Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

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The impact of roasting on cocoa quality

parameters

Ruth Fabiola Peña-Correa, Burçe Ataç Mogol & Vincenzo Fogliano

To cite this article: Ruth Fabiola Peña-Correa, Burçe Ataç Mogol & Vincenzo Fogliano (2022): The
impact of roasting on cocoa quality parameters, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition,
DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2141191

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2141191

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Published online: 16 Nov 2022.

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Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2141191

Review

The impact of roasting on cocoa quality parameters

Ruth Fabiola Peña-Correaa , Burçe Ataç Mogolb and Vincenzo Foglianoa
Department of Food Quality and Design, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; bHacettepe Üniversitesi,
a

Department of Food Engineering, Food Quality and Safety (FoQuS) Research Group, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Roasting is an essential process in cocoa industry involving high temperatures that causes several Proximal composition; Maillard
physicochemical and microstructural changes in cocoa beans that ensure their quality and further reaction; melanoidins;
processability. The versatility in roasting temperatures (100 − 150 °C) has attracted the attention of polyphenols; volatile aroma
researchers toward the exploration of the effects of different roasting conditions on the color, compounds; cocoa butter
proximal composition, cocoa butter quality, concentration of thermolabile compounds, formation
of odor-active volatile organic compounds, generation of melanoidins, production of thermal
processes contaminants in cocoa nibs, among others. Some researchers have drowned in exploring
new roasting parameters (e.g., the concentration of water steam in the roasting chamber), whilst
others have adapted novel heat-transfer techniques to cocoa nibs (e.g., fluidized bed roasting and
microwaves). A detailed investigation of the physicochemical phenomena occurring under different
cocoa roasting scenarios is lacking. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of
the state of art of cocoa roasting, identifies weak and mistaken points, presents research gaps,
and gives recommendations to be considered for future cocoa studies.

Introduction Sutherland 1994). In that unit, cocoa beans are exposed

to a high temperature produced by infrared radiant heat
Several steps are required in processing cocoa beans (fer- for a short time. Consequently, water from the shells and
mented and dried seeds of Theobroma cacao L.) before they the edges of the cotyledons (also known as cocoa nibs)
are consumed or used as ingredients. Roasting particularly quickly evaporates and presses the shells outwards; thus,
stands out due to the generation of authentic chocolate shells detach from the nibs and can be easily separated
flavor via Maillard reaction (MR) (Minifie 1999). Other (Gutiérrez 2017). Pictures and synonyms of these cocoa
essential and desirable transformations that occur during beans’ fragments are shown in Figure 1.
roasting are the proper dehydration of the cocoa nibs, the Essential physical, chemical, and organoleptic changes
significant reduction in microbial load, and the decrease occur in cocoa nibs during roasting, for example: (i)
in acidity, bitterness, and astringency (Gutiérrez 2017). Micropores are formed, leading to reduced hardness (Abo-Bakr
Comprehensive reviews and books covering the whole cocoa and Shekib 1987; Hoskin and Dimick 1980); thus facilitating
processing chain are available (Rojas et al. 2022; Gutiérrez grinding processes. (ii) The concentrations of some macro
2017; Beckett 2008). However, a detailed analysis of the (Oracz and Nebesny 2019; Zzaman et al. 2017; Redgwell,
physicochemical phenomena occurring during cocoa roasting Trovato, and Curti 2003) and micronutrients (Oracz and
process is missing. Nebesny 2019; de Taeye et al. 2017) decrease due to volatil-
Most of cocoa manufacturers roast cocoa beans in large ization or to their involvement in thermo-activated chemical
rotating drum equipment, also known as Sirocco-type batch reactions like Maillard reaction. (iii) High molecular weight
roasters, through which hot air of 110 to 150 °C is blown for compounds such as melanoidins (Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano
20 min to 2 h until the moisture content and water activity 2018; Sacchetti et al. 2016; Oracz and Nebesny 2019), and
of cocoa beans decrease to about 1% and 0.2, respectively low molecular weight compounds with odor activity (Tan
(Rojas et al. 2022). After that, the cocoa bean’s testas (the and Kerr 2018; Mohamadi Alasti et al. 2019; Zzaman et al.
coats of the seeds, commonly named shells or husks) are 2017; Diab et al. 2014; Huang and Barringer 2011) are formed
removed by winnowing (Gutiérrez 2017; Beckett 2008). Some via MR. (iv) Thermal process contaminants, such as
continuous roasters are provided with a pre-heating cham- 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) (Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano
ber that removes the shells before roasting (Varnam and 2018; Sacchetti et al. 2016) and acrylamide (Żyżelewicz et al.

CONTACT Vincenzo Fogliano [email protected]

© 2022 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed,
or built upon in any way.
2 R. F. PEÑA-CORREA ET AL.

Figure 1. Main components of cocoa beans arising from their process.

2017; Granvogl and Schieberle 2007) are formed. Finally, (v) samples through polarized light microscopy demonstrated
the acidity in cocoa butter, which is the most abundant and that drying and roasting processes cause the disruption of
expensive cocoa derivative (International Cocoa Organization parenchymal cells (de Brito et al. 2000). Abo-Bakr and
2021), is reduced. Shekib (1987) and Hoskin and Dimick (1980), who made
Those valuable findings needed to be collated and com- a structural and topographical examination of cocoa nibs
pared to provide a holistic approach of the physicochemical through scanning electron microscopy, found that more
changes of cocoa upon roasting. Thus, in this review, the pores and pits were present on the surface of the cotyledons
current state of knowledge on the effect of different roasting of roasted cocoa than on unroasted nib’s surface. The typical
conditions on microstructure, color, proximate composition, nib brittleness after roasting was attributed to those micro-
polyphenols content, formation of melanoidins, generation scopic modifications.
of thermal processes contaminants, and production of vol- Despite those insights, there is still a lack of knowledge
atile organic compounds in cocoa nibs; as well as the quality on how the main roasting parameters (i.e., temperature
of cocoa butter, are presented. Roasting alternatives and and time) affect the microstructure of cocoa nibs. Further
research gaps are also discussed. studies might go beyond superficial observations by pro-
viding quantitative data on porosity and correlating it with
the fat bloom phenomenon. Micro X-ray tomography tech-
Literature search nique may assist this gap since it can reconstruct the
The following databases were used: WUR library search, three-dimensional density distribution within an object,
Web of Science, Google books, Google Patents, and Google providing qualitative and quantitative information about
Scholar. For each section of this review, studies performed the solid and the empty (or airy) sections (Maire and
with various roasting conditions (e.g., different roasting Withers 2014). The potential of micro X-ray tomography
temperatures) were highly preferred over those holding only is illustrated in Figure 2, which shows the bidimensional
one. Recent studies (last 10 years) were also prioritized over projections of cocoa nibs roasted in different conditions
the older ones; nonetheless, we extended our search up to (authors’ unpublished data).
50 years in some sections due to the above-mentioned filter
(more than one roasting condition).
Effect of roasting on the color of cocoa nibs
The initial color of cocoa nibs before roasting is already
Effect of roasting on the microstructure and
deep brown. Most of their pigments are formed during
texture of cocoa nibs
fermentation and drying via complexation of amino acids
Typical cocoa-roasting temperatures trigger the evaporation and/or proteins with quinines (an enzymatic oxidation prod-
of water and low-boiling-point organic compounds present uct of polyphenols) or with condensed tannins (high molec-
in the food matrix. This physical phenomenon implicates ular weight product of flavonoid polymerization) via
the formation of large amounts of gases that generate high hydrogen bonding (Misnawi et al. 2003). This naturally-dyed
internal pressure. This in turn causes noticeable changes in matrix hinders visual-color analysis (Peña-Correa et al.
the structure, such as breakdown of the cell walls, microp- 2022). Moreover, the water content changes upon roasting.
orosity formation, increase in volume, and reduction in It is well known that water affects the color perception of
density (Massini et al. 1990) and hardness (Zzaman and materials by reducing light absorption; as a consequence,
Yang 2013). materials look darker when they are wet. So, finding the
A couple of papers have explored the microstructure of sole effect of roasting on the formation of non-enzymatic
cocoa nibs before and after roasting. Observations of stained brown chromophores in cocoa is challenging.
 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 3

Figure 2. 2-D projections of virtual cross-sections of the solid fraction obtained by X-ray tomography from (a) unroasted cocoa nibs, (b) cocoa nibs roasted in
a conventional oven at 120 °C, and (c) cocoa nibs roasted in a fluidized bed roaster at 120 °C.

Nevertheless, numerous studies have investigated the above 150 °C in cocoa nibs; as a consequence, deep-brown
effect of different roasting conditions on color changes of and black compounds are generated.
cocoa nibs. The color measurement has been done directly Neither the efforts in transforming cocoa nibs into
on the surface of the nibs (Zzaman and Yang 2013) and other forms nor the use of a robust method like computer
in different processed forms, for example: ground cocoa vision-based picture analysis seem to sharpen the color anal-
nibs by Żyżelewicz, Budryn, et al. (2014) and Sacchetti ysis of cocoa roasted under regular roasting temperatures.
et al. (2016); cocoa liquor (cocoa nibs sufficiently minced The native pigments seem to hinder any color change. The
into a smoothy pulpy mass -See Figure 1-) by Nurhayati development of a robust sample preparation would be of
et al. (2019); cocoa powder (defatted cocoa liquor - See great assistance.
Figure 1-) by Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano (2018), and high
molecular weight water-soluble extracts (HMW-WSE) by
Chemical changes and neo-formed compounds
Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano (2018), Oracz and Nebesny
(2019), and Sacchetti et al. (2016). Most researchers used During heating treatments of food matrixes, the MR occurs
colorimeters to obtain the CIE L*a*b* color attributes with the formation of various products of diverse molecular
regardless of the aliquot shape. Some other studies have weights. The reactants are mainly reactive carbonyl com-
drawn on UV/VIS-spectrophotometry or fluorescence tech- pounds (e.g., monosaccharides and lipid-oxidation products)
niques. In our recent study, we showed that computer and amino acids. Figure 3 represents the global dynamics
vision-based image analysis was an effective technique for of the main chemical reactions involved during the roasting
measuring color changes of cocoa nibs (Peña-Correa et al. process of cocoa. The entire pathways of the MR have not
2022). Table 1 summarizes the findings of the mentioned been unraveled at all. However, due to its great importance
studies. on the quality and final organoleptic characteristics of
The majority of the studies quoted in Table 1 agree that diverse thermally processed food, it has been the subject of
roasting increases a* and b* values, especially the latter. investigation, as reviewed Ruan et al. (2018), Somoza and
Their findings on L* value are diverse; they are influenced Fogliano (2013), Echavarría, Pagán, and Ibarz (2012), and
by the roasting temperature and sample shape: When the Martins, Jongen, and van Boekel (2000).
typical cocoa-roasting temperatures (110 − 150 °C) were In contrast to other typically thermally-processed foods
applied, L* values of cocoa nibs’ surface did not signifi- like coffee and bread, cocoa beans are particularly rich in fat
cantly change upon roasting. However, a darkening effect and phenolic compounds, and contain little quantities of sug-
was evident when roasting between 150 °C − 250 °C, or ars and water. Moreover, the cocoa beans’ roasting tempera-
when processing the nibs into cocoa powder, cocoa liquor, ture range is not as high as for coffee roasting (180 − 280 °C)
or HMW-WSE. High roasting temperatures certainly remove or dough baking (180 − 250 °C). Nonetheless, the MR occurs
significant amounts of water, so the interference of water in cocoa nibs and cocoa model systems (Oliviero et al.
with L* is mitigated. On top of that, overroasting occurs 2009), as addressed in the coming subsections.
4 R. F. PEÑA-CORREA ET AL.

Table 1. Changes in color attributes in cocoa beans upon roasting.

Color Changes after
attribute Sample form Roasting technique and temperature(s) roasting* References
L* Cocoa nibs Convective oven and fluidized bed roaster. No difference Peña-Correa et al. (2022)
110–140 °C
Cocoa nibs Convective oven capable of changing the airflow No difference Żyżelewicz, Budryn, et al. (2014)
speed and the relative humidity. 135–150 °C
Cocoa nibs Superheated steam oven. 150–250 °C Significant decrease Zzaman and Yang (2013)
Cocoa powder Convective oven. 130–150 °C Significant decrease Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano (2018)
Unfermented cocoa liquor Oil bath roaster. 170 °C Significant decrease Nurhayati et al. (2019)
High molecular weight Convective tunnel with humid air. 110–150 °C Significant decrease Oracz and Nebesny (2019)
water-soluble extract
a* Cocoa nibs Convective oven. 110–140 °C No difference Peña-Correa et al. (2022)
Cocoa nibs Fluidized bed roaster. 110–140 °C Significant increase Peña-Correa et al. (2022)
Cocoa nibs Convective oven capable of changing the airflow Significant increase Żyżelewicz, Budryn, et al. (2014)
speed and the relative humidity. 135–150 °C
Cocoa powder Convective oven. 130–150 °C Significant increase Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano (2018)
High molecular weight Convective tunnel with humid air circulating. Significant decrease Oracz and Nebesny (2019)
water-soluble extract 110–150 °C
b* Cocoa nibs Convective oven. 110–140 °C No differences Peña-Correa et al. (2022)
Cocoa nibs Fluidized bed roaster. 110–140 °C Significant increase Peña-Correa et al. (2022)
Cocoa nibs Convective oven capable of changing the airflow Significant increase Żyżelewicz, Budryn, et al. (2014)
speed and the relative humidity. 135–150 °C
Cocoa powder Convective oven. 130–150 °C Significant increase Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano (2018)
High molecular weight Convective tunnel with humid air. 110–150 °C Significant decrease Oracz and Nebesny (2019)
water-soluble extract
Hue Unfermented cocoa liquor Oil bath roaster. 170 °C Significant increase Nurhayati et al. (2019)
*95% confidence interval

Figure 3. Classification and transformation of the main cocoa polyphenols (green box) during fermentation and roasting. Formation of aroma precursors (car-
bonyl compounds and amino compounds) during fermentation and roasting (blue box) and its interaction with phenolic compounds via Maillard reaction (black
box) toward the formation of Maillard reaction (MR) products such as desirable volatile organic compounds (pyrazines and Strecker aldehydes) and Melanoidins
(brown box).

The effect of roasting on the proximate composition of cocoa bean weight (Rojo-Poveda et al. 2020). Table 2 sum-
cocoa marizes the proximal composition of cocoa from various
studies and includes the basis of the units according to the
The roasting process leads to two critical physical phenom- roasting conditions. Most of the researchers declared using
ena that might interfere with the interpretation of the chem- deshelled beans during sample preparation; however, their
ical analysis if they are not carefully taken into account. results showed typical features of cocoa beans instead of
They are the loss of water and the migration of lipid frac- cocoa nibs; thus, the proper names of the various cocoa
tions from cocoa nibs toward the shells. The second one derivatives, as expressed in Figure 1, need to be constantly
causes losses of as much as 0.5% of cocoa butter during adopted by scientific communities.
deshelling (Gutiérrez 2017). Both physical phenomena might As summarized in Table 2, more than half of the mac-
cause misinterpretations of the results of the proximal com- ronutrients in cocoa nibs is the fat. Proteins are in second
position of cocoa when: (i) the outcomes are not expressed place, comprising about one-fourth. The carbohydrate con-
either in dry basis (d.b.) or in dry and defatted basis (cocoa tent of cocoa beans is less than 7% (w/w), including a wide
powder); and (ii) the authors do not specify whether they variety of monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides,
removed or not the shells before analyzing their samples, a and polysaccharides. Sugars account for less than 2% (w/w).
fraction that could account from 10 to 17% of the total The order of predominance of sugars in fermented and
 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 5

Table 2. Effect of roasting in proximate composition of cocoa nibs.

Content in unroasted
Component cocoa sample Basis for the units Effect of roasting References
Total carbohydrates 5.5–6.7% Cocoa beans d.b. Significantly reduced, especially at Oracz and Nebesny (2019)
temperatures above 135 °C (by >10%)
Fructose 0.70–0.75% Cocoa beans d.b. Significantly reduced, especially at Oracz and Nebesny (2019)
temperatures above 135 °C (by 90%
approx.)
Glucose 0.16–0.22% Cocoa beans d.b. Significantly reduced, especially at Oracz and Nebesny (2019)
temperatures above 135 °C (by 60%
approx.)
Sucrose 0.08–0.18% Cocoa beans d.b. Significantly reduced, especially at Oracz and Nebesny (2019)
temperatures above 135 °C (by 50%
approx.)
0.15–0.45% Cocoa nibsa No significant effect of roasting Redgwell, Trovato, and Curti (2003)
Raffinose <0.02% Cocoa nibsa No significant effect of roasting Redgwell, Trovato, and Curti (2003)
Stachyose < 0.1% Cocoa nibsa No significant effect of roasting Redgwell, Trovato, and Curti (2003)
Verbascose < 0.01% Cocoa nibsa No significant effect of roasting Redgwell, Trovato, and Curti (2003)
Crude fiber 4.0–4.3% Cocoa nibsa Increases by two folds due to melanoidins Redgwell, Trovato, and Curti (2003)
formation
Total lipids 53.2–54.5% Cocoa nibs d.b. No significant effect of roasting Unpublished data by Ruth Fabiola
Pena Correab
Total proteins 24.4–24.8% Cocoa powder d.b. No significant effect of roasting Unpublished data by Ruth Fabiola
Pena Correab
Total amino-terminal 32.6 mg/g approx. Cocoa powder d.b. Significantly reduced (by 32% approx.) de Brito et al. (2000)
groups
Total amino acid 35.3 mg/g approx. Cocoa powder d.b. Significantly reduced (by 32% approx.) de Brito et al. (2000)
content
674.6–719.7 mg/100g Cocoa beansa Significantly reduced (by 26 to 55%) Reineccius, Keeney, and
Weissberger (1972)
– Cocoa nibsa Significantly reduced (by 50% approx.) Rohan and Stewart (1966)
16.36 g/kg Cocoa nibsa Significantly reduced (by 28 to 59%) Zzaman et al. (2017)
838.8 mg/100g Cocoa nibsa Significantly reduced (by 15 to 24%) Bonvehí and Coll (2002)
a
There is no information concerning the conversion of the data into dry bases (d.b)
b
Cocoa nibs roasted at 120 and 140 °C for the time needed to reach a moisture content of about 1%.

unroasted cocoa nibs is not even among studies (Oracz and related to the formation of non-soluble melanoidins
Nebesny 2019; Redgwell, Trovato, and Curti 2003). It seems (Redgwell, Trovato, and Curti 2003).
not to be a matter of the variety; the heterogeneous fer- Cocoa butter is considered a stable fat due to its fatty
mentative conditions markedly affect the final amount of acid composition. Nevertheless, transformations may occur
sugars in cocoa beans (Redgwell, Trovato, and Curti 2003). to some extent during roasting, as addressed in the section
When the roasting time and the roasting temperature ‘Cocoa butter quality.’ According to the tolerance limits of some
of cocoa beans increases, the concentration of sugars is lipid-oxidation products established by Codex Alimentarius
significantly reduced. Fructose is the most affected one, (1981), the concentrations of those products in cocoa butter
followed by glucose, and then sucrose (Zzaman et al. 2017; do not represent significant gravimetric amounts under regular
Oracz and Nebesny 2019). Fructose and glucose are reduc- processing conditions. Thus, the formation of lipid-oxidation
ing sugars, and they are directly involved in the reaction products should not significantly reduce the initial amount
with an amine source, while sucrose first needs to be of cocoa butter. The authors of this review confirmed it, as
hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose (Rufian-Henares observed in Table 2. Considering this rationale, fat losses upon
2016), thus explaining the superior reactivity of monosac- roasting can be hardly attributed to the generation of neo-
charides. The higher decrease in fructose compared to formed lipid-derived products, as Oracz and Nebesny (2019)
glucose is in line with model systems experiments (Brands explained for the 3.8% fat loss. It is unclear whether the study
2002). The hydroxyl group orientation at C3 and C4 posi- considered the fat migration toward the shells. Model system
tions of fructose may also confer such a higher reactivity experiments better deal with mass balance.
(van Putten et al. 2013). Concerning the oligosaccharides, Drawbacks also happen when comparing the total protein
they seem to be steady after roasting (Redgwell, Trovato, content before and after roasting. When using
and Curti 2003). nitrogen-determination methods to calculate protein content
The crude fiber content increases after roasting cocoa by using conversion factors (e.g., Kjeldahl and Dumas), the
beans (Redgwell, Trovato, and Curti 2003). In many results from unroasted cocoa vs. roasted cocoa should not
plant-based products, the insoluble material remaining after significantly differ: In principle, roasting makes some nitro-
specific chemical treatments is referred to as crude fiber gen atoms to move from one place (e.g., proteins) to another
and is mainly represented by lignin. Some other com- (e.g., volatile organic compounds and melanoidins) within
pounds, such as tannin/protein complexes and HMW the same matrix, so no significant changes in ‘total protein
Maillard reaction products, formed during roasting may content’ are obviously expected. The authors of this review
also contribute to that moiety. The higher content of crude confirmed it (unpublished data), as observed in Table 2.
fiber in roasted cocoa compared with unroasted might be Nevertheless, some researchers (Oracz and Nebesny 2019;
6 R. F. PEÑA-CORREA ET AL.

de Brito et al. 2000) reported protein reductions of 27.1% 2000) as they become part of the melanoidins’ polymeric
and 37% upon roasting, respectively. The latter used structure (Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano 2018; Oracz, Nebesny,
Bradford’s protein assay method, which also lacks specificity. and Żyżelewicz 2019), as shown in Figure 3. These enzy-
Investigating the effect of roasting in changing the con- matic and non-enzymatic transformations of polyphenols
centration of specific proteins or amino acids makes more have been negatively perceived due to the imminent reduc-
sense than total protein content, as shown in Table 2. The tion in antioxidant capacity of cocoa (Urbańska and
free amino acid content in cocoa significantly decreases by Kowalska 2019); however, the organoleptic characteristics
roasting time and temperature (Zzaman et al. 2017; Bonvehí are considerably improved (Stark, Bareuther, and Hofmann
and Coll 2002; de Brito et al. 2000; Reineccius, Keeney, and 2005). Various researchers have evaluated or reviewed the
Weissberger 1972; Rohan and Stewart 1966), most probably changes in concentration of cocoa polyphenols from post-
due to their involvement in the MR (Figure 3). The per- harvest until the preparation of chocolate bars (Gil et al.
centage of reduction of total amino acids roughly ranged 2021; Urbańska et al. 2019; Bordiga et al. 2015; Payne et al.
from 25 to 50% (Table 2). However, some amino acids were 2010; Wollgast and Anklam 2000). So, this section focuses
more affected than others: In the study of Zzaman et al. on the specific changes upon different roasting conditions.
(2017), the amount of glutamic acid, tyrosine, glycine, and During heating treatments, proanthocyanidins experiment
histidine was the most reduced, in contrast to other tested depolymerization through the cleavage of the interflavanic
amino acids. According to the data published by de Brito (4   8) linkages; consequently, monomeric-flavan-3-ols are
et al. (2000) and Bonvehí and Coll (2002), the most affected released (Figure 3) (de Taeye et al. 2014). Simultaneously,
amino acids were histidine, cysteine, and methionine. (-)-epicatechin and (+)-catechin undergo epimerization reac-
It is worth to mention that the composition of cocoa tions to produce (-)-catechin and (+)-epicatechin, respec-
nibs fluctuates among cocoa varieties and origins (Febrianto, tively. The epimerization of (+)-catechin into (+)-epicatechin
Wang, and Zhu 2021); furthermore, harvesting activities, is usually less favored (de Taeye et al. 2014). These changes
fermentation, and drying contribute to those differences. mainly result in: (i) the significant reduction of the most
predominant phenolic compounds, namely epicatechin and
P-B2; and (ii) a significant increase of (-)-catechin. The
Effect of roasting on polyphenols content in cocoa higher the roasting temperature, the more pronounced the
changes (Stanley et al. 2018; Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano
The classification of the most abundant polyphenols present 2018; Żyżelewicz et al. 2016; Kothe, Zimmermann, and
in the seeds of Theobroma cacao L. and their dynamics Galensa 2013). Payne et al. (2010) proposed calculating
during roasting are shown in Figure 3. Monomeric flavan-3- the epicatechin/catechin ratio as an indicator for the pro-
ols such as (-)-epicatechin and (+)-catechin, as well as the cessing history of cocoa beans. However, other studies have
proanthocyanidins B1, B2, and C1 (abbreviated as P-B1, reported other dynamics in catechin upon roasting: it may
P-B2, and P-C1, respectively), are the most abundant classes increase during the first 15 min, and then decrease to origi-
of polyphenols identified in cocoa beans and derivatives nal or lower concentrations (Żyżelewicz et al. 2016); or just
(Grassia et al. 2019; Mazor Jolić et al. 2011). With minor decrease (Oracz and Nebesny 2019; Ioannone et al. 2015).
participation, phenolic acids such as gallic acid, protocate- Changes in concentration of catechin are determined by
chuic acid, ellagic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic cocoa variety (de Taeye et al. 2017).
acid, and sinapic acid, have been identified in cocoa beans The fate of the missed cocoa polyphenols upon roasting
(Oracz and Nebesny 2019). has been scarcely studied. As shown in Figure 3. they are
The concentration of polyphenols may differ among cocoa involved in the formation of soluble (Oracz, Nebesny, and
varieties, being epicatechin the most predominant one, followed Żyżelewicz 2019; Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano 2018) and
by P-B2, which is made of two epicatechin units. Both account insoluble (Fogliano et al. 2011) melanoidins via MR, miti-
for about half of the total polyphenols, according to the data gating so the bitterness and astringency. However, the extent
supplied by Oracz and Nebesny (2019) and Quiroz-Reyes and of participation of free phenolic compounds in that chem-
Fogliano (2018). Lower but significant concentrations of P-B1 istry is unknown. More detailed information about the kind
(made of one unit of epicatechin and one unit of catechin) of polyphenols found in cocoa melanoidins is given in the
and P-C1 (comprising three units of epicatechin) in cocoa following section.
beans have been reported (Oracz and Nebesny 2019)
The concentration of phytochemicals in cocoa seeds is
exceptionally high: they account for 15 to 20% of the dried Melanoidins in cocoa as an advanced MR product
fat-free mass of fresh cocoa seeds. Their content usually
drops to about 5% upon fermentation and drying, as they Cocoa melanoidins are high molecular weight heterogeneous
oxidize to condensed high molecular compounds, mostly compounds with brown-chromophoric properties that are
insoluble tannins (Wollgast and Anklam 2000). When this formed in the advanced stages of the Maillard reaction. As
reduction is above 10%, it is considered a bad fermentation shown in Figure 3, they result from the interaction of the
(Wollgast and Anklam 2000) due to the excess of bitterness amino groups of peptides and free amino acids with carbonyl
and astringency that may persist in cocoa derivatives (Stark, compounds and polyphenols. Melanoidins can be either soluble
Bareuther, and Hofmann 2005). About 50% of the remaining or insoluble. The insoluble fraction has been scarcely studied,
polyphenols are lost upon roasting (Wollgast and Anklam while the soluble one has drained most of the attention.
 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 7

Different techniques have been presented to estimate the between 30 and 70 kDa, may sharpen cocoa mela-
formation of soluble cocoa melanoidins. Quiroz-Reyes and noidins’ analysis.
Fogliano (2018) and Oracz and Nebesny (2019) weighed the • Aligned results were presented by Quiroz-Reyes and
dry fraction of high molecular weight water-soluble extracts Fogliano (2018). The water-soluble compounds were
(HMW-WSE) obtained by ultrafiltration (Quiroz-Reyes and extracted from unroasted and roasted cocoa by con-
Fogliano 2018) and dialysis (Oracz and Nebesny 2019). secutive ultrafiltration through membranes of 20, 10,
Sacchetti et al. (2016) also used dialysis to separate high and 2 kDa cutoff. Gravimetric measurement of the
molecular weight compounds. Different from Quiroz-Reyes fraction indicated that the fraction containing com-
and Fogliano (2018) and Oracz and Nebesny (2019), the pounds above 20 kDa represented about 65 to 85%
extraction was not carried out by using 100% of polar sol- of the total HMW-WSE, while the fractions of 20
vent; a mix of solvents with a predominant presence of to 10 and 10 to 2 kDa hold about 10 to 20% each.
acetone was used instead; then they analyzed the cocoa • According to the data presented by Quiroz-Reyes
melanoidins via fluorescence detection using quinine sulfate and Fogliano (2018), 50% of the antioxidant activ-
as standard. With this in turn, Sacchetti et al. (2016) demon- ity of the whole water-soluble extract of unroasted
strated that the formation of melanoidins in cocoa beans cocoa relies on compounds above 20 kDa. In roasted
depends on the roasting temperature and increases expo- cocoa, this fraction was responsible for 60 to 80%
nentially at temperatures above 135 °C. In contrast, the grav- of the antioxidant activity. The evident increment in
imetric method leads to some divergences between studies: the antioxidant activity upon roasting suggested the
On the one hand, Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano (2018) found effective incorporation of phenolic compounds in
that the dry mass of the HMW-WSE (> 20 kDa) of unroasted cocoa melanoidins (Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano 2018).
cocoa was around 6.4 − 7.7% of the cocoa powder. Roasting • The HMW-WSE of unroasted cocoa is mainly com-
significantly increased it to about two folds; however, the posed of proteins (15 to 20% w/w), carbohydrates (8
roasting temperature did not lead to any trend. On the to 16% w/w), and water (≈5%) (Oracz and Nebesny
other hand, Oracz and Nebesny (2019) found 12.9 − 14.3% 2019), and a fraction of at least 0.2% w/w d.b. cor-
w/w of HMW-WSE (> 12.4 kDa) in cocoa powders obtained respond to phenolic compounds according to the
from unroasted cocoa; their roasting experiments performed data published by (Oracz, Nebesny, and Żyżelewicz
at 110 − 120 °C slightly reduced that yield, while the highest 2019). So far, more than half of the composition of
temperatures (135 − 150 °C) did not significantly change it. cocoa melanoidins is unknown. Nevertheless, the
Differences between research may be explained by the com- current information is enough to conclude that cocoa
position of the samples themselves, as well as the roasting melanoidins may differ from other roasted products
conditions and sample preparations. like coffee beans: Coffee melanoidins contain more
Estimating the formation of melanoidins by fluorescent carbohydrates (40 - 60% w/w) and a wider range of
or gravimetric methods is still out of focus. One reason is protein content (2.3 - 28% w/w), according to the
that fluorescent methods are specific to the standard being data published by Coelho et al. (2014).
used; thus, other neo-formed compounds might be under- • Roasting slightly decreases the protein content in
estimated. Another point to be considered is that gravimetric cocoa HMW-WSE, significantly reduces their car-
methods retain everything above the molecular weight cutoff bohydrate content (Oracz and Nebesny 2019), and
of the membrane used. Consequently, other high molecular significantly increases the polyphenols content.
weight compounds, such as proteins and tannins, are Interestingly, the increment in bounded phenolic
retained in the HMW fraction, which might lead to over- compounds increases when roasting temperature
estimating the amount of melanoidins. increases (Oracz, Nebesny, and Żyżelewicz 2019).
The exploration of the physical and chemical properties This rise is also aligned with the antioxidant activity
of cocoa melanoidins, as studied by Oracz and Nebesny mentioned above.
(2019), Oracz, Nebesny, and Żyżelewicz (2019), Quiroz-Reyes • The aforementioned phenolic compounds present in
and Fogliano (2018), and Summa et al. (2008) might assist HMW-WSE of cocoa diverge between cocoa varieties
in designing a more accurate quantification method. These and polyphenols’ hydrolysis methods (Oracz, Nebesny,
are their laudable contributions: and Żyżelewicz 2019). The acid hydrolysis released
more phenolic compounds from Criollo’s HMW-WSE
• The molecular weight distribution of the HMW-WSE than alkaline hydrolysis, while HMW-WSE of
above 12.4 kDa obtained from unroasted cocoa differs Forastero beans showed an inverse trend.
from that of roasted cocoa: in unroasted cocoa, the • The most predominant phenolic compound released
weight of these compounds was almost equally dis- upon alkaline hydrolysis of Forastero’s and Criollo’s
tributed between 12.4 and 150 kDa, while in roasted HMW-WSE was epicatechin (60% approx.), fol-
cocoa, there was a Gaussian bell distribution that lowed by catechin (20% approx.). The acid hydro-
peaked at about 50 kDa. The peak height increased lysis revealed catechin (45% approx.) as the most
when the roasting temperature increased; thus, it abundant polyphenol bound to HMW-WSE, followed
could probably correspond to the formation of cocoa by epicatechin (20% approx.). The rest of the poly-
melanoidins (Oracz and Nebesny 2019). Isolating phenols in both hydrolysis methods corresponded to
a narrower fraction of the HMW-WSE, perhaps P-B2, gallic acid, ellagic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric
8 R. F. PEÑA-CORREA ET AL.

acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, and protocatechuic Even though acrylamide formation is highly favored
acid (Oracz, Nebesny, and Żyżelewicz 2019). Phenolic under thermal processes, this compound was detected in
compounds could be linked to diverse components of unfermented and fermented cocoa beans (Granvogl and
the matrix through either ester, ether, or acetal bonds. Schieberle 2007). When roasting both the unfermented and
This diversity makes it difficult the development of the fermented beans, the acrylamide content significantly
one definitive method for hydrolysis (Robbins 2003). rose, especially when roasting the fermented beans. The
results suggest that fermentation generates precursors and
creates a favored environment for acrylamide formation
Thermal processes contaminants formed by the MR
(Granvogl and Schieberle 2007). Żyżelewicz et al. (2017) did
during roasting
not find acrylamide in unroasted cocoa, but in line with
Heating treatments like roasting have food safety concerns Granvogl and Schieberle (2007), they observed a sharp
caused by some neoformed compounds like HMF and acryl- increase of this compound upon roasting.
amide. There are many doubts about HMF’s health effects on
humans. In rats, the LD50 is between 2.5 and 5.0 g/kg. Those
Volatile organic compounds
values are away from the estimated dietary HMF intake of
1.6 mg/person, as Capuano and Fogliano (2011) thoroughly The fermentation process holds diverse enzymatic-catalyzed
reviewed. Nevertheless, the major concern for HMF is related reactions within the freshly harvested seeds of cocoa, such
to its in vivo conversion to 5-sulfoxymethyfurfural (Surh as proteolysis, hydrolysis of carbohydrates (Santander Munoz
et al. 1994). Acrylamide is a well-known carcinogenic and et al. 2020), and lipolysis (Afoakwa et al. 2014). As a result,
neurotoxic molecule (International Agency for Research on amino acids, monosaccharides, and free fatty acids, among
Cancer 1994). Similar to HMF, the toxicological levels of other compounds, are produced (Santander Munoz et al.
acrylamide estimated in rats and mice ranged far above 2020), as briefly shown in Figure 3. For several years, the
dietary exposure (World Health Organization 2006). Although first two have been referred to as ‘aroma precursors’ because
the long-term consequences of the dietary intake of those of their proven participation in the formation of chocolate
compounds are still under investigation, several strategies for flavor via MR. Recently, lipid-derived carbonyl compounds
their mitigation have been put forward (Kolek, Simko, and were found to participate in that chemistry (Zamora,
Simon 2006; Claeys, De Vleeschouwer, and Hendrickx 2005). Lavado-Tena, and Hidalgo 2020; Hidalgo and Zamora 2019);
Both HMF and acrylamide can be formed by MR in therefore, they also deserve to be called aroma precursors.
foods during thermal treatment. HMF can also be formed More than 600 volatile organic compounds (VOC),
via sugar dehydration. The amino acid asparagine forms the including organic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, fatty
backbone of acrylamide. Free asparagine and reducing sugars acids, furans, hydrocarbons, ketones, phenols, pyrazines,
are needed to form acrylamide via MR. Consequently, HMF pyrroles, and sulfur compounds, have been identified along
and acrylamide mainly occur in carbohydrate-rich products with cocoa processing. The flavor chemistry in cocoa pro-
(Capuano and Fogliano 2011). As shown in Table 2, this cessing has been reviewed by a number of authors (Rojas
is not the situation of cocoa nibs; nevertheless, limited for- et al. 2022; Santander Munoz et al. 2020; Aprotosoaie, Luca,
mation of these contaminants in cocoa ranging from 15 to and Miron 2016; Afoakwa et al. 2008).
75 µg HMF/g cocoa powder (Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano During cocoa roasting, two relevant phenomena in the
2018), 1.2 to 7.3 nmol HMF/g cocoa beans (Sacchetti et al. matter of VOC profile occur: (i) the amount of acetic acid
2016), 222 to 922 µg acrylamide/kg cocoa beans (Granvogl is significantly reduced. It is the highest odor-active com-
and Schieberle 2007), and 20 to 270 µg acrylamide/kg cocoa pound in unroasted cocoa beans and is responsible for the
beans (Żyżelewicz et al. 2017), has been reported. The analy- typical vinegar-like off-flavor (Michel et al. 2021; ii) Several
sis of acrylamide in various cocoa-based products, including nitrogen-heterocycles (e.g., pyrazines) and Strecker aldehydes
unroasted cocoa beans, roasted cocoa nibs, cocoa butter, are produced in the intermediate stages of the Maillard
cocoa powder, and several end-consumer chocolate prod- reaction. Pyrazines mainly display nutty, earthy, roasty, typ-
ucts demonstrated that the level of acrylamide is below ical chocolate, potato, and green aromas; and aldehydes
the general German signal value of 1000 µg/kg (Raters and sweet and malty notes (Owusu, Petersen, and Heimdal 2012;
Matissek 2018). A similar analysis for HMF would provide Michel et al. 2021). Both phenomena lead to improved
valuable information for cocoa manufacturers and customers. chocolate flavor.
HMF formation could vary within cocoa varieties, The formation of pyrazines (the main class of
being Criollo more prone to produce HMF than Forastero nitrogen-heterocyclics), especially 2-ethyl-5-methylpyrazine,
(Quiroz-Reyes and Fogliano 2018). The generation of this is temperature-dependent under typical roasting tempera-
compound in cocoa increases exponentially at temperatures tures, as demonstrated in our recent study (Peña-Correa
above 135 °C (Sacchetti et al. 2016); however, at an equal et al. 2022). However, when roasting at temperatures above
moisture content of 1.9% w/w (almost the end of roasting), 150 °C, their concentration peaks at intermediate-roasting
the concentration of HMF in cocoa beans roasted at the times, and then drops through the final times of roasting
highest roasting temperatures led to the lowest HMF forma- (Huang and Barringer 2011; Zzaman et al. 2017). That
tion. It means that not only the roasting temperature but also decrease might correspond to the contribution of those
the roasting time plays an essential role in HMF formation, valuable aroma compounds in forming advanced Maillard
as the lower temperatures demand longer roasting times. reaction products like melanoidins.
 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 9

might be because: (i) cocoa butter mainly consists of sat-

urated fatty acids; thus conferring high thermal stabil-
ity (Żyżelewicz, Budryn, et al. 2014; Oracz, Nebesny, and
Żyżelewicz 2014; ii) No much primary-oxidation products
(e.g., hydroperoxides) are expected during roasting, as the
solubility of oxygen is limited at high temperatures (Velasco
and Dobarganes 2002); stable secondary-oxidation prod-
ucts such as polymeric compounds and VOC are favored
instead (Velasco and Dobarganes 2002; Tena et al. 2019;
Carlin et al. 1986).
The hydrolysis of triacylglycerols into free fatty acids
(FFA), diacylglycerols, and monoacylglycerols in cocoa beans
mainly occur during postharvest and fermentation via enzy-
matic catalyzed reactions (Afoakwa et al. 2014). At such
low-moderate temperatures, the solubility of oxygen is high;
consequently, those hydrolysis products (especially the FAA)
Figure 4. PCA of the volatile organic compounds grouped by chemical groups easily interact with oxygen to produce hydroperoxides
present in cocoa beans roasted at four different temperatures (110, 120, 130,
and 140 °C) in two different equipment: a fluidized bed roaster (FRB) and a
(Velasco and Dobarganes 2002). This phenomenon explains
convective oven (CO). The data correspond to the final roasting times. At those the initial load of FFA and the peroxide value (PV) in
points, the water content ranged from 1 to 2% w/w. Source of the data: fermented and dried cocoa beans. As expected, roasting at
Peña-Correa et al. (2022). conventional temperatures like 120 °C (Afoakwa et al. 2014)
and 135 °C (Żyżelewicz, Budryn, et al. 2014) leads to a
Different roasting techniques change the VOC profile of marginal effect on FFA and PV content. However, the sta-
the cocoa beans. Our recent study (Peña-Correa et al. 2022) bility of cocoa starts to fade at 150 °C (Żyżelewicz, Budryn,
compared the formation of nitrogen-heterocyclics under et al. 2014); and at 180 °C, the increase in FFA and PV is
two roasting techniques, fluidized bed roasting (FBR) and significantly evident (Djikeng et al. 2018).
convective oven roasting (CO), at four roasting temperatures The changes in the quality of cocoa butter upon roasting
(110 − 140 °C). By using the data of the final roasting time at regular temperatures can be better assessed through the
(published in the supplementary material of that study), we analysis of their VOC. Hashim, Hudiyono, and Chaveron
elaborated Figure 4. The nitrogen-heterocyclics are posi- (1997) intentionally oxidized cocoa butter and found rel-
tively correlated with FBR cocoa, especially with the highest evant changes in the VOC profile: They reported a signif-
roasting temperature (FBR-140), meaning that this roasting icant increase in the aldehydes hexanal, heptanal, octanal,
condition highly favors the formation of pyrazines (Figure nonanal, and decanal. Those aldehydes are oxidative
4). The aldehydes were correlated to the highest roasting decomposition products formed from free fatty acids
temperatures of convective-oven-roasted cocoa nibs, while (Grebenteuch et al. 2021). An extension of this study
acetic acid was correlated with the lower roasting tempera- involving different roasting temperatures and/or some
tures of FBR. mathematical modeling might provide valuable tools for
The differences between VOC profile of cocoa nibs cocoa butter producers to understand and predict the limits
roasted under different techniques are probably due to the of this ‘stable’ fat.
final water activity. The aw value of FBR roasted cocoa nibs It is worth mentioning that solvent extraction is the
is close to 0.3, whilst cocoa nibs roasted in CO had an aw most common method used in the lab to obtain cocoa
close to 0.2. The formation of pyrazines peaks at aw values butter; however, this is not the method used in cocoa
nearby 0.3, and is strongly reduced when approaching to industry. A horizontal press is mainly used to extract the
0.2 or 0.38, as confirmed by Scalone et al. (2015) in a model butter from cocoa liquor. In principle, hot cocoa liquor is
system. It is well known that the performance of chemical introduced into a container where pressing is carried out
reactions depends on the water activity of the matrix, and by applying a sequence of increasing pressures that leaks
this factor has been poorly considered in understanding the out the melted fat from the rest of the cocoa (the cocoa
chemistry behind cocoa roasting. cake, see Figure 1) (Gutiérrez 2017). The technological
With these findings, the scientific community and cocoa parameters of this treatment may affect the quality of cocoa
manufacturers may consider pursuing an aw of 0.3 in cocoa butter; however, this step has not been deeply considered
nibs to intensify the chocolate aroma by naturally increasing by scientific community.
nitrogen heterocyclics without carrying burnt flavors
(Peña-Correa et al. 2022).
Conventional roasting and roasting alternatives

Cocoa butter quality As mentioned in the introduction of this review, the roasting
process in cocoa industry mainly starts from the whole
Even though cocoa butter is the largest and the most cocoa beans, which are thermally processed in continuous
expensive fraction of cocoa nibs, few studies focus on drum roasters for long periods ranging from 20 min to
the effect of roasting on the quality of cocoa butter. It 2 hours (Gutiérrez 2017). Some modifications of the
10 R. F. PEÑA-CORREA ET AL.

Table 3. Investigations on roasting alternatives for cocoa.

Roasting techniques and
Entry modifications Objective Pros Cons References
1 Roasting a thin layer of To improve roasting Short roasting time (0.5 to 12 min.) Extra activities required prior US Patent number
cocoa liquor under efficiency. This process might reduce or roasting: deshelling and 3904777
atmospheric or reduced To remove the substitute the conching process. grinding. (Goerling and
pressure in a non-pleasant Ernst-Zuercher
conductive-heat transfer volatile compounds. 1975)
cylinder. The roaster is
provided with a gaseous
flow of air or water.
2 Roasting a thin layer of To improve roasting Short roasting time (1 to 5 min.). Extra activities required prior US Patent number
cocoa liquor. There are efficiency. roasting: deshelling and 4389427 (Schmitt
two heating sources: To remove the grinding. and Birkeneck
firstly, heat is generated non-pleasant 1983)
in the paste by friction; volatile compounds.
then, the paste is lifted
out of the layer and
sprayed with hot air.
3 Fluidized bed roaster. To improve roasting Roasting time no longer than 4 min Cocoa beans need to be Peña-Correa et al.
efficiency. (16 times faster than oven deshelled. Then cocoa nibs (2022)
To improve chocolate roasting). have to be cracked into a
flavor. Known as a low-carbon footprint proper size.
method.
Higher production of pyrazines in
contrast to oven-roasted cocoa.
4 A combination of To preserve The humid air in the roasting The roasting time was longer Oracz, Nebesny, and
superheated steam with tocopherols, chamber helped to preserve more when steam was present in Żyżelewicz (2014)
convective oven roasting phytosterols, and tocopherols and phytosterols. The the roasting chamber.
to raise the chamber’s the antioxidant loss of cocoa butter migrating Therefore, it might need
temperature because of capacity of the lipid toward the shells was reduced. higher energy.
the high heat transfer fraction of cocoa
capability of water steam. beans.
5 A combination of To test the applicability The presence of steam induced The roasting time was longer Oracz and Nebesny
superheated steam with of the new similar changes in proximal when steam was present in (2019)
convective oven roasting technology to cocoa composition, and similar features the roasting chamber.
to raise the chamber’s beans. in reduction of flavan-3-ols in Therefore, it might need
temperature because of cocoa beans, as roasting with a higher energy.
the high heat transfer dry-atmosphere.
capability of water steam.
6 Microwaves (MW) To test the applicability Short roasting time (12.5 min). About This technique alone is Krysiak (2011) and
of the new three times faster than oven expensive, and results in Awuah, Ramaswamy,
technology to cocoa roasting. the formation of hot spots and Tang (2014)
beans. Significant reduction of total acidity in some food products. In
and volatile acidity in cocoa nibs. order to mitigate the costs
Fewer losses of cocoa butter toward and the lack of
the shells. temperature uniformity,
MW holds the capability of this technique might be
instantaneously applying and combined with other
removing the heat source. conventional heating
methods (e.g., hot air,
infrared, vacuum).

conventional roasting process have been proposed either to typical over-roasting off-flavors (Peña-Correa et al. 2022);
improve efficiency or to preserve thermolabile compounds. thus, this technique deserves reconsideration.
Table 3 gathers those valuable studies. The injection of superheated steam during convective oven
Even though it is well known that heat transfer is more roasting preserves some lipid-soluble antioxidant compounds
efficient when the particle size is reduced to cocoa mass in cocoa butter like the tocopherol isomers α, γ, and δ, and
(Goerling and Ernst-Zuercher 1975; Schmitt and Birkeneck the phytosterols β‐sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, and
1983) or cocoa nibs (Peña-Correa et al. 2022), many cocoa Δ5‐avenasterol (Table 3, entry 4). The significant losses of
manufacturers and scientists still practice whole-cocoa bean those lipophilic phytochemicals were detected from the very
roasting because it makes shells-winnowing easier without mild roasting temperature of 110 °C. The losses were higher
pre-roasting. Large companies deal with tons of cocoa per when increasing the temperature. The degradation of tocoph-
day; thus, continuous processes are more convenient than erols and phytosterols was less advanced when roasting under
batch processes. This reasoning explains why fast roasting the relative humidity of 5% than during dry roasting (Oracz,
processes such as thin-layer roasting (Table 3, entries 1 and Nebesny, and Żyżelewicz 2014). The researchers claimed that
2) and fluidized bed roasting (Table 3, entry 3) are not the formation of a steam barrier around the beans protects
popular, although they were invented more than 40 years them from contact with oxygen.
ago. We recently demonstrated that fluidizing bed roaster The protective effect of water steam on tocopherols and
boosted the formation of pyrazines (chocolate-aroma com- phytosterols seems not to work for the most appreciated
pounds) in cocoa nibs without carrying the formation of phytochemicals in cocoa, the hydrophilic ones: epicatechin,
 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 11

epigallocatechin, procyanidins B1, B2, B5, and C1 (Table 3, cocoa liquor, affecting its flowability. Moreover, when prepar-
entry 5). In the study presented by Oracz and Nebesny ing a chocolate mass, a water content higher than 2% causes
(2019), all the flavan-3-ols decreased significantly after ther- difficulties in the dispersion of solid ingredients such as sugar
mal treatment, with or without steam inside the roasting and milk powder into the continuous cocoa butter phase.
chamber. Catechin was the only flavan-3-ol that increased A considerable amount of literature has published
upon roasting; however, its occurrence was not affected by lab-scale investigations, while few research have reported
the hot steam. Furthermore, the presence of steam slowed the results of industrial or pilot-scale experiments. This gap
the roasting process, making this technique less attractive might be due to the need to protect industrial know-how.
for further industrial scaling. However, scaling lab results up to industrial levels is very
Infrared radiation is a common alternative in food pro- important for properly using the generated knowledge.
cessing (Aboud et al. 2019). However, its application in As reported in this review, the physicochemical proper-
cocoa has been limited to the deshelling process. It might ties of cocoa are more affected by roasting time than by
be due to the low wavelength of the infrared spectrum, roasting temperature. Novel and alternative cocoa roasting
which is not enough to penetrate the center of the kernels; techniques should rather focus on accelerating this process.
therefore, it only causes vibrating movements of the So far, this goal has been achieved by microwaves, fluidized
surface-located water molecules (Aboud et al. 2019). bed roasting, and thin-layer roasting techniques. Finally,
Radiation energy with higher wavelengths, e.g., microwaves energy efficiency and sustainability should also be consid-
(MW), gets better penetration to the inside of solid foods. ered when a new roasting technique is implemented in
Only one study was found to use MW in the roasting pro- cocoa processing.
cess of cocoa (Table 3, entry 6). The study of Krysiak (2011)
only included one MW roasting condition (700 W, 12.5 min),
which resulted in significant reductions of total acidity and Author contributions
volatile acidity in cocoa nibs, and fewer losses of cocoa Ruth Fabiola Peña Correa designed the format, searched and classified
butter toward the shells, in contrast to convective-roasted sources of information, drafted the manuscript, and acquired the fund-
cocoa. The FFA, SV, PV, refractive index, and viscosity of ing. Burçe Ataç Mogol searched and classified sources of information,
the cocoa butter obtained from MW- and convective-roasted supervised the investigation, validated the information, and reviewed
beans were not significantly different. Only the IV showed and edited the manuscript. Vincenzo Fogliano supervised the investi-
gation, validated the information, and reviewed and edited the
lower values for MW-roasted beans, which was reported to
manuscript.
be probably due to the degradation of triacylglycerols.
Krysiak (2011) provided important insights into the use
of microwaves in cocoa roasting. However, only one power Disclosure statement
condition was tested among the broad microwave spectrum.
Pramudita et al. (2017) roasted peanuts by MW with differ- The authors report there are no competing interests to declare.
ent power levels. They found that the moisture loss, the
browning, and the formation of micropores on the surface
Funding
of the peanuts tended to increase when increasing MW-power.
In addition, they demonstrated a shorter roasting time com- This work was supported by ICETEX (Instituto Colombiano de Crédito
pared with drum roasting. A similar study with cocoa beans y Estudios Técnicos en el Exterior) under the program ‘Pasaporte a
or nibs would provide valuable information for the use of la Ciencia Doctorado,’ grant number 3674604.
MW as alternative roasting technique for cocoa.
ORCID
Ruth Fabiola Peña-Correa http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3661-7120
Recommendations for future research
Burçe Ataç Mogol http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1117-030X
There are numerous studies in the literature providing Vincenzo Fogliano http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8786-9355
insight into cocoa roasting from different aspects. This
review aimed to critically evaluate these studies, draw atten-
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