Nervous System Organization, Neurons,

Neuroglia, and Neurotransmitters

Dr. Soniya Rani

Assistant Professor
Department of Pharmacology,
Gitam school of Pharmacy,
Gitam Deemed to be University, Rudraram,
Patancheru, Telangana 502 329, Hyderabad.
• The ‘nervous system’ detects and responds to changes inside and outside the body.
Together with the endocrine system, it coordinates and controls vital aspects of body
function and maintains homeostasis.

• To this end the nervous system provides an immediate response while endocrine activity
is, usually, slower and more prolonged.

• The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord and peripheral nerves.

• The structure and organisation of the tissues that form these components enables rapid
communication between all parts of the body.

• The nervous system divided into two major parts viz., central nervous system and
peripheral nervous system.
 Organization of the nervous
system
• Neuron = a nerve cell, makes up
nerves
• Axon = a nerve fiber
• Therefore, a nerve is made of many
axons and neurons
• Nerves, which make up nervous
systems, are organized in the
following way
Divisions of the central nervous system

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 Organization of the central nervous system

• The nervous system coordinates voluntary and involuntary actions in the

body.
• The nervous system is comprised of an enormous number of cells (over
100 billion), primarily of two types: neurons (the signaling units) and
glial cells (the supporting units).

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Central Nervous System (CNS)
• In simplest version = a small brain and
longitudinal nerve cords
• Basically, a brain and a mode of transporting
“messages” to the brain (i.e. a spinal cord)
• Ganglia = segmentally arranged clusters of
neurons (found in complex CNSs)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Nerves that connect the CNS with the

rest of an organism’s body

Examples: sensory receptors, spinal nerves,

cranial nerves
Somatic Nervous System
• It consists of peripheral nerve fibers that deliver sensory information
to the CNS.
• It also consists of motor nerve fibers that extend to skeletal muscle.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• The ANS regulates the body’s internal environment by controlling

smooth and cardiac muscles and vital organs.
Examples: lungs, heart, intestines
Sympathetic Division (part of the ANS)

• This division is activated during the “flight-or-fight” response as the

heart beats faster, the liver converts glycogen to glucose, and the lungs
adapt to support increased gas exchange.
Examples/organs involved: heart, liver, lungs
Parasympathetic Division (part of the ANS)

• This division promotes calming and a return to the “rest and digest”
mode as the heart slows down, the liver starts creating more glycogen,
and digestion begins.
Examples/organs involved: heart, liver, stomach
Information Processing:
Typical Nerve Pathway

Sensory input

Integration (brain analyzes)

Motor output
Reflexes

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 Neuron structure and classification
Neuron
• Neuron has four specialized structures
• The cell body (soma)
• Dendrites
• Axon
• Axon terminals

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 Neuron structure and classification
Neuron structure
• Cell body or soma: The cell body plays a major role in synthesizing proteins. Groups of
cell bodies are called nuclei in the central nervous system and ganglia in the peripheral
nervous system.

• Axons and dendrites: Axons and dendrites are extensions of cell bodies and form the
white matter of the nervous system. Dendrites bring information to the cell body and
axons take information away from the cell body.

• Axon terminals: Axon terminals are that part of a nerve cell that make synaptic
connections with another nerve cell or with an effector cell (e.g. muscle cell or gland cell).

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 Neuron structure and classification
Classification of neurons
Structural classification Functional Classification

1. Multipolar neurons Sensory neurons (afferent neurons)

2. Bipolar neurons Motor neurons (efferent neurons )
3. Unipolar neurons Interneurons

• Sensory neurons transmit information

from sensory receptors in the skin
• Motor neurons transmit information away
from the CNS toward some type of
effector
• Interneurons are located between motor
and sensory pathways and involved in
signal integration

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Glial cells
• Glia cells, also called glial or neuroglia, are non-neuronal cells in the CNS
and PNS.
• The neurones of the central nervous system are supported by four types of
non-excitable glial cells.
• The primary role of glial cells are to provide physical support for neurons.
• Four major types of glial cells in the CNS
• Astrocyte
• Oligodendrocyte
• Ependymal cell
• Microglial cell

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Types of Glial cells
• Astrocyte: These cells form the main supporting tissue of the central nervous system.
Astrocytes are found in large numbers adjacent to blood vessels and neurons. Astrocytes
are essential for the formation and maintenance of the blood–brain barrier (BBB).

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• Oligodendrocyte: These cells are smaller than astrocytes and they are the myelinating
cells of the central nervous system. The primary function of the oligodendrocyte is to
provide and maintain the myelin sheaths around axons.

• Ependymal cell: Ependymal cells line the cavities of the CNS. Ependymal cells are
responsible for the production of Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF) and are important
barriers between the cerebral spinal fluid and the brain extracellular space.

• Microglial cell: These cells are derived from monocytes that migrate from the blood
into the nervous system before birth. Microglial cells are rapidly activated in the
CNS in response to injury. These cells are also very important in presenting antigens
to lymphocytes in response to infection.

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NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND THEIR
MECHANISMS
 INTRODUCTION
• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals from a neuron to a
target cell across a synapse.

• Target cell may be a neuron or some other kind of cell like a muscle or gland cell.

• Necessary for rapid communication in synapse.

• Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles -presynaptic side of a synapse.

Illustration of the major elements in chemical synaptic transmission.
 PROPERTIES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
1) Synthesized in the presynaptic neuron

2) Localized to vesicles in the presynaptic neuron

3) Released from the presynaptic neuron under physiological condition

4) Rapidly removed from the synaptic cleft by uptake or degradation

5) Presence of receptor on the post-synaptic neuron.

6) Binding to the receptor and produce a biological response

 Criteria for neurotransmitter
Nowadays, many substances are categorized as neurotransmitters. To
consider a substance as a neurotransmitter, it should fulfill certain criteria
as given below
• The substance must be found in a neuron
1.It must be produced by a neuron
2.It must be released by a neuron
3.After release, it must act on a target area and produce some biological
effect.
4.After the action it must be inactivated
 Inactivation of neurotransmitters

• After the execution of the action, neurotransmitter is inactivated by

four mechanisms:

1.It diffuses out of the synaptic cleft to the area where it has no action.

2.It is destroyed or disintegrated by specific enzymes

3.It is engulfed and removed by astrocytes

4.It is removed by means of reuptake into the axon terminal.

Classification (Biochemically)
 Physiologically
EXCITATORY INHIBITORY
Eg:Acetylcholine GABA
Aspartate Glycine
Histamine Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Glutamate
Serotonin
Excitatory neurotransmitters:
Inhibitory neurotransmitters:
General mechanism of action
1.Neurotransmitters are
synthesized from precursors
under the influence of enzymes

2. Stored in vesicles
3.Neurotransmitter molecules
that leak from their vesicles are
destroyed by enzymes
4. Action potential cause vesicle
to fuse with synapse and release
neurotransmitters
5. Some of it binds with auto
receptor and inhibit subsequent
neurotransmitter release
6.Rest of it bind to post synaptic
receptors.
7.Released neurotransmitters are
deactivated either by re uptake
or enzyme degradation.
 Steps in neurotransmitter processing are-
Synthesis: Neurotransmitters are synthesized by the
enzymatic transformation of precursors.

Storage: They are packaged inside synaptic vesicles.

Release: They are released from presynaptic terminal by

exocytosis when calcium enters axon terminal
during an action potential
Diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the
postsynaptic membrane.

Binding: They bind to receptor proteins.

Inactivation: The neurotransmitter is degraded either by

being broken down enzymatically, or reused by
active reuptake.
 Acetylcholine:
SYNTHESIS:

• Vasodilation,
• Cardiac inhibition,
• Digestion
• Control of thought, mood, sleep, muscles, bladder, sweat glands
 SYNTESIS

Catecholamines:

Dopamine:
Parkinsonism
Inhibition of prolactin secretion
Stimulation of GnRH
Schizophrenia
 Serotonin:
SYNTHESIS:

FUNCTIONS:
Regulation of hypothalamic releasing hormone
Learning and memory
Depression of mood
Digestion
Bone health
 Histamine

SYNTHESIS:

•Wakefulness
•Cognitive functions
•Pain perception
•Stress response
•Suppression of eating
 Amino acid
SYNTHESIS:
•Learning and memory: Amino acid
neurotransmitters are involved in learning and
memory.
•Brain processes: Amino acid
neurotransmitters are involved in fundamental
brain processes like arousal, sleep, and
consciousness.
•Pain threshold: Amino acid
neurotransmitters are involved in pain
threshold.
•Neural development
 AMINO ACIDS
GROUPS NAME SITE OF SECRITION ACTION

Amino acids GABA Cerebral cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia, spinal Inhibitory
cord and retina

Amino acids Glycine Forebrain, brainstem, spinal cord and retina Inhibitory

Amino acids Glutamate Cerebral cortex, brainstem and cerebellum Excitatory

Amino acids Aspartate Cerebellum, spinal cord and retina Excitatory

 AMINES
GROUPS NAME SITE OF SECRITION ACTION
Amines Noradrenaline Postganglionic adrenergic sympathetic nerve Excitatory and
endings, cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, basal Inhibitory
ganglia, brainstem and spinal cord

Amines Adrenaline Hypothalamus, thalamus and spinal cord Excitatory and

Inhibitory

Amines Dopamine Basal ganglia, hypothalamus, limbic system, neo Inhibitory

cortex, retina and synaptic ganglia.

Amines Serotonin Hypothalamus, limbic system, cerebellum, spinal Inhibitory

cord, retina, GI tract, lungs and platelets.

Amines Histamine Hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, GI tract and mast Excitatory

cells
 OTHERS
GROUPS NAME SITE OF SECRITION ACTIOPN

Others Nitric oxide Many parts of CNS, neuromuscular junction and Excitatory
GI tract
Others Acetylcholine Pre ganglionic parasympathetic nerve endings Excitatory
Post ganglionic parasympathetic nerve endings
Pre ganglionic sympathetic nerve endings
Post ganglionic sympathetic cholinergic nerve
endings
Neuromuscular junction, cerebral cortex,
hypothalamus, basal ganglia, thalamus and retina
OVERVIEW
Thankyou