Grammar Teaching: Personalization Tasks

Personalization happens when activities allow students to use language to express their own
ideas, feelings, preferences and opinions. Personalization is an important part of
the communicative approach, since it involves true communication, as learners communicate real
information about themselves. For example, the learners have read a text about sports. In pairs they
talk about what their favorite sports are and whether they prefer to play or watch.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________ Date: ____________

In a language classroom, there is only a very loose correlation between what teachers teach
and what students actually learn (Jones, 2020). As a language teacher, your role must be of a learning
facilitator and your priorities are to motivate students, make language learning memorable and, above
all, encourage meaningful exchanges

Personalizing activities with Motivation, Memory and Meaning

Personalized activities harness the three Ms by tapping into the richest free resource in the
classroom: our students’ own knowledge, experience and feelings. Here’s an example:
Compare and contrast these two-simple gap-fill exercises that test the students’ knowledge of
present simple and continuous forms. Which one is likely to be more motivating, more memorable and
encourage more meaningful exchanges?
A. B.
Complete the sentences using the correct Write true sentences about yourself with
form of the verbs in brackets. the affirmative or negative form of the
1. I_____ (not understand) this question verbs in brackets.
2. Tess______(hope) that people ____ (like) 1. I ____(need) a new pair of trainers.
her designs 2. I_____(wear) my favorite T-shirt today.
3. Please be quiet. I ____(work) 3. I_____ (buy) all my clothes online.

Ask each other questions based the

sentences above.
Do you need a pair of trainers?

Hopefully, you chose B. Sadly, so many of the textbooks in the classroom are filled with type A
exercises: their sole purpose is to provide a form-driven ‘context’ for the target language. The student
gets it right (or gets it wrong) and moves on. There’s very little engagement, very little to remember and
very little learning (Jones, 2020).

Look for meaning in language

In Teaching Language: From Grammar to Grammaring, Diane Larsen-Freeman asserts that
students will best acquire the structures or patterns when they are put into situations that require
them to use structures and patterns for some meaningful purpose other than decontextualized or
mechanistic practice. She further suggests that students need to come to know grammar as a resource
for meaning-making. Language exists to make meanings. By personalizing even, the most basic
grammar exercise, the language suddenly becomes meaningful, not meaningless.
The real learning happens when students (and teachers) engage with each other and exchange
meanings as human beings rather than as mere language learners.

Memorization is connected to personalization

Let’s not forget the strong connection between personalization and memorization. It’s called the
‘self-reference effect’. Farzad Sharifian in 2009 refers found out that free recall of linguistic items is
superior when those items have been processed with reference to the self rather than others or other
things.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________ Date: ____________

He goes on to suggest that the self-reference effect can best be employed in developing
materials and exercises for language learners. Students are more likely to remember “I’m wearing my
favorite T-shirt today” than “Maria is wearing cool silver earrings”. Who is Maria?

By embedding the instruction of grammar in the teaching of content, teachers can draw
students’ attention to both the functional and social significance of various grammatical
patterns in language exchange. For example, a teacher would say:“Okay, class, today we are going
to talk about adverbs (or punctuation, or past tense).”
While some of us might gleefully pull-out pen and paper — outside of a class of, perhaps,
linguistics majors or language teachers — groans are the likely response to such an announcement.
Justified or not, the topic of grammar has gained the reputation of being boring, tedious, and irrelevant.
The goal of a teacher is to offer ways to counter negative perceptions and reluctance to engage
with grammar by connecting it to (real) communication, in a way that makes it contextualized,
meaningful, and significant.
.
Sample Lesson: Practicing the present perfect using a personalization task (elementary)

The following activity attempts to meet the conditions for fluency (e.g. a high turnover of chunk-type language) while
incorporating an element of personalization. In this way it aims for a deeper level of personal investment in the task.

Step 1
The teacher writes the following table on the board
One person
Two people
Three people in our group has + -ed
Everyone have
No one
He provides an example sentence. For example: Two people in our group have acted in a play. He established that
the time frame implied is that of ‘your whole life up to now’. He elicits other verbs that could fill the fourth column of the
table, including a range of common irregular verbs such as seen, been to, had, met, eaten, done, gone etc.

Step 2
The teacher puts the class into groups of four, with the instruction what they should produce as many true sentences
about their group as they can in ten minutes, using only sentences generated by the table. A spokesperson is
appointed for each group who will have the job reporting on some of the more interesting findings. The teacher
monitors the group work, checking that students are on task, and providing help with vocabulary needed.

Step 3
The teacher brings the class back to ‘plenary’ mode, and asks the spokesperson from each group report on some of
the more interesting sentences. In the case of sentences beginning from One person… or Two/Three people… he
invites the other students to guess who is being referred to. He also asks some students to elaborate on their
experiences, by asking questions such as When did that happen? How did you feel at the time? Etc.

Step 4
Individually students write sentences about people in their class, based on the preceding activity. For example:
Tatyana has been to Australia.
Elena has eaten ostrich meat.
Yevgeni has worked in a restaurant.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #11

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________ Date: ____________

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Choose a specific grammar item that you want to teach (e.g. present tense) and make a lesson
plan on it. Make sure that this lesson plan includes
✓ Drills
✓ Information gap activities and
✓ Personalization tasks.
You may write it on a yellow pad or type it on long bond paper.

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

You have been doing excellent so far! Based on what you know now, kindly answer these
questions below. Write your answers on the third column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned
1 What is drill-based
practice? How useful are
they in grammar
instruction?
2 What are information
gap activities? Why use
them in teaching
grammar?
3 On what approach did
personalization tasks
originate? Why are they
necessary in teaching?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

AYE OR NAY
Write AYE if the statement is correct and NAY if the statement is incorrect.
_______ 1. Personalization tasks can take place at any stage of the lesson.
_______ 2. Drills, to be effective, must be embedded in meaningful activities.
_______ 3. Memorization and personalization are unrelated.
_______ 4. A teacher should prioritize teaching the structure of grammar over its functions.
_______ 5. Information gap activities increase student participation.

IDENTIFICATION
Read each statement and identify what is asked. Write your answer on the line before each
number.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #12

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date:______________

Lesson title: Accuracy vs. Fluency; Approaches to Dealing with Materials:

Errors and Mistakes Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: References:
Thornbury, S. (1999). How to teach
1. enumerate the importance of accuracy and fluency in
grammar (Vol. 3). Harlow: Longman.
grammar learning; and Corder, S. P. (1975). Error analysis,
2. apply the various approaches in dealing with errors in interlanguage and second language
grammar. acquisition. Language teaching, 8(4),
201-218.

Productivity Tip:
Try the Pomodoro Technique! Set your timer to 25 minutes and work on the module during
this time period. After this period, take a 5-minute break and then continue working on the
module again.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)

Good day to you! Today, we are going to explore one of the most controversial debates among
linguists, grammarians and ESL teachers about which is more important: accuracy or fluency?
How do I know that the student has learned to use the language correctly? Is it because they
are able to construct grammatically correct sentences? Or is it because they can communicate
their thoughts and emotions smoothly? Also, we are going to explore and apply the different
ways on how we, as teachers, should correct our students’ error without compromising their
motivation to learn.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Here are some questions you can reflect on before you start studying this module. Write your
answers in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is accuracy? Why is it
important?

2 What is fluency? Is it more important

than accuracy?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #12

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date:______________

3 What are the different approaches to

dealing with grammatical errors? When
is it best to apply these approaches?

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

FLUENCY vs. ACCURACY

So far we have been looking at ways of presenting grammar. But, as with any skill, simply
knowing what to do is no guarantee that you will be able to do it, or that you will be able to do it well.
Teachers will meet learners who are fast and fluent speakers, but whose language is practically
unintelligible because of the errors they make. There are also learners whose language is virtually error
free, but who are painful to interact with because the production of every word is a struggle. A happy
balance would be learners who are able to fine-tune their output so as to make it intelligible but who, at
the same time, are equipped with a core of readily available, fairly automatic language, so that they can
cope with the pressures of real-time communication. It is the purpose of practice activities to target
these two objectives: precision at applying the system, and automatization of the system. These two
objectives are called, respectively, accuracy and fluency.

A. ACCURACY

To achieve accuracy, the learner needs to devote some attention to form, i.e., to 'getting it
right'. Learners have only limited attentional resources, and it is often difficult for them to focus on form
and meaning at the same time. There is inevitably some trade-off between the two. So, for learners to
be able to devote time and attention to form, it helps if they are not worrying too much about meaning.
That suggests that practice activities focused on accuracy might work best if learners are already
familiar with the meanings they are expressing.

Learners need to value accuracy. That is, they need to see that without it, they risk being
unintelligible. This means that they need unambiguous feedback when they make mistakes that
threaten intelligibility. By correcting learners' errors, teachers not only provide this feedback, but they
convey the message that accuracy is important. Knowing they are being carefully monitored often helps
learners pay more attention to form.

To summarize, then, a practice activity which is good for improving accuracy will have these
characteristics:

• Attention to form: the practice activity should motivate learners to want to be accurate, and
they should not be so focused on what they are saying that they have no left-over attention to
allocate to how they are saying it.
• Familiarity: learners need to be familiar with the language that they are trying to get right.
• Thinking time: monitoring for accuracy is easier and therefore more successful if there is
sufficient time available to think and reflect.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date:______________

• Feedback: learners need unambiguous messages as to how accurate they are--this traditionally
takes the form of correction.

B. FLUENCY

Fluency is a skill: it is the ability to process language speedily and easily. Fluency develops as
the learner learns to automize knowledge. One way they do this is to use pre-assembled chunks of
language. Chunks may be picked up as single units, in much the same way as individual words are
learned. Common expressions like What's the matter? and D'you know what I mean? are typically
learned as chunks. Chunks may also be acquired when utterances are first assembled according to
grammar rules, and then later automized. Fluency activities are aimed at this process of automatization.

Too much attention to form may jeopardize fluency. So practice activities aimed at developing
fluency need to divert attention away from form. One way of doing this is to design practice tasks where
the focus is primarily on meaning. By requiring learners to focus on what they are saying, less attention
is available to dwell on how they are saying it. In this way, the conditions for automatization are created.

If fluency is the goal, practice activities should have these characteristics:

• Attention to meaning: the practice activity should encourage learners to pay attention less for
the form of what they are saying (which may slow them down) and more to the meaning.
• Authenticity: the activity should attempt to simulate the psychological conditions of real life
language use. That is, the learners should be producing and interpreting language under real-
time constraints, and with a measure of unpredictability.
• Communicative purpose: to help meet these last two conditions, the activity should have a
communicative purpose. That is, there should be a built-in need to interact.
• Chunking: at least some of the language the learners are practicing should be in the form of
short memorizable chunks which can be automized.
• Repetition: for automatization to occur, the practice activity should have an element of built-in
repetition, so that learners should produce a high volume of the targeted forms.

APPROACHES TO DEALING WITH ERRORS AND MISTAKES

We need to define grammatical mistakes and errors and distinguish these from (nonstandard)
language varieties and usage. According to Corder (1967, in Ellis, 1994), mistakes are related to an
inaccuracy in performance rather than language knowledge or skill. In other words, a language user
who makes a mistake, ‘knows’ the grammatically correct form and, for some reason, when speaking or
writing, does not use the correct form in a particular moment. Errors, on the other hand, are more
habitual and can be attributed to lack of awareness or proficiency in the form. Both errors and
mistakes also differ from the moment in which the forms used might be deemed acceptable by native
speakers of English, but do not follow the prescriptive rules of the language. For example:

Husband to wife: I just wanted to let you know that I’m going to the movies Friday night.
Wife to husband: Oh. Who are you going with?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #12

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date:______________

If the wife in the above dialogue were to follow the prescriptive rule, the interaction would be as
follows:
Husband to wife: I just wanted to let you know that I’m going to the movies Friday night.
Wife to husband: Oh. With whom are you going?

What are Errors?

Language learners make mistakes. This seems to happen regardless of the teacher's skills and
perseverance. It seems to be an inevitable part of learning a language. Most teachers believe that to
ignore these mistakes might put at risk the learner's linguistic development.

Here, for example, is a written text produced by a Spanish-speaking student:

The Sunday night past, the doorbell rangs, I opened the door and I had a big surprise, my brother
was stopping in the door. He was changing a lot of. He was having a long hair but him looking was very
interesting. Now, he's twenty five years, and he's lower. We speaked all night and we remembered a lot
of thinks. At last when I went to the bed was the four o'clock.

While it is clear that text is non-standard (by native speaker standards) it is not always an easy
task to identify the individual errors themselves. Take for example, I had a big surprise. At first sight
there seems to be nothing wrong with this. It is a grammatically well-formed sentence--that is, the
words are in the right order, the tense is correct, and the subject and verb agree. Moreover, the
meaning is clear unambiguous. But would a native speaker ever say it? According to corpus evidence
(that is, databases of spoken and written texts) something can be a big surprise, a person can be in for
a big surprise, you can have a big surprise for someone, but instances of I had a big surprise simply do
not exist. Should we conclude, therefore, that it is wrong? The answer is yes, if we imagine a scale a
'wrongness' ranging from 'completely wrong' to 'this is OK, but a native speaker would never say it'.
However, no corpus is big enough to include all possible sentences and, at the same time, new ways of
saying things are being constantly invented. This is a case, therefore, when the teacher has to use
considerable discretion.

Once an error has been identified, the next step is to classify it. Learners may make mistakes at
the level of individual words, in the way they put sentences together, or at the level of whole texts. At
the word level, learners make mistakes either because they have chosen the wrong word for the
meaning they want to express (My brother was stopping in the door instead of standing), or they have
chosen the wrong form of the word (lower instead of lawyer, thinks instead of things). These are lexical
errors. Lexical errors also include mistakes in the way words are combined: the Sunday night past
instead of last Sunday night. Grammar errors, on the other hand, cover such things as mistakes in
verb form and tense (the doorbell rangs, we speaked), and in sentence structure: was the four o'clock,
where the subject of the clause (of) has been left out. There is also a category of errors called
discourse errors which relate to the way sentences are organized and linked in order to make whole
texts. For example, in the student extract above at last suggests that what follows is the solution to a
problem: eventually would have been better in this context.

To sum up, then, the following categories of errors have been identified:
• lexical errors

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #12

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date:______________

• grammar errors
• discourse errors
and, in the case of spoken language:
• pronunciation errors

Responding to errors

What options has the teacher got when faced with a student's error? Let's imagine that, in the
course of a classroom activity, a student has been describing a person's appearance and said: “He has
a long hair”.

Here are some possible responses that the teacher might consider:
1. “No”. This is clearly negative feedback, but it offers the students no clue as to what was wrong.
The teacher may be assuming that the student has simply made a slip under pressure, and that
this does not therefore be able to self-correct. Unfortunately, this may leave the student
wondering Have I made a mistake, or haven't I?
2. “He has long hair”. This is a correction in the strictest sense of the word. The teacher simply
repairs the student's utterance--perhaps in the interest of maintaining the flow of the talk, but
at the same time, reminding the learner not to focus only on meaning at the expense of form.
3. “No article”. The teacher's move is directed at pinpointing the kind of error the student has made
in order to prompt self-correction, or, it that fails, peer-correction-- when learners correct each
other.
4. “No. Anyone”? An unambiguous feedback signal plus an invitation for peer-correction. By
excluding the option of self-correction, however, the teacher risks humiliating the original
student: perhaps the teacher knows the student well enough to rule out self-correction for this
error.
5. “He has...?” In other words, the teacher is replaying the student's utterance up to the point
where the error occurred, with a view to isolating the error as a clue for self-correction.
6. “He has a long hair?” Another common teacher strategy is to echo the mistake but with a
quizzical intonation. This is perhaps less threatening than saying No, but often learners fail to
interpret this as an invitation to self-correct, and think that the teacher is simply questioning the
truth of what you have just said.
7. “I'm sorry, I didn't understand?” Variations on this response include Sorry? He what? Excuse
me? Etc. These are known as clarification responses and, of course, occur frequently in real
conversation. As a correction device they signal to the student that the meaning of their
message is unclear, suggesting that it may have been distorted due to some problem of form
8. Just one? Like this? (draws bald man with one long hair) Ha ha... The teacher has pretended to
interpret the student's utterance literally, in order to show the student, the unintended effect of
the error.
9. “A long hair is just one single hair, like you find in your soup. For the hair on your head you
wouldn’t use an article: He has long hair”. The teacher uses the error to make an impromptu
teaching point. This is an example of reactive teaching, where instruction is in response to
students’ errors rather than trying to pre-empt them.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #12

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date:______________

10. “Oh, he has long hair, has he?” This technique (sometimes called reformulation) is an example
of covert feedback, disguised as a conversational aside. The hope is, that the student will take
the veiled correction on board but will not be inhibited from continuing the flow of talk.
11. “Good”. Strange as this seems, it is in fact a very common way that teachers provide feedback
on student production, especially in activities where the focus is more on meaning than on
form.
12. Teacher says nothing but writes down error for future reference. The intention here is to
postpone the feedback so as not to disrupt the flow of talk, but to deal with errors later.

To sum up, then: learners’ errors offer the teacher a rich source of data with which to
monitor learning. At the same time, learners need feedback on their production. This suggests
that teachers should deal with at least some of the errors that arise. To do this, they have a wide
range of feedback options available. The choice of feedback strategy will depend on such factors
as:
• The type of error: Does it have a major effect on communication? Is it one that the learner
could probably self-repair?
• The type of activity: Is the focus of the activity more on form or on meaning? If the latter, it is
probably best to correct without interfering too much with the flow of communication.
• The type of learner: Will the learner be discouraged or humiliated by correction?
Alternatively, will the learner feel short-changed if there is no correction?

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Read the questions below and answer them briefly.
A. How can you promote a balance between accuracy and fluency in your grammar lessons?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
B. Choose three approaches to deal with grammatical errors, explain them in your own words
and discuss how you will apply them in the classroom.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Read these questions again. Based on what you have learned, write your answers in the third
column.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #12

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date:______________

What I Know Questions: What I Learned

1 What is accuracy? Why is it
important?
2 What is fluency? Is it more
important than accuracy?

3 What are the different

approaches to dealing with
grammatical errors? When is it
best to apply these approaches?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

A. Enumerate the characteristics that a practice activity for improving accuracy should have:
1. ________________________________
2. ________________________________
3. ________________________________
4. ________________________________
B. Enumerate the characteristics that a practice activity for improving fluency should have:
1. ________________________________
2. ________________________________
3. ________________________________
4. ________________________________
5. ________________________________
C. Write the kind of error approach being used in the statement?
1. The teacher says I’m sorry. I didn't understand? Variations on this response include
Sorry? He what? Excuse me? What is this called?
2. The teacher uses the error to make an impromptu teaching point, where instruction is in
response to students’ errors rather than trying to pre-empt them.
3. The teacher involves the students in correcting each other’s mistakes.
4. The teacher marks out each word on her fingers, indicating with her fingers the part of the
phrase or sentence that needs repair.
5. The teacher rephrases what the student said in order to correct it.

“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your
score on your paper.”

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #12

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date:______________

Write three important points that you learned today from our lesson
1.
2.
3.
FAQs
Q: How can students avoid grammatical errors or mistakes, especially in their writing?
A: There are five basic ways that will help you to overcome grammar mistakes. All of them perfectly
work separately from each other. But you will be sure to achieve the highest results only using all of
them as a complex.
1. Read Books and Check the Dictionaries
Psychologists have long been studying the relationship between reading and writing. One of their
conclusions speaks in favor of the fact that it is necessary to read. It is not enough to know the rules to
write correctly. It is necessary to constantly accumulate images of words with traditional spellings. And
this can be done only during the reading.
2. Read the News
Reading good classical literature is always helpful, but do not forget that the language is constantly
changing.
3. Use Your Subconscious Memory
When you repeat the same mistake many times (note, it must be correct!), Then this action is imprinted
in our subconscious. Even if you don’t work with grammar for a long time, your memory will still tell you
the correct spelling at the right time.
5. Feel Free to Use Online Checkers
You can use an essay editor to make sure your grammar is perfect. Such a service is completely
different from such tools as Grammarly or Reverso. This essay corrector has in-build machine learning
algorithms. In other words, your text is checked by a program, not by a person.

KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 5
A. Characteristics of practice activities to develop accuracy
4. Attention to form
5. Familiarity
6. Thinking time
7. Feedback
B. Characteristics of practice activities to develop fluency
1. Attention to meaning
2. Authenticity
3. Communicative purpose
4. Chunking
5. Repetition
C. Kinds of error correction
1. Clarification responses
2. Reactive teaching
3. Peer correction
4. Finger-coding
5. Reformulation

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #13

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

Lesson title: Integrating Grammar in the Classroom in Theory Materials:

and Practice using PPP and TTT Model Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: References:
1. compare and contrast the PPP and TTT model; and Criado, R. (2013). A critical review of
2. apply each model in a grammar lesson. the presentation-practice-production
3. model (PPP) in foreign language
teaching. Homenaje a francisco
gutiérrez díez, 97-115.
Paudel, P. (2018). Use of Test-Teach-
Test Method in English as a Foreign
Language Classes. Journal of NELTA
Surkhet, 5, 15-27.

Productivity Tip:
Remove items from your desk or study area that may distract you such as your phone or work
away from the television.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)

Welcome to another learning-filled session! Today I really need all your attention to this lesson. We will
discuss two models for integrating grammar in a language lesson. One model that will be tackled is the
PPP model – presentation, practice and production. The other one is task-based model or the three Ts
– Task, Teach, Task. See they are easy to remember! Just remember their acronyms, PPP and TTT.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Here are the questions to guide you as you study this module. Answer them based on what you know.
Write your answers in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is the PPP model?

2 What is the TTT model?

3 Which one more effective, PPP or

TTT model?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #13

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)
The PPP Model

During the 1950s, an approach emerged in the United Kingdom based on behaviorist teaching practices
known as PPP, which soon popularized the field of language teaching and employed by many professional
schools throughout the world. As its name suggests, PPP is divided into three phases, moving from tight
teacher control towards greater learner freedom.

Presentation, Practice and Production is a three-part teaching paradigm based on behaviorist theory which
states that learning a language is just like learning any other skill.
Stages of PPP Model
A. Presentation stage. The teacher begins the lesson by setting up a situation, either eliciting or modeling
some language that the situation calls for. Presentation may consist of model sentences, short dialogues
illustrating target items, either read from the textbook, heard on the tape or acted out by the teacher.

B. Practice stage. Students practice the new language in a controlled way. They drill -sentences or dialogues
by repeating after the teacher or the tape, in chorus and individually, until they can say them correctly. Other
practice activities are matching parts of sentences, completing sentences or dialogues and asking and
answering questions using the target language.

C. Production stage. Students are encouraged to use the new language in a freer way, either for their own
purposes and meanings or in a similar context introduced by the teacher. It can be a role play, a simulation
activity or a communication task.

Application of PPP
Level: Beginners
Time: 11-14 minutes
Subject: Grammar Through Conversation

1. Presentation: explaining/reading (3 minutes)

2. Practice: Video watching and practice/ pair-work and chorus repetition (4 minutes)
3. Production: Pair-work/conversation (6 minutes)

The TTT Model

It is an approach to teaching where learners first complete a task or activity without help from the
teacher. Then, based on the problems seen, the teacher plans and presents the target language. Then the
learners do another task to practice the new language. The Test Teach Test model is a kind of lesson format
which is useful when you know or suspect that learners have some knowledge of an area but are unsure how

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #13

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

much. It allows you to find out, and then base your teaching in the rest of the lesson on the results.

Stages of TTT Model

A. Prior Test.

• Teacher first has to introduce the topic within a minute then simply set a task.
• The task helps the teacher to detect learners' lack of knowledge.
• Tests or tasks in this stage are done through group work using non-composing activities like: (match –
choose – fill the gaps).
B. Teach.
• Teachers make clarifications based on the previous test.
• Teacher clarify and present using drills and teaching aids.
• Repetitions are done in group or chorus drills.
• The teacher divides sentence to words and words to syllables in order to be accurate
• Correct grammar and pronunciation is highlighted according to students’ mistakes through the previous
test.
C. Final Test.
• This test is based on what learners have learnt from the previous teaching stage.
• Teacher can manage discussions and emphasize on accurate language usage.
• Learners now can put words together and form sentences into practice.

Application of TTT Model

Level: Intermediate
Time: 11:14 minutes
Subject: Grammar
1. Test: group-work/filling gaps (3 minutes)
2. Teach: correcting, clarifying and practicing (5 minutes)
3. Test: Pair-work/sentence formation (4 minutes)

Conclusion
We have taken a wider-angle view of the role of grammar, and looked at it from the perspective of the
design of lessons as a whole, attempting to answer the question: How does grammar fit into a lesson? Two
contrastive models of lesson design have been examined: the PPP model, and the task-based one. Each of
these derives from a different theory of learning, the major claims of each theory being:
In the PPP model In the task-based model
• Language is learned in bits and in steps • Language is acquired in lumps and in leaps
• Fluency develops out of accuracy • Accuracy develops after fluency
• Grammatical knowledge is proceduralized • The internal grammar develops through
through practice exposure and interaction

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #13

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Compare and contrast the PPP model and TTT model by comparing their usability, economy,
effectiveness, etc. Write as many as you can.

PPP Model TTT model

If you are going to choose between the PPP model and TTT model in teaching a grammatical item,
which would you prefer and why?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Based on our discussion, read and answer these questions again. Write your answers in the third
column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned
1 What is the PPP model?

2 What is the TTT model?

3 Which one more effective, PPP

or TTT model?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #13

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

TRUE or FALSE
Write True if the statement is correct and False if otherwise.
_______ 1. The PPP has three stages: prior test, practice and production.
_______ 2. PPP model believes learning happens in leaps while TTT model promotes learning in bits
and pieces.
_______ 3. The PPP model assumes that accuracy precedes fluency
_______ 4. The TTT is a three-part teaching paradigm based on behaviorist theory which states that
learning a language is just like learning any other skill.
_______ 5. The TTT model prioritizes fluency over accuracy.

“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on
your paper.”

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

Aside from removing distractions such as your mobile phone when studying, how do you study
effectively? Please share at least three tips.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

FAQs

Q: How can we integrate grammar and writing more effectively?

A: Try these 5 tips to integrate grammar and writing

1. Take time to read in writing class

Any time you can emphasize the crucial relationship between reading and writing will be beneficial for the
students. When you introduce a grammar concept, show students a model paragraph or text which illustrates
this concept nicely. For example, when teaching indirect/reported speech, you can take a news article and
highlight the examples of indirect speech for the students to expose them to this new form. Ask students to
study these bolded sentences, and ask why these sentences are written the way they are. For indirect speech,
you could show two copies of the same article, one with direct speech and one with indirect speech. Allow the

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #13

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

students to compare and contrast to figure out the grammatical rules underlying this concept.

2. A writing per day keeps the errors away

After introducing and practicing a grammar concept, give students a short informal writing to illustrate that
grammar concept. Whether it is a paragraph or a full essay, immediate writing with a prompt aimed at eliciting
the grammar structure will get students into producing the grammar more naturally than sentence drills. By
writing more frequently, you are building their association between grammar and writing. Also, emphasizing
writing more than grammar in the classroom enforces the idea that language learning is not simply memorizing
rules.

3. Design your lessons with your students in mind

Each time you evaluate student writing, jot down a few sentences from each student’s paper that contain
errors. A good warm-up activity is to make a worksheet based on student errors and go over them as a class.
Remind students that everyone makes mistakes, even the teacher, and that each student has one error
represented in the worksheet. After students have practiced correcting these errors, they can return to their
writing to revise and improve.

4. Design your rubric with grammar in mind

Typically speaking, students will write formal papers using only the grammatical structures with which they feel
comfortable. Rather than taking risks, students stay on the safe side and use simplistic sentences. To push
them to practice using the more complex structures that you’ve been teaching in class, design your rubric to
include specific points addressing which kinds of grammatical structures you would like to see.

5. Use pictures to elicit writing

Some grammatical structures are difficult to bring out in expository writing. For example, the present
progressive is used quite infrequently compared with present simple. As a way to elicit a wide range of tenses,
you can use pictures in your writing classroom. Depending on the particular grammar structure you are
teaching, pictures give writers the freedom to practice virtually any tense. For present progressive, you can ask
students to describe what is happening in the picture. For present perfect, you can show a picture of a person
and ask students to write down life experiences of this person. For advanced students, you can ask them to
predict that person’s future using future simple and future perfect progressive.

KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3 – answers may vary, please use a rubric to score the answers

Activity 5
TRUE OR FALSE
1.False
2.False
3.True
4.False
5.True

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #14

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date: _____________

Lesson title: Testing Grammar Using Discrete-item Tests and Materials:

Oral Performance Exams Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: References:
Lämmel, R. (2001, April). Grammar
1. evaluate the effectiveness of discrete-item tests in language
testing. In International Conference on
proficiency; and Fundamental Approaches to Software
2. construct an oral performance exam. Engineering (pp. 201-216). Springer,
Berlin, Heidelberg.
Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for
language teachers. Ernst Klett
Sprachen.

Productivity Tip:
{Give students a simple tip on how to work more efficiently. For example, “Start strong! Train your
brain to shift to work mode by setting a regular time during the day for your lessons. Set an alarm
and stick to your working hours.”}

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Good morning! Since we are done with the teaching part, let us now go the assessment
(testing) part of this course. We will begin by examining the effectiveness of discrete-item tests
as well as oral performance exams in testing grammar competence. As we mentioned in the
orientation to this course, testing is a salient part of assessment. In next topics, we will be
discussing other assessment methods or techniques.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Please read the questions below to prepare your minds for our lesson today. Based on what
you know, write your answers to these questions in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What are discrete-test items? Are
they effective in evaluating
language proficiency?
2 What are oral language exams?
When are they best administered?

3 Why is testing an important part of

grammar instruction?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #14

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date: _____________

B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

HOW TO TEST GRAMMAR

You have taught the grammar. You have practiced it. You have corrected it. But how do you
know if the process has worked? How do you test it?

USING DISCRETE ITEM TEST

Discrete item test refers to the testing of one element at a time, item by item. This might involve,
for example, a series of items each testing a particular grammatical structure (Hughes, 2003). This type
of test responds to the underlying assumption that language can be broken down into its component
parts and those parts tested in turn. These components are the four skills (listening, speaking, reading,
writing) and the different linguistic components (morphology, graphology, spelling, grammar,
morphology, syntax and vocabulary), together with subcategories within these units. Accordingly, test is
devised in order to assess just one of these components (Resla, 1996).

Examples of Discrete Item Test

A. Multiple Choice
Multiple choice is a form of assessment in which respondents are asked to select the best
possible answer (or answers) out of the choices from a list.
For example:
Because my mother was sick, I _____ to go home last week.
a. had b. Have c. has d. hadn’t.

B. Completion Item
The completion item requires the student to answer a question or to finish an incomplete
statement by filling in a blank with the correct word or phrase.
For example:
Give the book to ______ woman in the blue dress. (the)
I will _______ to your house tomorrow. (come)
John _________ in this office since 2010. (have been working)

C. Yes/No; True/False
A true-false question is a specialized form of the multiple-choice format in which there are only
two possible alternatives. These questions can be used when the test- designer wishes to measure a
student's ability to identify whether statements of fact are accurate or not.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #14

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date: _____________

For example
In the simple present tense, we use did to make questions and negatives.
a) True b) False
We use present participle when we talk about plan.
a) True b) False

D. Spelling
Spelling is the writing of a word or words with the necessary letters and diacritics present in an
accepted standard order. For example:
Arrange the spelling bellow into words
El-ai-es-ti-i-en-ai-en-ji = listening
Be-yu-es-ai-en-i-es-es = business
Em-ou-vi-ai-i-es = movies

E. Phoneme Recognition
This form of listening assessment assesses students’ ability to correctly identify different
phonemes and morphemes commonly found in the English language. For example:
Phonemic Pair, consonants Students hear: (He is walking. He is working.)
Phonemic Pair, vowels Students hear: (Is he living? Is he leaving?) •
Morphological Pair, -ed ending Students hear: (We walk to school; We walked to school)

USING ORAL EXAM

An oral exam usually has a structured format and follow a list of questions that have been
prepared beforehand. Oral exam demonstrates your knowledge and mastery of a subject matter. It's
primary purpose is to demonstrate your presentation, speaking and interpersonal communication skills.
It usually done through face-face interaction while teacher poses questions to students in spoken form.
Students must then answer questions as appropriate, from the materials they have studied in
preparation for the exam.

Types of Oral Test

A. Monologue speaking (presentation)
Students are asked to perform some tasks such as show and tell where they talk about anything
they choose. Students are asked to construct a sentence following a certain pattern using the
information that they are given. For example:
A situation is given but no guidance is given as how to respond, and the students can respond freely
E.g: Your friend has been tired a lot recently. What do you say to her? (Maybe you should be getting
more rest.)

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #14

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date: _____________

B. Dialogue speaking (oral interview)

It is an open-ended test where the students lead a discussion with the teacher. Students in that
kind of test are required to use conversation skills that they have learned throughout the course.

C. Multilogue speaking (discussion & debate)

The discussions are student-generated, and students are put into groups where as a group,
they decide on a topic they feel would be of interest for the rest of the classroom. For example:

One student acts the part of a police officer, another a bus conductor, a third a bus- driver, a fourth a
passenger hurrying to visit a sick friend in hospital, and a fifth a bystander who wants to be helpful. The
passenger hurries to get on the bus and tell him that the bus is full and that he must get off. The
passenger can see an empty seat and he begins to argue. The bus is now in the middle of the road and
is a danger to other traffic. Act the roles given.

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

A. Complete the table below. You may use phrases or key words.
Discrete-test items Oral performance tests
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

B. Write down at least five grammatical items that can be tested using discrete-item tests and
oral performance tests (e.g. subject-verb agreement)
Discrete-item tests Oral performance tests
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #14

Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________ Date: _____________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Please read the questions again. Write your answers in the ‘What I Learned’ column
What I Know Questions: What I Learned
1 What are discrete-test
items? Are they effective in
evaluating language
proficiency?
2 What are oral language
exams? When are they best
administered?
3 Why is testing an important
part of grammar instruction?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

A. Write DIT if the statement describes discrete-item tests and OPE if it describes oral
performance exams.
______ 1. These are tests which test one element of language at a time.
______ 2. Through this test, you can test a particular grammatical structure.
______ 3. This type of test demonstrates your knowledge and mastery of a subject matter.
______ 4. This type of test is usually performed through personal contact.
______ 5. Monologue is considered under this test.

B. Enumerate five types of test that may be under discrete-item tests.

1. _________________________
2. ________________________
3. ________________________
4. ________________________
5. ________________________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

Summarize what you learned today in three sentences.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #15

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: The Role Assessment in Language Teaching Materials:

Lesson Objectives: Student Activity Sheet
At the end of this module, I should be able to:
1. examine the relationship between teaching and assessment; References:
Harlin, R., & Lipa, S. (1990). Emergent
and
literacy: A comparison of formal and
2. identify the types of assessment and apply it in a language informal assessment
learning setting. methods. Reading Horizons: A Journal
3. of Literacy and Language Arts, 30(3),

Productivity Tip:
“Create a five-item quiz about this topic. Take the quiz two days after finishing the module.
This will help you check what you remember!”

A. LESSON PREVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)

Asking students to demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter is critical to the
learning process; it is essential to evaluate whether the educational goals and standards of the
lessons are being met.
Assessment is an integral part of instruction, as it determines whether or not the goals of
education are being met. Assessment affects decisions about grades, placement, advancement,
instructional needs, curriculum, and, in some cases, funding. Assessment inspire us to ask
these hard questions: "Are we teaching what we think we are teaching?" "Are students learning
what they are supposed to be learning?" "Is there a way to teach the subject better, thereby
promoting better learning?"
Today's students need to know not only the basic reading and arithmetic skills, but also
skills that will allow them to face a world that is continually changing. They must be able to think
critically, to analyze, and to make inferences. Changes in the skills base and knowledge, our
students need require new learning goals; these new learning goals change the relationship
between assessment and instruction. We as teachers need to take an active role in making
decisions about the purpose of assessment and the content that is being assessed.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Before we start with the main lesson, kindly read and answer these questions to give you a
heads-up. Write your answers in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned

1 What is the relationship between
assessment and instruction

2. Why is assessment important in

teaching?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #15

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

3. What are the difference between

formal and informal assessment?

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

Assessment is one of the most important aspects of language teaching and learning. Assessment
has two main purposes: to make summative evaluations and to provide instructional feedback to help
learners progress. Both summative and formative assessments can be formal (standardized) or
informal (classroom-based). Informally, assessment provides feedback from peers and others; formally,
it provides information against a standard about how the student is progressing in specific areas.

There are two general categories of assessments: formal and informal.

Formal assessments are preplanned, systematic attempts to judge by the teacher to ascertain
what students have learned. This assessment usually produces a written document, such as a paper or
test. It has data which support the conclusions made from the test. We usually refer to these types of
tests as standardized measures.

These tests have been tried before on students and have statistics which support the conclusion
such as the student is reading below average for his age. The data is mathematically computed and
summarized. Scores such as percentiles, stanines, or standard scores are mostly commonly given from
this type of assessment. Example of formal assessments are: multiple choice exam, short answer,
exam, research paper, performance assessment, and comprehensive portfolio, etc.

Informal assessments are those assessments that result from teachers spontaneous day-to-day
observations of how students behave and perform in class. It is not data driven but rather content and
performance driven. For example, running records are informal assessments because they indicate
how well a student is reading a specific book. Scores such as 10 correct out of 15, percent of words
read correctly, and most rubric scores are given from this type of assessment. Some other examples of
informal assessments are: Minutes Essays, Peer Teaching, Question Time, 5 minute quiz

The assessment used needs to match the purpose of assessing. Formal or standardized measures
should be used to assess overall achievement, to compare a student's performance with others at their
age or grade, or to identify comparable strengths and weaknesses with peers. Informal assessments
sometimes referred to as criterion referenced measures or performance-based measures, should be
used to inform instruction.

Assessment is perhaps one of most difficult and important parts of our jobs as teachers. Ideally, it
should be seen as a means to help us guide students on their road to learning. No single procedure
can meet the needs of all learners and situations, so we need to remember to incorporate a variety of

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #15

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

tools to help our students know how they are progressing and to gauge the effectiveness of our own
methodology and materials.

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
A. Create a graphic organizer that shows how formal and informal assessment are utilized
inside an English class. Draw your diagram inside the box provided below.

B. Explain your diagram in five sentences. Write your answer in the lines provided below.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Based on what you know now, answer these questions once again. Write your answers in the
third column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned
1 What is the relationship
between assessment and
instruction

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #15

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

2 Why is assessment important

in teaching?

3. What are the differences

between formal and informal
assessment?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

TRUE or FALSE
Write True if the statement is true and False if otherwise.
________ 1. Assessment provides feedback to the teachers about their teaching and the
learners about their learning.
________ 2. Informal assessments are preplanned, systematic attempts to judge by the teacher
to ascertain what students have learned
________ 3. Comprehensive portfolio is an example of informal assessment.
________ 4. Informal assessments should be used to inform instruction.
________ 5. Other name of formal assessment is standardized measure.

ENUMERATION
What are the two general categories of assessment?
1. ________________________________
2. ________________________________
Other examples of formal assessments you can identify.
3. ________________________________
4. ________________________________
5. ________________________________
Cite at least 5 purposes of assessment
6. ________________________________
7. ________________________________
8. ________________________________
9. ________________________________
10. ________________________________

ESSAY
Discuss the functions of washback in language testing
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #16

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

Lesson title: Strategies for Classroom-Based Evaluation Materials:

Lesson Objectives: Student Activity Sheet, PowerPoint
At the end of this module, I should be able to: Presentation
1. enumerate the strategies for classroom-based evaluation; References:
Go, M. B., & Posecion, O. T. (2010).
and
Language and literature assessment:
2. select the best strategy for classroom-based evaluation. A comprehensive guide.
Genesee, F., & Upshur, J. A.
(1996). Classroom-based evaluation in
second language education.
Cambridge University Press.

Productivity Tip:
“After finishing this module, list down important concepts and terms that you remember. Do this for
about 5 minutes. Compare your list to the module materials after and see what you got right or if
you missed something.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Welcome to our last topic before your second periodic exam. Today we will discuss
classroom based evaluation and some classroom based strategies that you can use later in
your language classroom. When we say second language evaluation, it involves many different
kinds of decisions: decisions about the placement of individual students in particular streams,
levels or courses of instruction; about ongoing instruction; about planning new units of
instruction and revising units that have been used before; about textbooks or other materials;
about student homework; about instructional objectives and plans; and about many other
aspects of teaching and learning. There is more to evaluation than grading students and
deciding whether they should pass or fail. In fact, decisions about students, although important,
are few in number compared to the full range of decisions that are made daily in second
language classrooms. In the vast majority of cases, second language evaluation is concerned
with making decisions about instruction or plans for instruction. Even decisions about students
usually affect instruction. For example, a new student placed in your class partway through the
year will influence your teaching because you will have to accommodate this recent arrival.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Read the questions below and reflect on them. Write your answers in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned

1 Why do you evaluate? When
do you evaluate?
2 What do you think are
important characteristics of
proper evaluation?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #16

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

3 How do you decide to go on to

the next unit or chapter?

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

Classroom Based Evaluation

Teachers are actively and continuously involved in second language evaluation – sometimes as
the person making the actual decisions; sometimes in collecting relevant information for others who will
make the decisions; or sometimes helping others make decisions by offering interpretations of students’
performance. Even when teachers are not the actual decision makers, they are affected. For example,
someone else may be responsible for the placement of students in second language classes, but
teachers are responsible for teaching the students who are placed in their classes.

Second language evaluation relies on many different kinds of information. Although information
about student achievement is certainly relevant, it is not the only, or necessarily the most important,
information for making all decisions. Other factors can also be important – student behavior in class,
their attitudes toward school or themselves, their goals and needs concerning the outcomes of second
language learning, and their work habits, learning styles and strategies.

Aspects of classroom – based evaluation

Purpose of evaluating

Collecting information

Interpreting information

Purpose of evaluating
Purpose is a critical aspect of classroom-based evaluation, along with information,
interpretation and decision making.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #16

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

Figure 2 above shows the notions of instructional purposes, plans and practices because
instruction – whether we consider instruction of a course, a unit, or a lesson – consists of these three
components. The purposes identify the objectives of instruction – the “why.” The plans describe the
means of attaining those objectives – the “how.” And practices are what actually takes place in the
classroom – the “what.” We also discuss other factors that, strictly speaking, are not part of classroom
instruction itself but that, nevertheless, can have a significant effect on second language teaching and
learning. For example, community values and attitudes toward second language learning as well as
incoming students’ current levels of proficiency in the target language can determine the
appropriateness of a particular second language course. Or current theories about teaching and
learning may influence the effectiveness of the instructional approach of a second language course. We
refer to these additional factors as “input factors.”

Strategies for Classroom Based Evaluation

1. Assessing Prior Knowledge, Recall, and Understanding

a. Background Knowledge Probe - Short, simple questionnaires prepared by instructors for use at the
beginning of a course, at the start of a new unit or lesson, or prior to introducing an important new topic.
b. Focused Listing - Focuses students' attention on a single important term, name, or concept from a
particular lesson or class session and directs them to list several ideas that are closely related to that
"focus point."
c. Misconception/Preconception Check - Technique used for gathering information on prior
knowledge or beliefs that may hinder or block further learning.
d. Empty Outlines - The instructor provides students with an empty or partially completed outline of an
in-class presentation or homework assignment and gives them a limited amount of time to fill in the
blank spaces.
c. Memory Matrix - A simple two-dimensional diagram, a rectangle divided into rows and columns
used to organize information and illustrate relationships.
d. Minute Paper - Instructor asks students to respond in two or three minutes to either of the following
questions: "What was the most important thing you learned during this class? or "What important
questions remains unanswered?"
e. Muddiest Point - Technique consists of asking students to jot down a quick response to one
question: "What was the muddiest point in?" with the focus on the lecture, a discussion, a homework
assignment, a play, or a film

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #16

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

Assessing Skill in Analysis and Critical Thinking

a. Categorizing Grid - Students sort information into appropriate conceptual categories.
b. Defining Features Matrix - Students are required to categorize concepts according to the presence
(+) or absence (-) of important defining features.
c. Pro and Con Grid - Students list pros and cons of an issue.
d. Content, Form, and Function Outlines - Students analyze the "what" (content), "how" (form), and
"why" (function) of a particular message.
e. Analytic Memos - Students write a one- or two-page analysis of a specific problem or issue.

Assessing Skill in Syntheses and Critical Thinking

a. One-Sentence Summary - Students answer the questions "Who does what to whom, when, where,
how, and why?" about a given topic, and then synthesize those answers into a single informative,
grammatical, and long summary sentence.
b. Word Journal - Students first summarize a short text in a single word, and second, the student
writes a paragraph or two explaining why he chose that particular word to summarize the text.
c. Approximate Analogies - Students complete the second half of an analogy for which the instructor
has supplied the first half.
d. Concept Maps - Drawings or diagrams showing the mental connections that students make
between a major concept the instructor focuses on and other concepts they have learned.
e. Invented Dialogues - Students synthesize their knowledge of issues, personalities, and historical
periods into the form of a carefully structured, illustrative conversation.
f. Annotated Portfolios - Contain a very limited number of selected examples of a student's creative
work, supplemented by the student's own commentary on the significance of those examples.

Assessing Skill in Application and Performance

a. Directed Paraphrasing - Students paraphrase part of a lesson for a specific audience and purpose,
using their own words.
b. Applications Cards - Students write down at least one possible, real-world application for an
important principle, generalization, theory, or procedure that they just learned.
c. Student-Generated Test Questions - Students are asked to develop test questions from material
they have been taught.
d. Human Tableau or Class Modeling - Groups of students create "living" scenes or model processes
to show what they know. Students demonstrate their ability to apply what they know by performing it.
e. Paper or Project Prospectus - A prospectus is a brief, structured first-draft plan for a term paper or
term project. The Paper Prospectus prompts students to thin through elements of the assignment, such
as the topic, purpose, intended audience, major questions to be answered, basic organization, and time
and resources required.

Assessing Students' Awareness of Their Attitudes and Values

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #16

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

a. Classroom Opinion Polls - Students are asked to raise their hands to indicate agreement or
disagreement with a particular statement
b. Double-Entry Journals - Students begin by noting the ideas, assertions, and arguments in their
assigned course readings they find most meaningful and/or controversial. The second entry explains
the personal significance of the passage selected and responds to that passage.
c. Profiles of Admirable Individuals - Students are required to write a brief, focused profile of an
individual - in a field related to the course - whose values, skills, or actions they greatly admire.
d. Course-Related Self-Confidence Surveys - Students answer a few simple questions aimed at
getting a rough measure of the students' self-confidence in relation to a specific skill or ability.

Assessing Students' Self-Awareness as Learners

a. Focused Autobiographical Sketches - Students are directed to write a one- or two- page
autobiographical sketch focused on a single successful learning experience in their past - an
experience relevant to learning in the particular course in which the assessment technique is used.
b. Interest/Knowledge/Skills Checklist - Students rate their interest in various topics, and assess
their levels of skill or knowledge in those topics, by indicating the appropriate responses on a checklist
which has been created by the teacher.
c. Goal Ranking and Matching - Students list a few learning goals they hope to achieve through the
course and rank the relative importance of those goals.
d. Self-Assessment of Ways of Learning - Students describe their general approaches to learning, or
their learning styles, by comparing themselves with several different profiles and choosing those that, in
their opinion, most closely resemble them.

Assessing Course-Related Learning and Study Skills, Strategies, and Behaviors

a. Productive Study-Time Logs - Students keep a record of how much time they spend studying for a
particular class, when they study, and how productively they study at various times of the day or night..
b. Punctuated Lectures - Students and teachers go through five steps: listen, stop, reflect, write, and
give feedback. Students listen to lecture. The teacher stops the action and students reflect on what they
were doing during the presentation and how their behavior while listening may have helped or hindered
their understanding of that information. They then write down any insights they have gained and they
give feedback to the teacher in the form of short, anonymous notes.
c. Process Analysis - Students keep records of the actual steps they take in carrying out a
representative assignment and comment on the conclusions they draw about their approaches to that
assignment.
d. Diagnostic Learning Logs - Students keep records of each class or assignment and write one list
of the main points covered that they understood and a second list of points that were unclear.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #16

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Your mind must be having an overload from our lesson today. As you can see, there are
a handful of strategies you can use for classroom-based evaluation. Right now, let’s do some
synapse strengtheners. I want you to pick 5 strategies and apply them in a grammar lesson/s.
Then write your reason for choosing such strategy. Write your answers in the respective
columns as indicated in the table below.
Classroom Based Evaluation Grammar Lesson Reason
Strategy

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
We will discuss your answers after you have finished answering.

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Please read the questions again. Write down your answers in the third column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned
1 Why do you evaluate? When do
you evaluate?
2 What do you think are important
characteristics of proper
evaluation?
3 How do you decide to go on to
the next unit or chapter?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

True or False
Write True if the statement is correct and False if otherwise.
___________ 1. Second language evaluation is concerned with making decisions about
instruction or plans for instruction.
___________ 2. Purpose is not a critical aspect of classroom-based evaluation.
___________ 3. In the context of classroom based evaluation, the instructional plans describe
the means of attaining those objectives – the “how.”
___________ 4. Parent involvement is unnecessary in evaluation procedures.
___________ 5. Placement decisions have no effect on how teachers should give instruction.
Identification
Write down what is being described.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #16

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: ______________

_____________ 1. It is a technique used for gathering information on prior knowledge or beliefs

that may hinder or block further learning.
_____________ 2. Students sort information into appropriate conceptual categories.
_____________ 3. Drawings or diagrams showing the mental connections that students make
between a major concept the instructor focuses on and other concepts they
have learned.
_____________ 4. Students are asked to raise their hands to indicate agreement or
disagreement with a particular statement.
_____________ 5. Students keep records of each class or assignment and write one list of the
main points covered that they understood and a second list of points that were
unclear.
“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your
score on your paper.”

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

Write three important concepts that you learned today.
1. ____________________________________
2. ____________________________________
3. ____________________________________
FAQs
Q1: Who do you share the results of your evaluation with? Why?
A: We share the results of the evaluation with the students. It could be in the form of immediate
feedback or explaining to them the breakdown of their grades in order to know in which area they can
improve. Most importantly, results should be shared with parents so that they can assist their children in
making improvements in their learning. Furthermore, we can share the results with our fellow teachers
and other stakeholders to know how we can improve our teaching (includes instructional objectives,
plans and strategies).
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3 – answers may vary
Activity 5
True or False Identification
1. True 1. Misconception/Preconception Check
2. False 2. Categorizing Grid
3. True 3. Concept Maps
4. False 4. Classroom Opinion Polls
5. False 5. Diagnostic Learning Log

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #18

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Analysis; Reliability; Materials:

and Validity Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, I should be able to: References:
Go, M. B., & Posecion, O. T. (2010).
1. differentiate qualitative analysis from quantitative analysis
Language and literature assessment:
2. define the terms practicality, reliability and validity as part of A comprehensive guide.
good assessment.

Productivity Tip:
“Try playing some music while doing the exercises on this module.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Welcome to the last leg of this course. We are now in our third periodical. You are
almost near the finish line and I hope you finish this course with flying colors!
Today, we will be learning about quantitative and qualitative evaluation. Qualitative analysis is a
means of collecting data that does not lend itself to quantitative methods but rather to
interpretive criteria while quantitative analysis is a means of collecting data that can be analyzed
using quantitative methods, i.e. numbers, statistical analysis. Go over the main lesson to learn
more.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Read the questions below and answer them briefly. Write your answers in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity

4)
1 What makes a good test?

2 What is the importance of

quantitative and qualitative analyses?

3 What are the implications of reliability

and validity in test construction?

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Evaluation

Quantitative Evaluation
A. Criteria of a Good Test

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #18

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

In creating a valid and reliable language test for general or specific purposes, a quantitative
and qualitative test analyses are of the utmost importance.
A complete formal analysis requires a thorough psychometric knowledge, whereas informal
analyses are less rigid and can be undertaken with relative ease. The analysis described below
is feasible for most test developers and will improve the test quality considerably.
Prior to the analysis component, there are a few key concepts which are central to good
tests.
1. Relevance: the extent to which it is necessary that students are able to perform a certain
task.
2. Representativity: the extent to which a task represents a real situation
3. Authenticity: the extent to which the situation and the interaction are meaningful and
representative in the world of the individual user
4. Balance: the extent to which each relevant topic/ ability receives an equal amount of
attention
5. Validity: the extent to which the test effectively measures what it is intended to measure

Sub-classifications of validity
a. Concurrent validity
A test is said to have concurrent validity if the scores it gives correlate highly with a
recognized external criterion which measures the same area of knowledge or ability.
b. Construct validity
A test is said to have construct validity if scores can be shown to reflect a theory
about the nature of a construct or its relation to other constructs. It could be predicted,
for example, that two valid tests of listening comprehension would rank learners in the
same way, but each would have a weaker relationship with scores on a test of
grammatical competence.
c. Content validity
A test is said to have content validity if the items or tasks of which it is made up
constitute a representative sample of items or tasks for the area for knowledge or ability
to be tested. These are often related to a syllabus or course.
d. Convergent validity
A test is said to have convergent validity when there is a high correlation between
scores achieved in it and those achieved in a different test measuring the same construct
(irrespective of method). This can be considered an aspect of construct validity.
e. Criterion-related validity
A test is said to have criterion-related validity if a relationship can be demonstrated
between test scores and some external criterion which is believed to be a measure of the
same ability. Information on criterion-relatedness is also used in determining how well a
test predicts future behavior.
f. Discriminant validity

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #18

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

A test is said to have discriminant validity if the correlation it has with tests of a
different trait is lower than correlation with tests of the same trait, irrespective of testing
method. This can be considered an aspect of construct validity.
g. Face validity
The extent to which a test appears to candidates, or those choosing it on behalf of
candidates, to be an acceptable measure of the ability they wish to measure. This is a
subjective judgment rather than one based on any objective analyses of the test, and
face validity is often considered not to be a true form of validity. It is sometimes referred
to as ‘test appeal’.
h. Predictive validity
An indication of how well a test predicts future performance in a relevant skill.

6. Reliability: refers to the consistency and stability with which a test measures performance
A number of variables influence test reliability:
a. Specificity – questions should not be open to different interpretations
b. Differentiation – the test discriminates between good and poor students
c. Difficulty – the test has an adequate level of difficulty
d. Length – the test contains enough items. In multiple choice at least 40 test items are
required
e. Time – students should have sufficient time to perform a test/task
f. Item construction – a well-constructed question is better than a poor one

Over the past years, the focus of test construction has shifted from reliability to validity and
more specifically construct validity. Additionally, tests are increasingly considered as part of the
educational practice.
The more reliable a test is; the less random error it contains. A test which contains
systematic error, e.g. bias against a certain group, may be reliable, but not valid.
Factors affecting reliability of a test
• Objectivity
• Difficulty of the test
• Length of the test
• Adequacy
• Testing condition
• Test administration procedures
B. Importance of Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative analysis is meant to give some idea about the reliability of the test. It is not
always easy to determine on sight which questions are unclear of problematic in some way.
Statistical data can make problematic items more visible.

During the development phase of the test development process, a sample group of at least
20 representative end-users is gathered to whom the test is administered and solved using a

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #18

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

statistical program. Usually, the help of a statistician is necessary at this point. When this has
been done, the descriptive statistics, the correlations, and the item reliability analyses can be
checked.

C. Common Statistical Formulas

1. Descriptive statistics are intended to offer a general idea about the test scores. A review
of the following important terms and concepts on descriptive statistics is important:
a. N indicates the number of tests reviewed. Minimum singles or the lowest score from the
population. Maximum singles or the highest score from the population.
b. Mean refers to the average score
c. Std. Deviation (SD) is the mean deviation of the values from their arithmetic mean. A
small SD implies that in general the scores do not deviate much from the mean.

2. Correlations
Correlations are illustrated by scatter plots which are similar to line graphs in that they
use horizontal and vertical axes to plot data points; serving a very specific purpose. Scatter
plots show how much one variable is affected by another. The relationship between two
variables is called their correlation.
A correlation indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two
random variables. Correlations are always situated on the -1 to 1 spectrum.The closer a
correlation is to either end of the spectrum, the stronger the relationship. A relationship is
statistically significant, if Sig. ≤ 0.5.
Scatter plots usually consists of a large body of data. The closer the data points come
when plotted to making a straight line, the higher the correlation between the two variables,
or the stronger the relationship. See Figures below.

Figure 1. Perfect Positive Correlation

Figure 2. Perfect Negative Correlation

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #18

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

A perfect positive correlation is given the value of 1. A perfect negative correlation is given
the value of -1. If there is absolutely no correlation present, the value given is 0. The closer the
number is to 1 or -1, the stronger the correlation, or the stronger the relationship between the
variables. The closer the number is to 0, the weaker the correlation. If the correlation
coefficient of two variables is zero, there is no linear relationship between the variables
If the data points make a straight line going from the origin out to high x- or y- values, then
the variables are said to have a positive correlation. If the line goes from a high-value on the
y-axis down to a high-value on the x-axis, the variables have a negative correlation.
In language tests, correlations can merely serve as an indicator of reliability, but very low
correlations mostly mean that something is wrong.
If the correlations are generally significant on the highest level (99%), except for example
the listening test, this may mean that the listening test does not differentiate between the
most able and the least able test takers.

3. Item reliability
An item reliability analysis indicates the discriminatory potential of a test item (i.e. does it
differentiate between the most able and the least able test takers?)
As in standard correlations, a very reliable item (with a highly discriminatory capacity)
would score close to -1 or 1. Items are considered unreliable if they score in between .3
to -.3

Qualitative Evaluation
A. Purpose
Not all topics in language (grammar) can be measured statistically. Viewpoints, actions and
characteristics can’t always be represented numerically and so need a qualitative approach. In
test analysis interviews, usability tests and close reading are very useful tools to identify the
strengths and weaknesses of a task.
Because of its approach, qualitative evaluation may reveal data that would not emerge from
quantitative evaluation. There are various ways in which tests can be analyzed qualitatively.

B. Referencing
Referencing is assigning students a position in a rank order based on their score on a test.
There are various kinds of referencing:
1. Norm-referencing is the placement of learners in rank order, their assessment and
ranking in relation to their peers.
2. Criterion-referencing is reaction against norm-referencing in which the learner is
assessed purely in terms of his/her ability in the subject, irrespective of the ability of
his/her peers.
3. The mastery criterion-referencing approach is one in which a single ‘minimum
competence standard’ or ‘cut-off point’ is set to divide learners into ‘masters’ and ‘non-
masters’, with no degrees of quality in the achievement of the objective being
recognized.
4. The continuum criterion-referencing approach is an approach in which an individual
ability is referenced to a defined continuum of all relevant degrees of ability in the area in

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #18

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

question.

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Complete the table below. Write down the differences between quantitative and qualitative
analysis. Write down as many as you can. You may also try to check other resources to
comprehensively differentiate the two.

Quantitative Analysis Qualitative Analysis

e.g. e.g.
• relies of numbers and statistics • focus on text/ narrative form

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Go over these questions once again and answer them based on what you know now. Write your
answers in the third column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned
1 What makes a good test?

2 What is the importance of

quantitative and qualitative
analyses?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #18

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

3 What are the implications of

reliability and validity in test
construction?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

A. Write YES if the statement is correct and NO if otherwise.
_______ 1. A test cannot be valid without being reliable.
_______ 2. A test cannot be reliable without being valid.
_______ 3. A reliable test is not necessarily valid.
_______ 4. A valid test is not necessarily reliable.
_______ 5. Validity and reliability are exactly the same.

B. Choose the best answer from among the choices.

1. What does the coefficient of correlation of zero between two variables imply?
A. An independence between the two variables
B. An unknown degree of relationship between the two variables
C. A high level of negative correlation between the two variables
D. A high level of positive correlation between the two variables
2. Which is the feature of norm-referenced testing?
A. Rating students own past performance
B. Rating students’ potential
C. Rating using absolute standard
D. Rating in relation to the performance of the group
3. What do statisticians consider as the best all-around measure of variability?
A. Range C. Quartile deviation
B. Standard deviation D. Norm
4. In statistics, what does the word “mean” refer to?
A. The middle score in the given distribution
B. The highest score made on the test
C. The arithmetic average of all scores made in the test
D. The most frequent score
5. Which tool is used to find out whether two variables have a relationship or not?
A. Coefficient of correlation C. Measure of central tendency
B. Measure of variability D. T-test
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #19

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Planning for and Implementing Classroom Materials:

Observations; Portfolios; Conferences; Anecdotal Records; Student Activity Sheet
Checklists, Rating Scales; and Interviews; Projects and
Presentations References:
Go, M. B., & Posecion, O. T. (2010).
Lesson Objectives:
Language and literature assessment:
At the end of this lesson, I should be able to: A comprehensive guide.
1. plan alternative assessment for testing grammar; and
2. implement alternative assessments in the grammar
classroom

Productivity Tip:
“Start strong! Train your brain to shift to work mode by setting a regular time during the day for
your lessons. Set an alarm and stick to your working hours.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Welcome once again! Today, we are going to discuss alternative forms of assessment
such as classroom observations including the use of anecdotal records, checklists, rating scales
and rubrics. We will also learn how to plan and implement portfolios, conferences, journals,
questionnaires and interviews. These alternative assessment gives us a holistic way of
assessing students. Through observation of students, and in interviews or conferences with
students, teachers can discover much about their students’ knowledge, abilities, interests and
needs.
When a number of assessment tools are used in conjunction with one another, richer
and more in-depth data collection results.
Whatever method of data collection is used, teachers should:
• meet with students regularly to discuss their progress
• adjust rating criteria as learners change and progress

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Read these questions and answer them. Write your answers in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What are the alternative assessment

methods that we can apply in our
grammar class?
2 What are the advantages of using
alternative assessment in class?

3 What are the guidelines we need to

observe in implementing alternative
assessment methods?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #19

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT

A. Classroom Observation
Teacher observation has been accepted readily in the past as a legitimate source of information
for recording and reporting student demonstrations of learning outcomes in early childhood education.
As the student progresses to later years of schooling, less and less attention typically is given to
teacher observation and more and more attention typically is given to formal assessment procedures
involving required tests and tasks taken under explicit constraints of context and time. However,
teacher observation is capable of providing substantial information on student demonstration of learning
outcomes at all levels of education.

Teacher observation can be characterized as two types: incidental and planned.

• Incidental observation occurs during the ongoing (deliberate) activities of teaching and
learning and the interactions between teacher and students. In other words, an unplanned
opportunity emerges, in the context of classroom activities, where the teacher observes some
aspect of individual student learning. Whether incidental observation can be used as a basis for
formal assessment and reporting may depend on the records that are kept.
• Planned observation involves deliberate planning of an opportunity for the teacher to observe
specific learning outcomes. This planned opportunity may occur in the context of regular
classroom activities or may occur through the setting of an assessment task (such as a practical
or performance activity)

Make your observations more effective

When you are intentional about observing, you can learn even more about children and be more
effective as a responsive teacher. Here are some strategies to help you.
1. Focus on what children actually do and say. As you observe, notice details and avoid
immediate interpretations. It’s easy to form opinions with very little evidence, but often those
judgments are inaccurate. When observing children, focus on the facts—what you see and
hear, not a quickly formed impression.
2. Reflect on who you are as an observer. Our beliefs, attitudes, assumptions, and expectations
about people and events shape what and how we see. Pay attention to your own experiences,
beliefs, and influences. They may affect your observations.
3. Observe over time and in different settings. It takes time to really get to know children. One
observation gives you just a little bit of a picture. The more you observe, the more you can
learn.
4. Observe in many ways. Take photographs of children as they work. Have conversations and
jot down their words.
5. Document your observations. Recording what you observe provides evidence about what
children know and can do. Your notes or other documentation can help you know how to
respond to children and plan for instruction. There are many ways to record your observations.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #19

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Try out different methods, and see what works for you.
• Anecdotes, brief notes, or jottings: these written descriptions include the date, the
child’s name, where the observation occurred, and what the child said and did.
• Diagrams, sketches or photographs: these provide visual documentation of your
observations.
• Tallies or checklists: this is a way to record observations without detailed information.
6. Organize your observations. Many teachers use a notebook or file folders to organize
observations. With each entry be sure to include the date, the child’s name, the setting the child
is in, the time of day, and the activity.
7. Make it manageable. Becoming a more intentional and focused observer will make your
teaching more enjoyable, especially if you have reasonable expectations for yourself. Consider
these tips:

B. Anecdotal Records
Anecdotal records are notes written by the teacher regarding student language behavior, or
learning. They document and describe significant daily events and relevant aspects of student activity
and progress. These notes can be taken during student activities or at the end of the day. Formats for
collection should be flexible and easy to use.

Guidelines in using anecdotal records include the following:

a. Record the observation and the circumstance in which the learning experience occurs. There
will be time to analyze notes at another time, perhaps at the end of the day, or after several
observations about one student have been accumulated.
b. Make the task of daily note taking manageable by focusing on clearly defined objectives or
purposes, and by identifying only few students to observe during a designated period of time.
however, learning and progress cannot be scheduled, and it is valuable to note other
observations of importance as they occur.
c. Record data on loose leaf sheets and keep these in a three-ring binder with a page designated
for each student and organized alphabetically by students’ last names or by class. This format
allows the teacher to add pages as necessary.
d. Write the notes on recipe cards and then file these alphabetically.
e. Use adhesive note papers that can be attached to the student’s pages or recipe card files.
f. Design structured forms for collection of specific data.
g. Use a combination of the above suggestions

C. Checklists

Observation checklists, usually completed while students are engaged in specific activities or
processes, are lists of specific criteria that teachers focus on at a particular time or during a particular
process. Checklists are used to record whether students have acquired specific knowledge, skills,
processes, abilities and attitudes. Checklists inform teachers about where their instruction has been
successful and where students need assistance or further instruction. Formats for checklists should be
varied and easy to use.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #19

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Guidelines for using checklists include the following:

a. Determine the observation criteria from curriculum, unit and lesson objectives
b. Review specific criteria with students before beginning the observation.
c. Involve students in developing some or all of the criteria whenever it will be beneficial to do so.
d. Choose criteria that are easily observed to prevent vagueness and increase objectivity.
e. Use jargon-free language to describe criteria so that data can be used in interviews with
students and parents.
f. Make the observation manageable by keeping the number of criteria to less than eight and by
limiting the number of students observed to a few at one time.
g. Have students construct and use checklists for peer and self-assessments.
h. Summarize checklist data regularly.
i. Use or adapt existing checklists to identify whether a specific action has been completed or if a
particular quality is present.
j. Use tally checklists to note the frequency of the action observed or recorded.
k. Construct all checklists with space for recording anecdotal notes and comments.

D. Rating Scales and Rubrics

Rating scales record the extent to which specific criteria have been achieved by the student or
are present in the student’s work. Rating scales also record the quality of the student’s performance at
a given time or within a given process. Rating scales are similar to checklists, and teachers can often
convert checklists into rating scales by assigning number values to the various criteria listed. They can
be designed as number lines or as holistic scales or rubrics. Rubrics include criteria that describe each
level of the rating scale and are used to determine student progress in comparison to these
expectations. All formats for rating student progress should be concise and clear.

Guidelines for use include the following:

a. Determine specific assessment criteria from curriculum objectives, components of a particular
activity or student needs.
b. Discuss or develop the specific criteria with students before beginning the assessment.
c. Choose criteria that are easily observed in order to prevent vagueness and increase
objectivity.
d. Select criteria that students have had the opportunity to practice. These criteria may differ from
student to student, depending upon their strength and needs.
e. Use jargon-free language to describe criteria so that data can be used effectively in interviews
with students and parents.
f. Make the assessment manageable by keeping the number of criteria to less than eight and by
limiting the number of students observed to a few at one time.
g. Use or adapt rating scales and rubrics from other sources.
h. Use numbered continuums to measure the degree to which students are successful at
accomplishing a skill or activity.
i. Use rubrics when the observation calls for a holistic rating scale. Rubrics describe the
attributes of student knowledge or achievements on a numbered continuum of possibilities.

E. Portfolios

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Portfolios are collections of relevant work that reflect students’ individual efforts, development and
progress over a designated period of time. Portfolios provide students, teachers, parents, and
administrators with a broad picture of each student’s growth over time, including the student’s abilities,
knowledge, skills and attitudes. Students should be involved in the selection of work to be included,
goal setting for personal learning, and self-assessment. The teacher can encourage critical thinking by
having students decide which of their works to include in their portfolios and explain why they chose
those particular items. Instruction and assessment are integrated as students and teachers collaborate
to compile relevant and individual portfolios for each student.

a. Consider the following:

• What is the purpose of the portfolio? (Is it the primary focus of assessment or is it
supplemental? Will it be used to determine a mark or will it simply be used to inform
students, teachers and parents about student progress?)
• Who will be the audience (s) for the portfolio?
• What will be included in the portfolio? (e.g., writing samples only, samples of all
language processes)
• What are the criteria for selecting a piece of work for inclusion? When should those
selections be made?
• When should items be added or removed?
• How should the contents be organized and documented? Where will the portfolios be
stored?
• What will be the criteria for evaluation of the portfolio?
• What form will feedback to the students take? (e.g., written summaries, oral interviews/
conferences)

F. Interviews or Conferences
Teacher-student interviews or conferences are productive means of assessing individual
achievement and needs. During these discussions, teachers can discover students’ perceptions of their
own processes and products of learning.

Interview questions can be developed to meet the needs of specific students and to fit the
curriculum objectives. Examples of questions that help students reflect upon their speaking, listening
and viewing experiences include the following:
• Which speaking, listening and viewing activities did you participate in this week? Which did
you enjoy/ dislike? Why?
• Which oracy activities did you find most difficult? Why? Did you solve the difficulties? How?
• In which speaking activity do you think you did your best? What makes you think so?
• What type of speaking activities would you like to learn to do better?

G. Projects and Presentations

Criteria should be developed and / or discussed with students at the outset of activities such as
written reports, visual representations, oral representations, or projects which combine more than one
aspect of language use and understanding. Teachers may assess the attitudes, skill development,

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #19

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

knowledge, or learning processes demonstrated by students as they engage in language activities.

Data gathered during student activities can be recorded as anecdotal notes, on checklists, rating scales
or by using a combination of these.

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Complete the matrix below to summarize the alternative assessment tools. Write down their
purpose and briefly indicate the guidelines for using them.

Assessment Tool Purpose Guideline/s for use

Observation

Anecdotal records

Checklists

Rating scales and

rubrics

Portfolios

Interviews/conferences

Projects and
presentations

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #19

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: ________

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Read again the questions below. Based on what you know now, write your answers legibly in
the third column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned

1 What are the alternative
assessment methods that we
can apply in our grammar
class?
2 What are the advantages of
using alternative assessment
in class?
3 What are the guidelines we
need to observe in
implementing alternative
assessment methods?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Identification: Read the statement and write down what is being described.
____________ 1. Through this assessment tool, teachers can discover students’ insights of
their own processes and products of learning grammar.
____________ 2. These are collections of relevant work that records student progress, efforts
and achievements in their grammar class.
____________ 3. A type of observation occurs during the ongoing activities of teaching and
learning and the interactions between teacher and students.
____________ 4. They are used to record whether or not students have learned a specific
concept or acquired a certain grammatical skill.
____________ 5. These are used to assess the attitudes, skill development, knowledge or
learning processes demonstrated by students as they engage in grammar
activities.
____________ 6. This type of observation requires deliberate preparation of an opportunity for
the teacher to observe specific learning outcomes.
____________ 7. These are notes written by the teacher regarding student language behavior
or learning.
____________ 8. They record the extent to which specific criteria have been achieved by the
student.
____________ 9. These provide visual documentation of your observations.
____________ 10. This is a way to record observations without detailed information.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #20

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Using Tests: Norm-referenced Tests vs. Criterion- Materials:

referenced Tests; Objective-referenced Tests and Domain- Student Activity Sheet
referenced tests
Lesson Objectives: References:
At the end of this lesson, I should be able to: Hussain, S., Tedasse, T., & Sajid, S.
1. compare and contrast norm referenced tests and criterion- (2015). Norm-referenced and
referenced tests; and criterion-referenced test in EFL
2. identify the purpose of objective-referenced tests and classroom. International Journal of
Humanities and Social Science
domain-referenced tests;
Invention, 4(10), 24-30.

Productivity Tip:
“Try making a visual (comic strip, infographic, sketch, etc.) about the concepts you just learned.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
This lesson deals with the types and approaches of testing; the concept of NRT and
CRT; their item construction and scoring method, their strengths and weaknesses, their
comparative analysis and how they differ from each other. Which of these methods is
preferable? It is a question of concern of this lesson.
In literature, a mix voice comes from different parts of the world and there is no
prescriptive point of view available. For some scholars, students’ grades in language tests
should be decided based on a mix of both NRT and CRT scores because they are
interdependent and complementary to each other. Some scholars emphasize that there should
be a striking balance between the two and this balance should be strongly oriented towards
CRT as the primary and dominant principle. The third group of scholars retains that both NRT
and CRT are poles apart in an education system because the former serves the function of
benchmarking, vision and policy decisions and the latter gives an improvement in classroom
instruction.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Before we begin our lesson, read through these questions and try to answer them based on
what you know.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity

4)
1 What are the differences
between norm-referenced
and criterion-referenced
tests?
2 How do we match test to
decision purposes?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #20

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

3 What is the purpose of

objective-referenced tests
and domain-referenced
tests?

B. MAIN LESSON

INTRODUCTION
A test is a method of measuring a person's ability, knowledge, or performance in a given
domain (Brown 2003; Bachman 1995). Language teaching and testing are intertwined as it helps
students create positive attitude, competitive temperament and mastery of language; it helps teachers
in raising morale, getting reflections, diagnosing error, identifying thrust areas; enhancing effectiveness,
and knowing future course of action (Kubiszyn & Borich 2007, Madsen 1983, Salvia & Ysseldyke 2007).
Language testing approaches are axioms or correlative assumptions which provide method (a set of
testing style), design (norm and domain) and
procedure (technique and administration) to follow (Richards & Rodgers 2001).

NORM-REFERENCED TEST
NRT is a test that measures how the performance of a particular test taker or group of test
takers compares with the performance of another test taker or group of test takers whose scores are
given as the norm. Norm-referenced standardized tests can use local, state, or national norms as a
base. A test taker’s score is, therefore, interpreted with reference to the scores of other test takers or
groups of test takers, rather than to an agreed criterion (Richard & Schmidt 2002). Hence, NRT is an
approach of evaluation through which a learner’s individual relative rank is compared to other students
in the classroom. For example, if a student receives a percentile rank score of 34, this means that he or
she performed better than 34% of the students in the norm group (Bond 1996). Hence, if we conclude
the test performance that a particular student achieved in the classroom as ‘better than 34 percent of
the other students’, it is an approach of evaluating through NRT.
The examples of NRTs include IQ tests, developmental-screening tests (used to identify
learning disabilities in young children or determine eligibility for special educational services), cognitive
ability tests, readiness tests etc. To be simpler, theater auditions, course placement, program eligibility,
or school admissions and job interviews are NRTs because their goal is to identify the best candidate
compared to the other candidates, not to determine how many of the candidates meet a fixed list of
standards.

CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST
CRT would be used to assess whether students pass or fail at a certain criterion level or cut-
point (Bond 1996). CRT is a test that measures a test taker’s performance according to a particular
standard or criterion that has been agreed upon. The test taker must reach this level of performance to
pass the test, and a test taker’s score is interpreted with reference to the criterion score, rather than to
the scores of other test takers (Richard & Schmidt 2002). Hence, CRT is an approach of evaluation
through which a learner’s performance is measured with respect to the same criterion in the classroom
(Brown 1976; Mrunalini 2013; Salvia & Ysseldik 2007). For instance, if we conclude the test
performance that a particular student achieved in the classroom as ‘90 percent’, it is an approach of
evaluating through CRT. The popular way to show CRT is percentage .

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #20

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

CRT tells us about a student’s level of proficiency in or mastery over a set of skills and help us
decide whether a student needs more or less work over a set of skills saying nothing about the
student’s place compared to other students (Bachman 1995; Kubiszyn & Borich 2007). For instance, if
a test is designed to evaluate how well students demonstrate mastery of the specified content (e.g.
types of tense) it is CRT. Most everyday tests, quizzes and final exams conducted in the classroom
teaching can be taken as CRT.

Test Items in NRT and CRT

Constructing items do not differ much from one another in NRT and CRT. Mostly NRTs are
multiple choice and rarely open and short answer questions. The items are constructed with moderate
difficulty, with some items easier and some more difficult. On the other hand, CRT items are curriculum
based which includes the local textbook. The items are constructed on objectives in depth without
considering the difficulty level. NRT items are generally built with items that range in difficulty from very
easy to very hard. The important characteristic for items is their ability to discriminate among students.
NRTs frequently have items that cover a broad range of content but only have a few items that
measure each content area (Cronbach 1970; Kubiszyn & Borich 2007) CRT items generally range from
moderately difficult to easy. Overall, these tests tend to be easier than an NRT. CRT items are more
likely to measure a very limited range of content but will include many items for each content area. As a
result, they provide more detailed information about what the student knows.

Scoring Method in NRT and CRT

On an NRT, the score reflects how many more or fewer correct answers a student gives in
comparison to other students. In NRT, scores are generally reported in percentile ranks, linear standard
score, normalized standard score and developmental scales (Linn & Gronlund 2000). On the other
hand, CRT results are often based on the number of correct answers provided by students, and scores
might be expressed as a percentage, checklists, rating scales, grades, and rubrics.

Strengths of NRT and CRT

The proponents of NRT have proposed many representative arguments on its strengths. For
instance, NRT is simple to administer and easy to score (Kubiszyn & Borich 2007; Sanders & Horn
1995). It is a good tool to measures variety of skills and ability at once (Bond 1996; Linn 2000;
Swanson & Watson 1982).
This test discourages biasness and favoritism from among students. The quality of NRT is usually high
because they are developed by testing experts, piloted, and revised before they are used with students,
and they are dependable and stable for what they are designed to measure.
NRT is also good for ranking and sorting students for administrative purposes (Anastasi 1988).
It is intended to judge the school performance and school’s accountability of providing learning
standards and maintaining quality of education. The test is also used to determine a young child’s
readiness for preschool or kindergarten. NRTs are administered for admission decisions at entry level
and promotional decision at exit level.
On the contrast, the representative arguments on strengths typically made by proponents of
CRT are also bulky. CRT is good to measure specific skills, objectives or domain. It gives direction to
learning how well students are learning. It is good to determine learning progress if students have
learning gaps or academic deficits that need to be addressed (Bond 1996).
Furthermore, CRT gives direction to teaching and re-teaching. Instructors can use the test

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

results to determine how well they are teaching the curriculum and where they are lagging behind
(Bond 1996).
CRT helps measure the academic achievement of students usually for the purposes of comparing
academic performance among schools, districts and states. The results provide a basis for determining
how much is being learned by students and how well the educational system is producing desired
results (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2004). It is well suited for training programs to assess learning of
trainees. It is used to determine that a person is qualified to receive a certificate or not (Swanson &
Watson 1982).

Drawbacks of NRT and CRT

Although the NRT and CRT have many advantages, they do have some drawbacks. NRT
scores are often misused in schools when making critical educational decisions, such as grade
promotion or retention, which can have potentially harmful consequences for some students (Huitt
1996). Multiple-choice tests—the dominant NRT format, promote rote learning and memorization in
schools over more sophisticated cognitive skills, such as argumentation, conceptualization, decision
making, writing, critical reading, analytical thinking, problem solving and creativity (Corbett & Wilson,
1991).
Overreliance on NRT results can lead to inadvertent discrimination against minority groups and
low-income student populations, both of which tend to face more educational obstacles than non-
minority students and higher-income households (Bond 1996).
Although the CRT has many advantages, it does have some bottlenecks. CRT does not allow
for comparing the performance of students in a particular location with national norms. For example, a
school would be unable to compare 5th grade achievement levels in a district, and therefore be unable
to measure how a school is performing against other schools (Huitt 1996).
The process of determining proficiency levels and passing scores on CRT can be highly
subjective or misleading— and the potential consequences can be significant, particularly if the tests
are used to make high-stakes decisions about students, teachers, and schools. Because reported
“proficiency” rises and falls in direct relation to the standards or cut-off scores used to make a
proficiency determination, it is possible to manipulate the perception and interpretation of test results by
elevating or lowering either standards and passing scores. And when educators are evaluated based
on test scores, their job security may rest on potentially misleading or flawed results.

OBJECTIVE-REFERENCED TEST
Objective-referenced tests are very similar to criterion-referenced tests in that the
questions appearing on both are selected because they relate to rather narrow, highly specific learning
objectives. Both contain items that measure clearly defined objectives, but objective-referenced tests
differ from criterion-referenced in that they have no pre-determined performance standard associated
with the scores. Their purpose is to survey the tasks that students can perform in different areas of the
curriculum. Administered periodically, these tests, or the individual test items, provide useful information
for assessing the curriculum and for determining general educational progress.

DOMAIN-REFERENCED TEST
Domain-referenced tests are used to estimate performance on a universe of items similar to
those used on the test. As such, the content area of the test is rather explicitly defined such as, for
example, word recognition ability at the primary level or reading comprehension ability at the

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

intermediate level. A large pool of items is developed for the domain and items are randomly sampled
from the pool for placement on a particular test. Scores are reported as the percentage of items that a
student could get correct in the total pool.

There is another way to look at different kinds of language tests which is summarized in the
figure below below:

3. Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Complete the table below. Compare and contrast Norm-referenced tests and Criterion-
referenced tests.
Norm-referenced Criterion-referenced
Test items

Scoring methods

Strengths

Drawbacks

Purposes

4. Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Read the questions once again below and write your answers in the third column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)
1 What are the differences
between norm-referenced

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

and criterion-referenced
tests?

2 How do we match test to

decision purposes?
3 What is the purpose of
objective-referenced tests
and domain-referenced
tests?

5. Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

True or False
Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if otherwise.
________ 1. Norms are used to compare the performance of an individual or group with the
norm group.
________ 2. Objective-referenced tests are very similar to criterion-referenced tests.
________ 3. Both norm-referenced tests and criterion-referenced tests are useful in assessing
student learning.
________ 4. In a grammar class, diagnostic test can be used to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of the student in the language.
________ 5. Aptitude tests are used to assess student’s ability to learn grammar.

Essay:
Define the following terms:
1. Objective-referenced tests (2.5 pts.)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________
2. Domain-referenced tests (2.5 pts.)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

On a scale of 1 to 10 with 1 being the lowest and 10 being the highest, assign a value to your
mastery of this lesson. Explain why you chose such number.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Developing Open-ended and Closed-ended Test Materials:

Tasks Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, I should be able to: References:
Lin, W. L., & Lien, Y. W. (2013). The
1. Identify the pros and cons of open and close-ended test; and
different role of working memory in
2. follow proper guidelines when creating open and close-ended open-ended versus closed-ended
tests. creative problem solving: a dual-
process theory account. Creativity
Research Journal, 25(1), 85-96.

Productivity Tip:
“Start strong! Train your brain to shift to work mode by setting a regular time during the day for
your lessons. Set an alarm and stick to your working hours.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Writing items requires a decision about the nature of the item or question to which we
ask students to respond, that is, whether discreet or integrative, how we will score the item; for
example, objectively or subjectively, the skill we purport to test, and so on. We also consider the
characteristics of the test takers and the test taking strategies respondents will need to use.
What follows is a short description of these considerations for constructing items.
A test item is a specific task where test takers are asked to perform. Test items can
assess one or more points or objectives, and the actual item itself may take on a different
constellation depending on the context. For example, an item may test one point (understanding
of a given vocabulary word) or several points (the ability to obtain facts from a passage and then
make inferences based on the facts). Likewise, a given objective may be tested by a series of
items. For example, there could be five items all testing one grammatical point (e.g., tag
questions). Items of a similar kind may also be grouped together to form subtests within a given
test.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Read the questions below and try to answer them based on what you know. Write your answers
legible in the first column.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is an open-ended test
task? What is a close-ended test
task?
2 How do I develop open-ended
test tasks?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

3 How do I develop close-ended

test tasks?

B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

OPEN ENDED TEST TASKS

ESSAY TEST
Paper and pencil tests are either essay or objective. An essay test is occasionally called a
discussion type test. The student responds to a question using his/her own words to express
conclusions and the reasons for reaching them. Many teachers prefer the essay test because of its
apparent ease of preparation relative to a 50- to 75-item multiple-choice test.
There are a number of advantages to an essay test. Many teachers feel that they are easy to
prepare and administer. Essays support the development of expressive writing skills for the student as
they prepare their answers. The essay can test a very wide range of cognitive skills, such as critical
thinking, as well as allow the student to express feelings and emotions.
Countering these apparent advantages, there are a number of significant disadvantages. This
test is very unreliable and subject to scoring bias. Essay tests are tedious and difficult to score
accurately and it will require more time to grade. Articulate students usually score higher because of
their excellent writing skills.
lf the purpose of the essay is recall of factual information; it is not efficient or desirable. lt is best
used for the expression of critical thinking skills. lf a teacher decides to use essay questions, there are
a number of guidelines that will be of benefit.

Suggested Guidelines for the Essay

1. Select questions to sample a broad range of cognitive and affective objectives and content.
2. Require that all opinions be supported with data.
3. Be sure that students have well-developed writing skills.
4. Guide the student toward the desired response rather than using very general, open-ended
questions.
5. Suggest the number of points the question is given and the recommend amount of time that should
be spent.
6. Develop a criterion checklist against which the instructor will evaluate the test question:
a. Cite how the answer should be organized;
b. Determine how many points for writing skill as well the answer;
c. Determine key elements that should be covered in number of points assigned to each
element;
d. Determine if spelling and grammar are important and how many points will be assigned;
e. Require the student to answer each question rather than provide a choice of questions since
this will lessen reliability
7. Tuckman (1975) suggests that an essay test have a center structure:

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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

a. Statement of the situation,

b. Statement of the problem,
c. Response instructions.

CLOSED ENDED TEST TASKS

A. MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST
One of the most. popular and frequently used forms of paper and pencil test formats is the
multiple-choice form. Although it appears fairly easy to develop, this is very deceiving. Multiple-choice
tests are difficult and time-consuming if they deal with intellectual skills above simple recall and
comprehension. There are several
advantages to a multiple-choice test. Students can be tested on a large sample of the content in a
relatively short period of time. They are quick and efficient to score by hand using an answer key but
machine processing is usually available. The test items can measure a wide range of intellectual skills
from recall of factual data, understanding, application, and critical thinking. Guessing is reduced to one
in five as opposed to a 50/50 chance in true/false items.
A disadvantage of multiple-choice tests is the difficulty of constructing them with good
distractors. There is too often a great deal of ambiguity in the choice of the correct answer.
All multiple-choice items have three main parts. These include the stem (statement or
question), which begins the multiple-choice item; the distractors (incorrect responses which usually
number three); and the last part is the correct response.
The general rules used for writing multiple-choice items are described below. Recognize that
these are general rules; not all rules will be applicable to all types of testing.
1. The stem should contain the problem and any qualifications. The entire stem must always
precede the alternatives.
2. Each item should be as short and verbally uncomplicated as possible.
3. Avoid negatively stated items. If you have to use this kind of item, emphasize the fact by
underlining the negative part, putting it in capital letters or using italics.
4. Keep each item independent from other items.
5. If one or more alternatives are partially correct, ask for the "best" answer.
6. Try to test a different point in each question..
7. If an omission occurs in the stem, it should appear near the end of the stem and not at the
beginning.
8. Use a logical sequence for alternatives (e.g., temporal sequence, length of the choice). If two
alternatives are very similar (cognitively or visually), they should be placed next to one another to
allow students to compare them more easily.
9. Make all incorrect alternatives (i.e., distractors) plausible and attractive. It is often useful to use
popular misconceptions and frequent mistakes as distractors.
10. All alternatives should be homogeneous in content, form and grammatical structure.
11. Use only correct grammar in the stem and alternatives.
12. Make all alternatives grammatically consistent with the stem.
13. The length, explicitness and technical information in each alternative should be parallel so as not
to give away the correct answer.
14. Use 4 or 5 alternatives in each item.

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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

15. Avoid repeating words between the stem and key.

16. Avoid wording directly from a reading passage or use of stereotyped phrasing in the key.
17. Alternatives should not overlap in meaning or be synonymous with one another.
18. Avoid terms such as "always" or "never," as they generally signal incorrect choices.
19. To test understanding of a term or concept, present the term in the stem followed by definitions or
descriptions in the alternatives.
20. Avoid items based on personal opinions unless the opinion is qualified by evidence or a reference
to the source of the opinion (e.g., According to the author of this passage, . . . ) .
21. Do not use "none of the above" as a last option when the correct answer is simply the best
answer among the choices offered.
22. Try to avoid "all of the above" as a last option. If an examinee can eliminate any of the other
choices, this choice can be automatically eliminated as well.

B. TRUE OR FALSE TEST

The true/false test item is somewhat similar to a multiple-choice item. The true/false item is a two-
choice test item. The advantages of the true/false test item include the ease of construction as well as
the ease of scoring by hand, with an answer key, or by computer. This type of test item allows for the
taJte6t student response and can cover a broad range of subject matter. True/false items can form the
basis for a future pool of multiple-choice items.

True-false items are sometimes criticized for encouraging rote memorization. True-False answers are
affected by the use of specific determiners such as never, always, and only, indicating a statement
which is usually false. Often, sometimes, and usually commonly indicate a true statement. An obvious
disadvantage is the susceptibility to guessing with a 50% chance for a correct response. Unfortunately,
the ease of preparation leads to an overabundance of low level recall items that are often very
ambiguous. lf used exclusively they will overly influence students to learn lower level skills. Well-
constructed true/false test items can measure knowledge at a variety of levels

Guidelines for constructing good True-False statements:

1. Use more false statements (perhaps two false to one true).
2. Minimize use of inadvertent clues that may be used by the test-wise student.
3. Use phrases in false statements that give them the impression of truth.
4. Write the content or statement in both true and false versions.
5. Avoid vague terms.
6. Avoid qualified statements such as "often," "occasionally," "never," "may” or "generally."
7. Make all items approximately the same length to avoid giving student cues that one type may be
longer or shorter.
8. Avoid tricky questions.
9. True/false items are dependent on a variety of sentence forms.
10. Testing at an appropriate level of achievement, in large part, is related to the sentence form.

C. COMPLETION OR SHORT ANSWER ITEMS

The completion item requires the student to fill in a short answer with his/her own words. Described
as a constructed response test, it is a derivative of the multiple-choice test item.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Advantages:
• Easy to write with certain items
• Students must recall the answer
Disadvantages
• Limited to questions that can be answered with a word, phrase or symbol.
• Scoring tends to be tedious and subjective.
• Difficult to write items requiring short, sometimes specific answers that test higher learning
levels.
Guidelines:
1. Allow sufficient space for the student response.
2. Keep all response blanks of equal length to avoid cuing.
3. A question format is often more desirable than a statement completion. The grammatical style of
the latter could influence the choice of answer.

D. MATCHING TYPE
Matching items can measure a range of behavior but are most commonly used to measure recall
behavior. A matching test consists of a set of “stems” or “questions” on the left hand side to which a set
of responses on the right hand side are matched by the student.

Advantages
• Fairly easy to prepare.
• Efficient in the respect that the same set of responses can be used with several similar “stems.”

Disadvantages
• Difficult to measure higher levels of learning.
• Usually too many tricky questions.

Guidelines for Effective Matching Item Construction

1. Keep the style and content of the stem and response columns homogeneous. It its preferable to
use short responses of even length to avoid unnecessary clues.
2. Limit the number of stems from six to ten. Additional matches introduce fatigue and confusion to
the matching process.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Write down the pros and cons to using each test type. Write legibly.
PROS CONS
Essay

Multiple Choice

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

True or False

Completion or
Short answer
items
Matching item

4) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Based on what you know now, write your answers in the third column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)
1 What is an open-ended test
task? What is a close-ended
test task?
2 How do I develop open-
ended test tasks?
3 How do I develop close-
ended test tasks?

5) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Identification: Read each statement and write down what is being described.
______________ 1. It is a two-choice test item.
______________ 2. It is a test wherein a student responds to a question using his/her own
words to express conclusions and the reasons for reaching them.
______________ 3. It is a test that consists of a set of “stems” or “questions” on the left-hand
side to and a set of responses on the right-hand side.
______________ 4. It is a test that requires the student to fill in the answer with his/her own
words.
______________ 5. It is a test in which students are asked to select only correct answer from
the choices offered as a list.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #22

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Planning, Assembling, Administering and Scoring Materials:

Tests Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, I should be able to: References:
Taylor, H. (1978). Construction and
1. discuss the procedure in assembling and administering tests;
Use of Classroom Tests: A Resource
and Book for Teachers.
2. practice scoring tests.

“Think of a metaphor to explain the concept you just learned. Use a metaphor that is simple and
easy to explain”

A. LESSON PREVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
When you find yourself making tests later as a professional teacher, you will find yourself
asking this question: How good are my tests? As a teacher, you assume that test scores are
based only on student ability and that they provide accurate information about student
performance. Research has
shown, however, that under certain conditions, these assumptions are wrong.
The adage, “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it” obviously applies to testing. However, you may
not be aware of some of the pitfalls that regularly occur in testing. This lesson will help you
become good test-makers and will provide suggestions for making your tests more effective.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Read the questions below and answer them in the best way you can. Write your answers in first
column
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)
1 What are the steps in
assembling a test?

2 How do we administer a test?

3 What are the ways to score a

test?

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)
Planning, Assembling, Administering and Scoring Tests

PLANNING A TEST
A. The Table of Specifications.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

A test should be planned well in advance of the time it is to be administered. Adequate

planning for the test, while time consuming, will yield considerable savings in time when the test is
to be marked and the results interpreted. It is helpful for initial planning to have a detailed outline of
the content of the course and a list of the various objectives which are to be tested. It is important,
then, to develop what is called a table of specifications for the test. A table of specifications is a
two-way chart showing the content categories of the proposed test along the vertical axis with three
intellectual levels placed along the horizontal axis. The outer section of the table shows the
percentage of test items that are related to any particular row or column heading while the inner
cells (once the test is printed) list the actual item numbers on the test.

image taken from google.com

The percentage of test items within any row or column in the table of specifications is
determined by the teacher, based upon such considerations as the amount of time devoted to the
different content areas and the emphasis placed on the different types of intellectual behavior that
were stressed during the course.

B. Determining Test Length

Once a table of specifications for a test is drawn up, it becomes necessary to decide how
many test questions to include for each cell of the table. What constitutes a sufficient number of
test questions centers around two issues.
The first of these concerns content coverage. If you will be giving the test to determine
whether the student has mastered the content as stated in the specifications, it is important that the
questions constitute a fully representative sample of those behaviors. For example, if the objective
is to demonstrate ability to write verbs in the past, present and future tense, what will constitute a
sufficient number of questions will be influenced by issues such as: what are the verbs that will be
written in different tenses; whether multiple choice as well as student supplied response formats
are to be included, and so on. Whether a student is judged to have mastered this objective clearly
will be influenced by the types of questions that are used on the test.
The second issue central to determining test length is the degree of confidence that is to be
placed in the scores achieved on the test. You want to use this test to determine whether students

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

had mastered this unit of the course. Students may answer questions correctly by guessing when
they have not mastered the content. Conversely, those who do know the content may make
mistakes through inattention, fatigue, or other causes unrelated to their true level of ability. The
important point to be made here is that the length of the test will have an influence on the
confidence that can be placed in the scores. In general, as the number of questions, the student
is required to respond to for a given objective increases, the risk of drawing an incorrect
conclusion about the student's level of mastery of that objective decreases.

ASSEMBLING A TEST
After items have been written or chosen to assess the various cells in the table of specifications,
decisions must then be made concerning the best way to arrange them within the test booklet. The
following suggestions should prove helpful for this purpose.
A. Sequencing of Items in a Test:
1. All items of the same format (style) should be grouped together. As each format requires a
different set of directions, grouping items makes it possible to have a clear set of directions
that will apply throughout that section of the test.
2. Within each section, it is appropriate to group items according to the sequence in which the
material was presented. This makes the student more comfortable as he proceeds through
the test. It also facilitates discussion of the test after it has been marked and returned to the
student. An alternative arrangement would be to begin each section with very easy items
and then progress in difficulty, the purpose being hopefully to instill confidence in the
student early in the testing period
B. Arranging the Items on a Page:
1. A complex set of items that use a common diagram or a common set of responses should be
arranged within the booklet in such a way as to avoid the necessity of flipping pages back
and forth.
2. Multiple-choice items often are arranged in two vertical columns on the page. This double-
column format makes the test easier and faster to read and also saves space as more items
are included on a page.
3. A Multiple-choice item should be printed so that there is no split in the middle of the question
or option at the end of a column on a page.
4. Arrange the items on a page to ensure easy reading and analysis by the students. Different
sections of a test should be set off by extra spaces or a line.

C. Test Instructions for Students:

1. The cover page should list the number of items on the test and the total number of pages.
2. Provision should be made on the test or answer sheet for the student's name, class or
subject, date, teacher.
3. Indicate the value of each item and the suggested time that should be allowed to answer the
question.
4. Each item format should have a specific set of directions; e.g. in the multiple-choice section,
the students should be advised as to whether or not they should guess at the correct answer.
As a general rule it is not worth the time and effort to use a correction-for-guessing formula
with classroom tests.
5. For selection-type tests (i.e. multiple-choice, matching) at the elementary school level,

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students should be given examples and/or practice exercises so that they can see exactly
how to handle the format of the questions.

ADMINISTERING AND SCORING A TEST

1. Young students should be given practice in taking tests, particularly if unfamiliar types of items or
ways of asking questions are used, e.g., analogy items.
2. It is important that the testing room should be as conducive as possible to concentrations to the
task at hand. Ventilation and lighting should be checked for adequacy.
3. Tests should be administered in a way which will allow all, or nearly all, students sufficient time to
finish. Students should know what they are permitted to do if they finish early.
4. If possible, there is value in announcing the entire term's schedule of tests in advance, particularly
at the secondary school level.
5. Careful proctoring by the teacher is the single most effective method to minimize cheating by the
minority of students who might be tempted to resort to it. Depending upon the usual arrangement
of desks or tables, it may be desirable to re-arrange these during tests to minimize the temptation
to cheat.
6. A well-designed test should result in few questions from students during its administration. Deal
with any queries from individual students quietly and quickly. Avoid addressing the class as a
whole once the test has begun.

A. Scoring an Objective Test:

The following suggestions apply to objective tests made up of items for which the correct
answer is set in advance of testing so that scores are unaffected by the opinion or judgement of
the scorer.
1. In classroom tests where students are given sufficient time to answer every item on the test,
the total score is the number of items the student has answered correctly. Giving students
negative scores for certain types of errors, half scores or double scores for relatively
unimportant or important items is inconvenient, time consuming and largely wasted
effort.
2. When the number of students writing the test is 30 or less, it is appropriate to have the
students answer the questions directly on the test paper by providing spaces for recording
the answers.
3. When the number of students to be tested is large or if detailed analysis of the test results is
to be made, it is recommended that separate answer sheets be used. With Multiple-choice
or True-False items, draw a colored line through the correct answer space of the missed
items. This will allow the student to know the items he missed and the correct options. Of
course, each paper should be scanned prior to scoring to make sure that only one option
has been chosen for each item. Any item for which the student has marked more than one
answer should be scored as incorrect.
4. When separate answer sheets are used for a final exam that will not be returned to
students, it is convenient to use a clear plastic sheet in the shape of the answer sheet for
developing a key. The correct answers on the teacher's completed sheet are circled with a
felt marking pencil on the plastic overlay. To score, the plastic overlay is placed on the
student's sheet and the number of answers appearing within the circles are counted to

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #22

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

obtain the total score. Scanning for multiple marking of an item can be done while scoring
with a plastic overlay.
5. Answer sheets should only be used with children beyond the grade two level and only after
the teacher is convinced that the students can handle the procedure effectively.

B. Scoring an Essay Test:

Scoring an essay test actually begins with a clearly worded test question based upon
learning outcomes expressed in behavioral terms. If the problem presented to students is
vague, consistent scoring is virtually impossible. The second requirement is for the teacher to
have a clear idea of what constitutes a "model" answer. At the time of composing an essay
question, the teacher should make an outline containing minimum points required for a
satisfactory answer.
Different approaches used in scoring. essays are dependent upon the purpose of the
question, the length of response and the complexity of the answer. Short answers (restricted
responses) are usually scored by what may be called the "point" or "analytical" method. With
this method, an answer is judged in relation to a detailed scoring key and given a number of
points to indicate its degree of comparability to the ideal answer. The scoring key is usually
prepared when the question is written, and this key is applied consistently to all papers.
Longer answers (extended responses of a few pages in length) may be scored by what
is variously called the global or holistic method. Each answer is read and assigned to one of
perhaps five piles based upon the overall quality of the response. Pile 3 would include papers of
average quality, while piles 1 and 2 are reserved for below average responses and piles 4 and 5
for those of above average quality. It is recommended that each response be reread quickly at
least once so that those found to have been misclassified may be reassigned.

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Construct a table of specifications. Use a chapter/ series of topics from a grammar book. Write
the lessons/topics on the first column then indicate how many items will be allotted for each
level of learning. Write one based on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives.

Topic/ Remembering Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Creating # of

Lesson items/%
of test

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #22

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Total

3) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

True or False. Write True if the statement is correct and False if otherwise.
_______1. A test should be planned well in advance of the time it is to be administered.
_______ 2. All items of the same format (style) should be grouped together.
_______ 3. A table of specifications helps us to plan a test with a high validity.
_______ 4. A good test focuses more on the lower levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives.
_______ 5. Scores on an objective test are affected by the opinion or judgment of the scorer.
_______ 6. It is appropriate to group items according to the sequence in which the material was
presented.
_______ 7. Young students should be given practice in taking tests, particularly if unfamiliar
types of items or ways of asking questions are used
_______ 8. If the number of students taking the test is 30 or less, provide a separate answer
sheet.
_______ 9. The teacher may leave the classroom once the test has begun.
_______ 10. Scoring essay tests will be unaffected by scorer bias.

Essay. For 5 points, create an example of a test instruction for students. Strictly follow the
guidelines discussed in the main lesson.
______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Check your answers in the Key to Corrections.

4) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)
1 What are the steps in
assembling a test?
2 How do we administer a test?

3 What are the ways to score a

test?

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #23

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Analyzing and Interpreting Test Scores Materials:

Lesson Objectives: Student Activity Sheet
At the end of this lesson, I should be able to:
1. Solve for the difficulty index and discrimination index References:
Taylor, H. (1978). Construction and
2. Describe the process of interpreting test scores
Use of Classroom Tests: A Resource
3. Book for Teachers.

Productivity Tip:
“Start strong! Train your brain to shift to work mode by setting a regular time during the day for
your lessons. Set an alarm and stick to your working hours.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Good day class! Today we will discuss two important processes regarding tests. Did you
know that many good tests are discarded and forgotten after they have been marked and the
scores entered in a record book? This lesson is concerned with the very important task of
analyzing and improving classroom tests. A procedure is explained that will allow both the
teacher and the class to share the job of test analysis. The concepts of item difficulty and
discrimination are also considered with reference to end of-unit tests. It will also deal with how
test scores can be organized and described. Following are sections dealing with the
interpretation of test scores, including the concepts of reliability and measurement error.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Read each question below and answer them briefly. Write you answers in the first column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 How do we analyze test items?

2 How do we interpret test

results?

3 What is the purpose of

analyzing and interpreting test
results?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #23

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

Once a test is administered and scored, it is usually desirable to evaluate the effectiveness of each
of the test items to do the job they were designed for that is, to consistently distinguish between good
and poor performers. A detailed study of how the students responded to each item can reveal areas in
which construction was especially good or especially poor. It will
There are two main parts to an item analysis. First is an examination of the difficulty level of items
(the proportion of students who answer an item correctly). Second is the calculation of the
discrimination index of each item. This index summarizes information as to whether students who are
knowledgeable in the subject matter of the test actually answered an item correctly more often than
students who did not know the subject matter.

Difficulty Index
Teachers produce a difficulty index for a test item by calculating the proportion of students in
class who got an item correct. (The name of this index is counter-intuitive, as one actually gets a
measure of how easy the item is, not the difficulty of the item.) The larger the proportion, the more
students who have learned the content measured by the item.
Here are the procedures for the calculations involved in item analysis with data for an example
item. For our example, imagine a classroom of 25 students who took a test which included the item
below. The asterisk indicates that B is the correct answer.

Question: Who wrote The Great Gatsby? Number of students that answered each letter
A. Faulkner 4
B. Fitzgerald* 16
C. Hemingway 5
D. Steinbeck 0

Count the number of students who got the correct answer and divide by the total number of
students who took the test. Take note that difficulty indices range from .00 to 1.0. Using the given
situation from the table, here is how you solve the difficulty index:
16/25 = .64
In our example, the item had a difficulty index of .64. This means that sixty-four percent of
students knew the answer. To guide you on what to do with the item, here is a guide:
Range of difficulty index Interpretation Action
0-0.25 Difficult Revise or Discard
0.26-0.75 Right difficulty Retain
0.76-1.00 Easy Revise or Discard

Since the item has 0.64 difficulty index, the best way to do with the item is to retain it.

Discrimination Index

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #23

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

The discrimination index is a basic measure of the validity of an item. It is a measure of an

item's ability to discriminate between those who scored high on the total test and those who scored low.
Though there are several steps in its calculation, once computed, this index can be interpreted as an
indication of the extent to which overall knowledge of the content area or mastery of the skills is related
to the response on an item. Perhaps the most crucial validity standard for a test item is that whether a
student got an item correct or not is due to their level of knowledge or ability and not due to something
else such as chance or test bias.
When looking for discrimination index, sort your tests by total score and create two groupings of tests-
the high scores, made up of the top half of tests, and the low scores, made up of the bottom half of
tests. For each group, calculate a difficulty index for the item. Subtract the difficulty index for the low
scores group from the difficulty index for the high scores group. Also, always remember that
discrimination Indices range from - 1.0 to 1.0.
Imagine this information for our example: 10 out of 13 students (or tests) in the high group and 6
out of 12 students in the low group got the item correct.

High Group 10/13= .77

Low Group 6/12= .50
.77-.50=.27

If the discrimination index is: Judge the item as:

.40 or higher very good
.20 - .39 satisfactory
poor, reject or revise the item
below .20

The discrimination index for the item was .27. The formula for the discrimination index is such
that if more students in the high scoring group chose the correct answer than did students in the low
scoring group, the number will be positive. At a minimum, then, one would hope for a positive value, as
that would indicate that knowledge resulted in the correct answer. The greater the positive value (the
closer it is to 1.0), the stronger the relationship is between overall test performance and performance on
that item. If the discrimination index is negative, that means that for some reason students who scored
low on the test were more likely to get the answer correct. This is a strange situation which suggests
poor validity for an item.

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)

Question A B C D Total # of
Students
#1 0 3 24* 3
30
#2 12* 13 3 2
#3 15 6* 3 3

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #23

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

#4 10 10* 3 7
#5 9 8 7 6*

With the help of the data above, solve for the difficulty index of the each item by filling in the
table below. After you are done solving, interpret the result and indicate the action to be done. Asterisk
(*) indicates the correct answer.

Question Difficulty Index Interpretation Action

#1

#2

#3

#4

#5

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 How do we analyze test items?

2 How do we interpret test results?

3 What is the purpose of analyzing

and interpreting test results?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Enumeration

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #23

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
This time, you will be solving for the discrimination index of the item. Imagine this
information: 3 out of 15 students in the high group and 10 out of 12 students in the low group
got the item correct. What will be the discrimination index? Judge the item and the action you
will take. You may briefly explain it below
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

Summarize that you learned today in five (5) sentences only.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

FAQs
Q1: How can I arrange the test items to facilitate scoring?
A: The following guidelines for arranging test items will facilitate scoring in an efficient manner:
• Space test items so that they can be read, answered, and scored with the least amount of
difficulty. Double-space between items.
• Place answer spaces for objective items in vertical columns for easy scoring with each answer
space clearly associated with the corresponding item.
• Provide adequate space for students to supply short-answer questions. Provide a full page for
answering lengthy essay questions.

Q2: What can I do to keep scores from being influenced by factors other than student ability?
A: It is important during the administration of the test to control those factors (other than student ability)
that would influence test scores. You can lessen the chance of scores being influenced by outside
factors by doing the following:
• Maintain test security. Make sure students cannot obtain copies of the test before it is
administered. Keep all tests in secure locations.
• Take measures to reduce cheating by asking students to space themselves with an empty desk

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #24

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: No Child Left Behind (NCLB): Testing Materials:

Requirements and Difficulties Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: References:
Cortiella, C. (2005). No Child Left
1. review the provisions of the NCLB Act; and
Behind: Determining Appropriate
2. discuss appropriate assessment accommodations for Assessment Accommodations for
students with special learning needs. Students with Disabilities. National
Center for Learning Disabilities.

“Start strong! Train your brain to shift to work mode by setting a regular time during the day for
your lessons. Set an alarm and stick to your working hours.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Good day! Today we will discuss NCLB Act of 2001. Prior to this law, The Elementary
and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) is the nation's major federal law related to education in
grades pre-kindergarten through high school. Under NCLB public school students throughout
the country must participate in annual testing in specific academic areas and grades outlined in
the law, including students with disabilities. Requiring the inclusion of all students with
disabilities in state- and district-wide assessments helps ensure that schools, school districts
and states are held accountable for the achievement of these students.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Please read the questions below and answer them based on what you know.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What are the provisions of

the NCLB Act?

2 How does the NCLB Act

hold schools accountable?

3 How do teachers conduct

assessment for children with
special needs?

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

No Child Left Behind (NCLB): What You Need to Know

At a Glance
• No Child Left Behind (NCLB) was the main law for K–12 general education in the United States

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #24

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

from 2002–2015.
• The law held schools accountable for how kids learned and achieved.
• The law was controversial in part because it penalized schools that didn’t show improvement.
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) was in effect from 2002–2015. It was a version of the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). NCLB was replaced by the Every Student
Succeeds Act in 2015.
NCLB was controversial. Here’s an overview of how the law affected students with learning and
thinking differences.

NCLB: Holding Schools Accountable

The goal of NCLB was to provide equal educational opportunities for disadvantaged students.
NCLB was different from previous versions of ESEA. It held schools accountable for how kids learn and
achieve in several ways:
Annual testing: Schools had to give students statewide math and reading tests every year in
grades 3–8 and once in grades 10–12. Parents had the right to get individual test results for their
children. Schools had to publicly report school and “subgroup” results..
Academic progress: States had to bring all students, including those in special education, up to the
“proficient” level on tests. They had to set targets for improvement, called adequate yearly progress
(AYP).
Penalties: Schools with many low-income students were called “Title I schools.” If a Title I school
didn’t meet AYP, NCLB allowed the state to change the school’s leadership team or even close the
school. If a school repeatedly failed to meet AYP, parents had the option to move their children to
another school.

No Child Left Behind: Determining Appropriate Assessment Accommodations for

Students with Disabilities
According to NCLB, students with disabilities (those covered under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act or Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act) must be provided the appropriate
accommodation necessary to participate in these tests. Making determinations about the appropriate
accommodations that students with disabilities need in order to fully and equally participate in large
scale testing is a critical component of developing a student's Individualized Education Program (IEP)
or Section 504 Plan.

Understanding accommodations
Accommodations are tools and procedures that provide equal access to instruction and
assessment for students with disabilities. They are provided to "level the playing field." Without
accommodations, students with disabilities may not be able to access grade level instruction and
participate fully on assessments.

Accommodations are generally grouped into the following categories:

• Presentation (e.g., repeat directions, read aloud, use of larger bubbles on answer sheets)
• Response (e.g., mark answers in book, use reference aids, point, use of computer)
• Timing/Scheduling (e.g., extended time, frequent breaks)
• Setting (e.g., study carrel, special lighting, separate room)

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #24

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Accommodation vs. modification

Accommodations are not the same as modifications. Accommodations are intended to lessen the
effects of a student's disability; they are not intended to reduce learning expectations. Changing,
lowering or reducing learning expectations is usually referred to as a modification or alteration.

Assessment vs. instruction accommodation

Ideally, accommodations should be the same or similar across classroom instruction, classroom
tests and state/district tests. However, it is important to note that some accommodations are only for
instruction and cannot be used on state/district assessments.

Standard vs. non-standard accommodation

Standard accommodations are those allowed for both testing and instruction that do not change
the skill that is being tested. A non-standard accommodation is one that will change the nature of the
task, or target skill. For example, reading a reading test aloud to the student when the reading test is
measuring decoding generally is considered a non-standard accommodation because it would not
result in a true measure of the student's decoding ability.

Choosing accommodations
All students with disabilities (those with active IEPs or 504 Plans), are entitled to the appropriate
accommodations that allow them to fully participate in state- and district-wide testing.

Selecting accommodations
Determining necessary accommodations should be part of the development of each IEP or 504
Plan. These questions should be considered in the selection process:
• What are the student's learning strengths and needs?
• How do the student's learning needs affect the achievement of the grade level content
standards?
• What specialized instruction does the student need to achieve the grade level content
standards?

Assessment facts
Many states have chosen to add "stakes" for students to their standards and assessment systems.
In some states, students are required to pass one or more high school assessments as a condition of
receiving a diploma.
Some states require students to achieve at certain levels on assessments to be promoted to
subsequent grades. It is imperative for parents to understand the implications of student performance
on tests required by your state.

Evaluating accommodations
Evaluating how effective the accommodations are should be an ongoing process — only by closely
reviewing the impact of an accommodation can improvements happen. Each year the team should
review:
• Each accommodation and the results of tests when the accommodation was used

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #24

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

• Student's perception of how well each accommodation is working

• Effective combinations of accommodations
• Perceptions of teachers, paraprofessionals and other specialists about how the
accommodations appear to be working.

Important terms to know

• Presentation accommodations allow students to access information in ways that do not
require them to visually read standard print. These alternate modes of access are auditory,
multi-sensory, tactile and visual.
• Response accommodations allow students to complete activities, assignments and tests in
different ways to solve or organize problems using some type of assistive device or organizer.
• Timing/scheduling accommodations increase the allowable length of time to complete a test
or assignment and may also change the way the time is organized.
• Setting Accommodations change the location in which a test or assignment is given or the
conditions of the assessment setting.

Guide to Choosing Accommodations

Who can benefit Questions to ask Examples
Presentation Students with print • Can the student read • Large Print
accommodations disabilities, defined as and understand • Magnification Devices
difficulty or inability to directions? • Human Reader
visually read standard • Does the student need • Audio Tapes
print because of a directions repeated • Screen Reader
physical, sensoror frequently? • Talking Materials
cognitive disability. • Has the student been (calculators; clocks,
identified as having a timers)
reading disability?
Response Students with physical, • Can the student use a • Scribe
accommodations sensory or learning pencil or other writing • Note-takers
disabilities (including instrument? • Tape Recorder
difficulties with memory, • Does the student have a • Respond on Test
sequencing, disability that affects his Booklet
directionality, alignment ability to spell? • Spelling and
and organization). • Does the student have Grammar devices
trouble with tracking • Graphic Organizers
from one page to
another and maintaining
her place?
Timing & Students who need more • Can student work • Extended time
scheduling time, cannot concentrate continuously during the • Frequent Breaks
accommodations for extended periods, entire time allocated for • Multiple testing
have health-related test administration? sessions
disabilities, fatigue

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #24

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

easily, special diet and/or • Does student tire easily

medication needs. because of health
impairments?
• Does student need
shorter working periods
and frequent breaks?
Setting Students who are easily • Do others easily distract • Change of room or
accommodations distracted in large group the student? location in room
settings, concentrate • Does student have • Earphone or
best in small groups. trouble staying on task? headphones
• Does student exhibit • Study carrels
behaviors that would
disrupt other students?

.
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Read the questions carefully and answer them in short, concise sentences. Write your answers
legibly.
1. What does “accommodation” mean?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________
2. How are “accommodations” selected? Who selects them?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________
3. How does the NCLB Act hold schools accountable?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Read the questions once again and write your answers in the third column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)
1 What are the provisions of
the NCLB Act?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #24

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

2 How does the NCLB Act hold

schools accountable?

3 How do teachers conduct

assessment for children with
special needs?

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

True or False: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if otherwise.
_______ 1. The NCLB Act held schools accountable for how kids learned and achieved.
_______ 2. The goal of NCLB was to provide equal educational opportunities for disadvantaged
students.
_______ 3. Accommodations are the same as modifications.
_______ 4. According to NCLB, some students are exempted from taking standardized tests.
_______ 5. All students with disabilities, are entitled to the appropriate accommodations that
allow them to fully participate in state- and district-wide testing.

Identification
Read each statement and write down what is being described.
______________ 1. These are intended to lessen the effects of a student's disability; they are
not intended to reduce learning expectations.
______________ 2. A type of accommodation that allows students to access information in
ways that do not require them to visually read standard print.
______________ 3. A type of accommodation that increases the allowable length of time to
complete a test or assignment.
______________ 4. A type of accommodation that changes the location in which a test or
assignment is given or the conditions of the assessment venue.
______________ 5. A type of accommodation allows students to complete activities,
assignments and tests in different ways using some type of assistive device or organizer.

“Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your
score on your paper.”

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #25

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Issues in Computerized Testing: Differences Materials:

between the Paper-based and Computerized Versions of Tests Student Activity Sheet
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, I should be able to: References:
Simin, S., & Heidari, A. (2013).
1. identify the pros and cons of computerized testing
Computer-based assessment: pros
2. compare and contrast paper-based vs computerized testing and cons. Elixir International Journal
Vol, 55, 12732-12734.

Productivity Tip:
“Start strong! Train your brain to shift to work mode by setting a regular time during the day for
your lessons. Set an alarm and stick to your working hours.”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Technology today offers many new opportunities for innovation in educational
assessment through rich new assessment tasks and potentially powerful scoring, reporting and
real-time feedback mechanisms (Scalise, K. & Gifford, B. 2006). This lesson elaborates on the
pros and cons of computer-based assessment. The intended purpose is to provide a new
assessment horizon for assessment developers and teachers and to help them to get a better
understanding of using computer-based assessments in the educational settings.

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is computerized testing?

2 What are the pros and cons of

computerized testing?

3 What are the differences

between paper-based and
computer-based testing?

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #25

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

COMPUTERIZED TESTING
Introduction
Advances in computer technology continue to change the lives of instructors and students. One
of the exciting new ways to use computers in education is in testing. According to Brown (1997),
computer-based tests CBTs) have been used in second language testing since the early 80's. As
Jamieson (2005) states, computers have a number of very desirable functions that considerably eases
up the test creation and assessment task, including item creation and presentation, answer collection
and scoring, statistical analysis, and storage, transmission, and retrieval of information. Also the
literature on computer-assisted language learning indicates that language learners have generally
positive attitudes towards using computers in the classroom (Reid, 1986; Neu and Scarcella,1991;
Phinney, 1991).

Computer-Assisted Language Testing

Computer-Based Test (CBT) CBT is any form of assessment or evaluation (formative or
summative assessment) that is conducted electronically with the use of information technology. CBT
may be conducted on a stand-alone computer or on a computer network (over an intranet or the
Internet). CBT, unlike Paper-Based Test (PBT), is a form of electronic assessment, whose conduct and
grading requires little or no human effort.
The Pros and Cons of Computer-based exams
Many educationalists would argue that a computer-based exam has a distinct advantage over
its paper-based equivalent because it is easier to test the whole of a syllabus by this method. Similarly,
different aspects, skills and rules can be tested by a computer exam. Software enables the exam to
adapt to challenge a student according to their level of ability and in it is a more accurate method of
assessment as any areas of weakness that a student has will be exposed. Paper-based exams are
also easy to predict. Computer-based exams need not be – again, making them a more accurate test
for students to take.
Another great advantage of computer-based exams is that the editing process of writing is much
easier on a computer than on paper. Most students find the writing process much less onerous than
pen and paper. The tedium of crossing mistakes out and starting again is not an issue when writing on
a computer. Whole paragraphs and sections can be reorganized with the use of copy and paste, in
seconds.
Benefits of CBT Examination conduct with computer has advantages over the traditional Paper-
Based Test (PBT) method, ranging from improved efficiency to cost- effectiveness. The benefits
include: Faster scoring, reporting, and access to results. Accuracy, consistency and reliability of results
are also a plus. It provides uniformly precise scores for test-takers.Test-takers can edit their answers on
screen during the exam without wasting ink or paper

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #25

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Other Benefits of CBT

✓ The test is easy to understand and the timer and hint functions [in some exams] allow test-
takers to get the best from their exam performance.
✓ In some listening tests, the use of headphones for the listening elements of tests mean that
examinees can adjust the volume to suit individual needs.
✓ Examiners and examinees don’t need ink and paper, so it saves cost.

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Complete the table below. Write the pros and cons of paper-based tests and computer-based
tests.
Exercise A
Paper-based testing Computer-based testing

Advantages

Disadvantages

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 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #25

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise B.
Using the Venn Diagram, what do you think are the similarities and differences between
PBT and CBT?

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Based on what you know now, answer these questions once again. Write your answers in the
third column.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1 What is computerized
testing?

2 What are the pros and

cons of computerized
testing?

3 What are the differences

between paper-based and
computer-based testing?

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

 ENG 155: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
Student’s Module #25

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Write down PBT if the statement describes paper-based testing and CBT if it describes
computer-based testing.
_______ 1. It is the traditional mode of giving an exam.
_______ 2. This type of testing can save the teacher time to score.
_______ 3. This type of test is more prone to cheating during examinations.
_______ 4. It is costly to prepare this kind of test.
_______ 5. This type of test reduces printing costs.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
A. Work Tracker
You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.

B. Think about your Learning

Write three questions that you have about paper-based testing and computer-based testing?
1. _________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________________

FAQs
Q: How can students prepare for tests and exams?
A: Here are ten tips to prepare for exams:
4. Give yourself enough time to study
5. Organize your study space
6. Use flow charts and diagrams
7. Practice on old exams
8. Explain your answers to others
9. Organize study groups with friends
10. Take regular breaks
11. Snack on brain foods
12. Plan your exam day
13. Drink plenty of water
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3 – answers may vary
Activity 5
1. PBT
2. CBT
3. PBT
4. PBT
5. CBT

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